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Guerrero-Ochoa P, Rodríguez-Zapater S, Anel A, Esteban LM, Camón-Fernández A, Espilez-Ortiz R, Gil-Sanz MJ, Borque-Fernando Á. Prostate Cancer and the Mevalonate Pathway. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:2152. [PMID: 38396837 PMCID: PMC10888820 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25042152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2024] [Revised: 02/04/2024] [Accepted: 02/07/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Antineoplastic therapies for prostate cancer (PCa) have traditionally centered around the androgen receptor (AR) pathway, which has demonstrated a significant role in oncogenesis. Nevertheless, it is becoming progressively apparent that therapeutic strategies must diversify their focus due to the emergence of resistance mechanisms that the tumor employs when subjected to monomolecular treatments. This review illustrates how the dysregulation of the lipid metabolic pathway constitutes a survival strategy adopted by tumors to evade eradication efforts. Integrating this aspect into oncological management could prove valuable in combating PCa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia Guerrero-Ochoa
- Health Research Institute of Aragon Foundation, 50009 Zaragoza, Spain; (P.G.-O.); (A.C.-F.); (R.E.-O.); (M.J.G.-S.)
| | - Sergio Rodríguez-Zapater
- Minimally Invasive Research Group (GITMI), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Zaragoza, 50009 Zaragoza, Spain;
| | - Alberto Anel
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular and Cellular Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Zaragoza, 50009 Zaragoza, Spain;
| | - Luis Mariano Esteban
- Department of Applied Mathematics, Escuela Universitaria Politécnica de La Almunia, Institute for Biocomputation and Physic of Complex Systems, Universidad de Zaragoza, 50100 La Almunia de Doña Godina, Spain
| | - Alejandro Camón-Fernández
- Health Research Institute of Aragon Foundation, 50009 Zaragoza, Spain; (P.G.-O.); (A.C.-F.); (R.E.-O.); (M.J.G.-S.)
| | - Raquel Espilez-Ortiz
- Health Research Institute of Aragon Foundation, 50009 Zaragoza, Spain; (P.G.-O.); (A.C.-F.); (R.E.-O.); (M.J.G.-S.)
- Department of Urology, Miguel Servet University Hospital, 50009 Zaragoza, Spain
- Area of Urology, Department of Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Zaragoza, 50009 Zaragoza, Spain
| | - María Jesús Gil-Sanz
- Health Research Institute of Aragon Foundation, 50009 Zaragoza, Spain; (P.G.-O.); (A.C.-F.); (R.E.-O.); (M.J.G.-S.)
- Department of Urology, Miguel Servet University Hospital, 50009 Zaragoza, Spain
| | - Ángel Borque-Fernando
- Health Research Institute of Aragon Foundation, 50009 Zaragoza, Spain; (P.G.-O.); (A.C.-F.); (R.E.-O.); (M.J.G.-S.)
- Department of Applied Mathematics, Escuela Universitaria Politécnica de La Almunia, Institute for Biocomputation and Physic of Complex Systems, Universidad de Zaragoza, 50100 La Almunia de Doña Godina, Spain
- Department of Urology, Miguel Servet University Hospital, 50009 Zaragoza, Spain
- Area of Urology, Department of Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Zaragoza, 50009 Zaragoza, Spain
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2
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Wang X, Sun Z, Gao Y, Liu QS, Yang X, Liang J, Ren J, Ren Z, Zhou Q, Jiang G. 3-tert-Butyl-4-hydroxyanisole perturbs renal lipid metabolism in vitro by targeting androgen receptor-regulated de novo lipogenesis. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2023; 258:114979. [PMID: 37150107 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2023.114979] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2023] [Revised: 04/26/2023] [Accepted: 05/01/2023] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
The widespread usage of 3-tert-butyl-4-hydroxyanisole (3-BHA) as an anthropogenic antioxidant has caused considerable environmental contamination and frequent detection in diverse human-derived samples. 3-BHA can promote adipogenesis and impair hepatic lipid metabolism, while its effects on renal lipid homeostasis remain to be uncertain. Herein, using the human kidney 2 (HK-2) cell experiments, 3-BHA was found to cause a significant reduction in lipid accumulation of the HK-2 cells in both exposure concentration- and duration-dependent manners. Exposure to 3-BHA lowered the transcriptional expressions of sterol regulatory element-binding protein 1 (SREBP1) and acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC), as well as ACC activity, indicating the inhibition in the process of de novo lipogenesis in HK-2 cells. On this basis, the mechanism study suggested that the reduced glucose absorption and accelerated glycolysis were concomitantly involved. The antagonism of 3-BHA on the transactivation of androgen receptor (AR) contributed to the lowered de novo lipogenesis and the consequent intracellular lipid reduction. The metabolomics data further confirmed the imbalance of lipid homeostasis and dysregulation of de novo lipogenesis. The new findings on the impaired renal lipid metabolism induced by 3-BHA warranted proper care about the usage of this chemical as a food additive.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoyun Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China; College of Resources and Environment, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Zhendong Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China; School of Environment, Hangzhou Institute for Advanced Study, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hangzhou 310024, China
| | - Yurou Gao
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China; Sino-Danish College, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Qian S Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China.
| | - Xiaoxi Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China
| | - Jiefeng Liang
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China
| | - Jing Ren
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China; College of Resources and Environment, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Zhihua Ren
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China
| | - Qunfang Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China; College of Resources and Environment, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China; School of Environment, Hangzhou Institute for Advanced Study, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hangzhou 310024, China
| | - Guibin Jiang
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China; College of Resources and Environment, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China; School of Environment, Hangzhou Institute for Advanced Study, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hangzhou 310024, China
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3
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Abstract
In 2011, CAMKK2, the gene encoding calcium/calmodulin-dependent kinase kinase 2 (CAMKK2), was demonstrated to be a direct target of the androgen receptor and a driver of prostate cancer progression. Results from multiple independent studies have confirmed these findings and demonstrated the potential role of CAMKK2 as a clinical biomarker and therapeutic target in advanced prostate cancer using a variety of preclinical models. Drug development efforts targeting CAMKK2 have begun accordingly. CAMKK2 regulation can vary across disease stages, which might have important implications in the use of CAMKK2 as a biomarker. Moreover, new non-cell-autonomous roles for CAMKK2 that could affect tumorigenesis, metastasis and possible comorbidities linked to disease and treatment have emerged and could present novel treatment opportunities for prostate cancer.
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4
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Škara L, Huđek Turković A, Pezelj I, Vrtarić A, Sinčić N, Krušlin B, Ulamec M. Prostate Cancer-Focus on Cholesterol. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:4696. [PMID: 34572923 PMCID: PMC8469848 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13184696] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2021] [Revised: 09/08/2021] [Accepted: 09/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Prostate cancer (PC) is the most common malignancy in men. Common characteristic involved in PC pathogenesis are disturbed lipid metabolism and abnormal cholesterol accumulation. Cholesterol can be further utilized for membrane or hormone synthesis while cholesterol biosynthesis intermediates are important for oncogene membrane anchoring, nucleotide synthesis and mitochondrial electron transport. Since cholesterol and its biosynthesis intermediates influence numerous cellular processes, in this review we have described cholesterol homeostasis in a normal cell. Additionally, we have illustrated how commonly deregulated signaling pathways in PC (PI3K/AKT/MTOR, MAPK, AR and p53) are linked with cholesterol homeostasis regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucija Škara
- Department of Medical Biology, School of Medicine, University of Zagreb, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia;
- Group for Research on Epigenetic Biomarkers (Epimark), School of Medicine, University of Zagreb, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia;
- Centre of Excellence for Reproductive and Regenerative Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Zagreb, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia;
| | - Ana Huđek Turković
- Faculty of Food Technology and Biotechnology, University of Zagreb, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia;
| | - Ivan Pezelj
- Department of Urology, University Clinical Hospital Center Sestre Milosrdnice, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia;
| | - Alen Vrtarić
- Department of Clinical Chemistry, University Clinical Hospital Center Sestre Milosrdnice, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia;
| | - Nino Sinčić
- Department of Medical Biology, School of Medicine, University of Zagreb, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia;
- Group for Research on Epigenetic Biomarkers (Epimark), School of Medicine, University of Zagreb, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia;
- Centre of Excellence for Reproductive and Regenerative Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Zagreb, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia;
| | - Božo Krušlin
- Centre of Excellence for Reproductive and Regenerative Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Zagreb, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia;
- Ljudevit Jurak Clinical Department of Pathology and Cytology, Sestre Milosrdnice University Hospital Center, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
- Department of Pathology, School of Medicine, University of Zagreb, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Monika Ulamec
- Group for Research on Epigenetic Biomarkers (Epimark), School of Medicine, University of Zagreb, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia;
- Centre of Excellence for Reproductive and Regenerative Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Zagreb, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia;
- Ljudevit Jurak Clinical Department of Pathology and Cytology, Sestre Milosrdnice University Hospital Center, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
- Department of Pathology, School of Medicine, University of Zagreb, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
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Seidu T, McWhorter P, Myer J, Alamgir R, Eregha N, Bogle D, Lofton T, Ecelbarger C, Andrisse S. DHT causes liver steatosis via transcriptional regulation of SCAP in normal weight female mice. J Endocrinol 2021; 250:49-65. [PMID: 34060475 PMCID: PMC8240729 DOI: 10.1530/joe-21-0040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2021] [Accepted: 06/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Hyperandrogenemia (HA) is a hallmark of polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) and is an integral element of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NALFD) in females. Administering low-dose dihydrotestosterone (DHT) induced a normal weight PCOS-like female mouse model displaying NAFLD. The molecular mechanism of HA-induced NAFLD has not been fully determined. We hypothesized that DHT would regulate hepatic lipid metabolism via increased SREBP1 expression leading to NAFLD. We extracted liver from control and low-dose DHT female mice; and performed histological and biochemical lipid profiles, Western blot, immunoprecipitation, chromatin immunoprecipitation, and real-time quantitative PCR analyses. DHT lowered the 65 kD form of cytosolic SREBP1 in the liver compared to controls. However, DHT did not alter the levels of SREBP2 in the liver. DHT mice displayed increased SCAP protein expression and SCAP-SREBP1 binding compared to controls. DHT mice exhibited increased AR binding to intron-8 of SCAP leading to increased SCAP mRNA compared to controls. FAS mRNA and protein expression was increased in the liver of DHT mice compared to controls. p-ACC levels were unaltered in the liver. Other lipid metabolism pathways were examined in the liver, but no changes were observed. Our findings support evidence that DHT increased de novo lipogenic proteins resulting in increased hepatic lipid content via regulation of SREBP1 in the liver. We show that in the presence of DHT, the SCAP-SREBP1 interaction was elevated leading to increased nuclear SREBP1 resulting in increased de novo lipogenesis. We propose that the mechanism of action may be increased AR binding to an ARE in SCAP intron-8.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tina Seidu
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Howard University College of Medicine, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Patrick McWhorter
- Department of Chemistry, Youngstown State University, Youngstown, Ohio, USA
| | - Jessie Myer
- Department of Biology, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri, USA
| | - Rabita Alamgir
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Howard University College of Medicine, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Nicole Eregha
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Howard University College of Medicine, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Dilip Bogle
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Howard University College of Medicine, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Taylor Lofton
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Howard University College of Medicine, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Carolyn Ecelbarger
- Department of Medicine, Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Stanley Andrisse
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Howard University College of Medicine, Washington, DC, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
- Correspondence should be addressed to S Andrisse:
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Hu Z, Cheng C, Wang Y, Chen T, Tu J, Niu C, Xing R, Wang Y, Xu Y. Synergistic Effect of Statins and Abiraterone Acetate on the Growth Inhibition of Neuroblastoma via Targeting Androgen Receptor. Front Oncol 2021; 11:595285. [PMID: 34041015 PMCID: PMC8141582 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2021.595285] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2020] [Accepted: 03/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Neuroblastoma is the most common extracranial neuroendocrine tumor in childhood. Although many studies have tried to find effective treatments, there are still numerous limitations in current clinical targeted therapy. So, it is important to find new therapeutic targets and strategies from a new perspective. Our previous study reported that the androgen receptor (AR) promotes the growth of neuroblastoma in vitro and in vivo. Based on documentary investigation, we postulated that the AR–SCAP–SREBPs-CYP17/HMGCR axis may regulate cholesterol and androgens synthesis and form a positive enhancement loop promoting NB progression. Clinical samples and Oncomine database analysis proved the activation of AR–SCAP–SREBPs-CYP17/HMGCR axis in neuroblastoma. The combination of inhibitors of HMGCR (statins) and CYP17A1 (abiraterone acetate) showed synergistic effect that significantly inhibited the proliferation and migration with decreased expression of related genes detected in vitro and in vivo suggesting the dual-targeted therapy had the potential to inhibit the progression of neuroblastoma in spite of its MYCN status. This study provides new ideas for clinical treatment of neuroblastoma with efficacy and reduced toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zengchun Hu
- Dalian Medical University, Dalian, China.,Department of Neurosurgery, 2nd Affiliated Hospital of Dalian Medical University, Dalian, China
| | - Chuandong Cheng
- Anhui Provincial Hospital, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, China.,Division of Life Sciences and Medicine, Department of Neurosurgery, 1st Affiliated Hospital of University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China
| | - Yue Wang
- Dalian Medical University, Dalian, China.,Department of Pathophysiology, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, China
| | - Tianrui Chen
- Department of Bone Tumor Surgery, Changzheng Hospital, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Junhong Tu
- Dalian Medical University, Dalian, China.,Department of Pathophysiology, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, China
| | - Chaoshi Niu
- Anhui Provincial Hospital, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, China.,Division of Life Sciences and Medicine, Department of Neurosurgery, 1st Affiliated Hospital of University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China
| | - Rong Xing
- Dalian Medical University, Dalian, China.,Department of Pathophysiology, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, China
| | - Yang Wang
- Dalian Medical University, Dalian, China.,Department of Pathophysiology, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, China
| | - Yinghui Xu
- Department of Neurosurgery, 1st Affiliated Hospital of Dalian Medical University, Dalian, China
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7
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Uo T, Sprenger CC, Plymate SR. Androgen Receptor Signaling and Metabolic and Cellular Plasticity During Progression to Castration Resistant Prostate Cancer. Front Oncol 2020; 10:580617. [PMID: 33163409 PMCID: PMC7581990 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2020.580617] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2020] [Accepted: 09/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Metabolic reprogramming is associated with re/activation and antagonism of androgen receptor (AR) signaling that drives prostate cancer (PCa) progression to castration resistance, respectively. In particular, AR signaling influences the fates of citrate that uniquely characterizes normal and malignant prostatic metabolism (i.e., mitochondrial export and extracellular secretion in normal prostate, mitochondrial retention and oxidation to support oxidative phenotype of primary PCa, and extra-mitochondrial interconversion into acetyl-CoA for fatty acid synthesis and epigenetics in the advanced PCa). The emergence of castration-resistant PCa (CRPC) involves reactivation of AR signaling, which is then further targeted by androgen synthesis inhibitors (abiraterone) and AR-ligand inhibitors (enzalutamide, apalutamide, and daroglutamide). However, based on AR dependency, two distinct metabolic and cellular adaptations contribute to development of resistance to these agents and progression to aggressive and lethal disease, with the tumor ultimately becoming highly glycolytic and with imaging by a tracer of tumor energetics, 18F-fluorodoxyglucose (18F-FDG). Another major resistance mechanism involves a lineage alteration into AR-indifferent carcinoma such a neuroendocrine which is diagnostically characterized by robust 18F-FDG uptake and loss of AR signaling. PCa is also characterized by metabolic alterations such as fatty acid and polyamine metabolism depending on AR signaling. In some cases, AR targeting induces rather than suppresses these alterations in cellular metabolism and energetics, which can be explored as therapeutic targets in lethal CRPC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takuma Uo
- Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States
| | - Cynthia C. Sprenger
- Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States
| | - Stephen R. Plymate
- Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States
- Geriatrics Research Education and Clinical Center, VA Puget Sound Health Care System, Seattle, WA, United States
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8
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Xue L, Qi H, Zhang H, Ding L, Huang Q, Zhao D, Wu BJ, Li X. Targeting SREBP-2-Regulated Mevalonate Metabolism for Cancer Therapy. Front Oncol 2020; 10:1510. [PMID: 32974183 PMCID: PMC7472741 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2020.01510] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2020] [Accepted: 07/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Recently, targeting metabolic reprogramming has emerged as a potential therapeutic approach for fighting cancer. Sterol regulatory element binding protein-2 (SREBP-2), a basic helix-loop-helix leucine zipper transcription factor, mainly regulates genes involved in cholesterol biosynthesis and homeostasis. SREBP-2 binds to the sterol regulatory elements (SREs) in the promoters of its target genes and activates the transcription of mevalonate pathway genes, such as HMG-CoA reductase (HMGCR), mevalonate kinase and other key enzymes. In this review, we first summarized the structure of SREBP-2 and its activation and regulation by multiple signaling pathways. We then found that SREBP-2 and its regulated enzymes, including HMGCR, FPPS, SQS, and DHCR4 from the mevalonate pathway, participate in the progression of various cancers, including prostate, breast, lung, and hepatocellular cancer, as potential targets. Importantly, preclinical and clinical research demonstrated that fatostatin, statins, and N-BPs targeting SREBP-2, HMGCR, and FPPS, respectively, alone or in combination with other drugs, have been used for the treatment of different cancers. This review summarizes new insights into the critical role of the SREBP-2-regulated mevalonate pathway for cancer and its potential for targeted cancer therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linyuan Xue
- Research Center of Traditional Chinese Medicine, College of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, China
| | - Hongyu Qi
- Key Laboratory of Active Substances and Biological Mechanisms of Ginseng Efficacy, Ministry of Education, Jilin Provincial Key Laboratory of Bio-Macromolecules of Chinese Medicine, Jilin Ginseng Academy, Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, China
| | - He Zhang
- Research Center of Traditional Chinese Medicine, College of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, China
| | - Lu Ding
- College of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, China
| | - Qingxia Huang
- Research Center of Traditional Chinese Medicine, College of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, China.,Key Laboratory of Active Substances and Biological Mechanisms of Ginseng Efficacy, Ministry of Education, Jilin Provincial Key Laboratory of Bio-Macromolecules of Chinese Medicine, Jilin Ginseng Academy, Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, China
| | - Daqing Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Active Substances and Biological Mechanisms of Ginseng Efficacy, Ministry of Education, Jilin Provincial Key Laboratory of Bio-Macromolecules of Chinese Medicine, Jilin Ginseng Academy, Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, China
| | - Boyang Jason Wu
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Washington State University, Spokane, WA, United States
| | - Xiangyan Li
- Key Laboratory of Active Substances and Biological Mechanisms of Ginseng Efficacy, Ministry of Education, Jilin Provincial Key Laboratory of Bio-Macromolecules of Chinese Medicine, Jilin Ginseng Academy, Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, China
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9
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Sanada N, Gotoh-Kinoshita Y, Yamashita N, Kizu R. An androgen-independent mechanism underlying the androgenic effects of 3-methylcholanthrene, a potent aryl hydrocarbon receptor agonist. Toxicol Res (Camb) 2020; 9:271-282. [PMID: 32670558 DOI: 10.1093/toxres/tfaa027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2019] [Revised: 02/07/2020] [Accepted: 04/02/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) and androgen receptor (AR) are ligand-activated transcription factors with profound cross-talk between their signal transduction pathways. Previous studies have shown that AhR agonists activate the transcription of AR-regulated genes in an androgen-independent manner; however, the underlying mechanism remains unclear. To decipher this mechanism, we evaluated the effects of 3-methylcholanthrene (3MC), a potent AhR agonist, on the transcription of AR-regulated genes in three AR-expressing cell lines. 3MC induced the expression of not only three representative AR-regulated chromosomal genes but also the exogenous AR-responsive luciferase reporter gene. No significant difference in the 3MC-induced luciferase activity was detected in the presence of SKF-525A, a non-specific inhibitor of CYP enzymes. The androgenic effects of 3MC were diminished by AhR and AR knockdown. Following 3MC treatment, the amount of nuclear AhR and AR increased synchronously. Co-immunoprecipitation revealed that AhR and AR formed a complex in the nucleus of cells treated with 3MC. AR was recruited to the proximal promoter and distal enhancer regions of the PSA gene upon the addition of 3MC. We propose that AhR activated by 3MC forms a complex with unliganded AR which translocates from the cytoplasm to the nucleus. Nuclear AR now binds the transcriptional regulatory region of AR-regulated genes and activates the transcription.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noriko Sanada
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Doshisha Women's College of Liberal Arts; Kodo, Kyotanabe 610-0395, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Yuka Gotoh-Kinoshita
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Doshisha Women's College of Liberal Arts; Kodo, Kyotanabe 610-0395, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Naoya Yamashita
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Doshisha Women's College of Liberal Arts; Kodo, Kyotanabe 610-0395, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Ryoichi Kizu
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Doshisha Women's College of Liberal Arts; Kodo, Kyotanabe 610-0395, Kyoto, Japan
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10
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Chua NK, Coates HW, Brown AJ. Squalene monooxygenase: a journey to the heart of cholesterol synthesis. Prog Lipid Res 2020; 79:101033. [DOI: 10.1016/j.plipres.2020.101033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2020] [Revised: 04/21/2020] [Accepted: 04/24/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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11
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Coates HW, Chua NK, Brown AJ. Consulting prostate cancer cohort data uncovers transcriptional control: Regulation of the MARCH6 gene. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Cell Biol Lipids 2019; 1864:1656-1668. [PMID: 31422115 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbalip.2019.08.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2019] [Revised: 08/01/2019] [Accepted: 08/14/2019] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Cholesterol accumulation is a hallmark of prostate cancer (PCa) enabled by the upregulation of its synthesis, which presents a potential therapeutic target. This pathway is suppressed by the E3 ubiquitin ligase membrane-associated RING-CH-type finger 6 (MARCH6); however, little is known of MARCH6 regulation, particularly at the transcriptional level. Here, we consulted large transcriptomic PCa datasets to investigate transcription factors and DNA sequence elements that regulate the MARCH6 gene. Amongst 498 primary PCa tissues of The Cancer Genome Atlas, we identified a striking positive correlation between MARCH6 and androgen receptor (AR) gene expression (r = 0.81, p < 1 × 10-117) that held in other primary tumour datasets. Two putative androgen response elements were identified in the MARCH6 gene using motif prediction and mining of publicly accessible chromatin immunoprecipitation-sequencing data. However, MARCH6 expression was not androgen-responsive in luciferase reporter and qRT-PCR assays. Instead, we established that the MARCH6-AR correlation in primary PCa is due to common regulation by the transcription factor Sp1. We located a region 100 bp downstream of the MARCH6 transcriptional start site that contains three Sp1 binding sites and strongly upregulates promoter activity. The functionality of this region, and Sp1-mediated upregulation of MARCH6, was confirmed using pharmacological and genetic inhibition of Sp1. Moreover, modulation of Sp1 activity affected the stability of squalene monooxygenase, a cholesterol biosynthesis enzyme and MARCH6 substrate. We thus establish Sp1 as the first known regulator of the MARCH6 gene and demonstrate that interrogation of transcriptomic datasets can assist in the de novo inference of transcriptional regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hudson W Coates
- School of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
| | - Ngee Kiat Chua
- School of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
| | - Andrew J Brown
- School of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia.
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12
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Hellwege JN, Stallings S, Torstenson ES, Carroll R, Borthwick KM, Brilliant MH, Crosslin D, Gordon A, Hripcsak G, Jarvik GP, Linneman JG, Devi P, Peissig PL, Sleiman PAM, Hakonarson H, Ritchie MD, Verma SS, Shang N, Denny JC, Roden DM, Velez Edwards DR, Edwards TL. Heritability and genome-wide association study of benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) in the eMERGE network. Sci Rep 2019; 9:6077. [PMID: 30988330 PMCID: PMC6465359 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-42427-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2018] [Accepted: 03/27/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) results in a significant public health burden due to the morbidity caused by the disease and many of the available remedies. As much as 70% of men over 70 will develop BPH. Few studies have been conducted to discover the genetic determinants of BPH risk. Understanding the biological basis for this condition may provide necessary insight for development of novel pharmaceutical therapies or risk prediction. We have evaluated SNP-based heritability of BPH in two cohorts and conducted a genome-wide association study (GWAS) of BPH risk using 2,656 cases and 7,763 controls identified from the Electronic Medical Records and Genomics (eMERGE) network. SNP-based heritability estimates suggest that roughly 60% of the phenotypic variation in BPH is accounted for by genetic factors. We used logistic regression to model BPH risk as a function of principal components of ancestry, age, and imputed genotype data, with meta-analysis performed using METAL. The top result was on chromosome 22 in SYN3 at rs2710383 (p-value = 4.6 × 10-7; Odds Ratio = 0.69, 95% confidence interval = 0.55-0.83). Other suggestive signals were near genes GLGC, UNCA13, SORCS1 and between BTBD3 and SPTLC3. We also evaluated genetically-predicted gene expression in prostate tissue. The most significant result was with increasing predicted expression of ETV4 (chr17; p-value = 0.0015). Overexpression of this gene has been associated with poor prognosis in prostate cancer. In conclusion, although there were no genome-wide significant variants identified for BPH susceptibility, we present evidence supporting the heritability of this phenotype, have identified suggestive signals, and evaluated the association between BPH and genetically-predicted gene expression in prostate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacklyn N Hellwege
- Division of Epidemiology, Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
- Vanderbilt Genetics Institute, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Sarah Stallings
- Division of Geriatric Medicine, Meharry-Vanderbilt Alliance, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Eric S Torstenson
- Division of Epidemiology, Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
- Vanderbilt Genetics Institute, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Robert Carroll
- Department of Biomedical Informatics Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA
| | | | - Murray H Brilliant
- Center for Human Genetics, Marshfield Clinic Research Institute, Marshfield, WI, USA
| | - David Crosslin
- Department of Biomedical Informatics and Medical Education, School of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Adam Gordon
- Division of Medical Genetics, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - George Hripcsak
- Department of Biomedical Informatics, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
- Medical Informatics Services, New York-Presbyterian Hospital, New York, NY, USA
| | - Gail P Jarvik
- Departments of Medicine (Medical Genetics) and Genome Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - James G Linneman
- Office of Research Computing and Analytics/Marshfield Clinic Research Institute, Marshfield, WI, USA
| | - Parimala Devi
- Department of Biomedical Informatics and Medical Education, School of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Peggy L Peissig
- Center for Computational and Biomedical Informatics, Marshfield Clinic Research Institute, Marshfield, WI, USA
| | - Patrick A M Sleiman
- Center for Applied Genomics, The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, USA
- Division of Human Genetics, Department of Pediatrics, The Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Hakon Hakonarson
- Center for Applied Genomics, The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, USA
- Division of Human Genetics, Department of Pediatrics, The Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Marylyn D Ritchie
- Department of Genetics, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | | | - Ning Shang
- Department of Biomedical Informatics, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Josh C Denny
- Department of Biomedical Informatics Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA
- Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Dan M Roden
- Department of Biomedical Informatics Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA
- Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
- Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Digna R Velez Edwards
- Vanderbilt Genetics Institute, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA.
- Department of Biomedical Informatics Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA.
- Division of Quantitative Sciences, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Vanderbilt Epidemiology Center, Institute for Medicine and Public Health, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA.
| | - Todd L Edwards
- Division of Epidemiology, Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA.
- Vanderbilt Genetics Institute, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA.
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13
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Long Z, Li Y, Gan Y, Zhao D, Wang G, Xie N, Lovnicki JM, Fazli L, Cao Q, Chen K, Dong X. Roles of the HOXA10 gene during castrate-resistant prostate cancer progression. Endocr Relat Cancer 2019; 26:279-292. [PMID: 30667363 DOI: 10.1530/erc-18-0465] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2018] [Accepted: 12/21/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Homeobox A10 (HOXA10) is an important transcription factor that regulates the development of the prostate gland. However, it remains unknown whether it modulates prostate cancer (PCa) progression into castrate-resistant stages. In this study, we have applied RNA in situ hybridization assays to demonstrate that downregulation of HOXA10 expression is associated with castrate-resistant PCa. These findings are supported by public RNA-seq data showing that reduced HOXA10 expression is correlated with poor patient survival. We show that HOXA10 suppresses PCa cell proliferation, anchorage colony formation and xenograft growth independent to androgens. Using AmpliSeq transcriptome sequencing, we have found that gene groups associated with lipid metabolism and androgen receptor (AR) signaling are enriched in the HOXA10 transcriptome. Furthermore, we demonstrate that HOXA10 suppresses the transcription of the fatty acid synthase (FASN) gene by forming a protein complex with AR and prevents AR recruitment to the FASN gene promoter. These results lead us to conclude that downregulation of HOXA10 gene expression may enhance lipogenesis to promote PCa cell growth and tumor progression to castrate-resistant stage.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Cell Line, Tumor
- Cell Proliferation
- Disease Progression
- Fatty Acid Synthase, Type I/genetics
- Fatty Acid Synthase, Type I/metabolism
- Gene Expression
- Gene Expression Regulation, Neoplastic
- Homeobox A10 Proteins/genetics
- Homeobox A10 Proteins/metabolism
- Humans
- Lipid Metabolism/genetics
- Male
- Mice
- Mice, Nude
- Promoter Regions, Genetic
- Prostatic Neoplasms, Castration-Resistant/genetics
- Prostatic Neoplasms, Castration-Resistant/metabolism
- Prostatic Neoplasms, Castration-Resistant/mortality
- Prostatic Neoplasms, Castration-Resistant/physiopathology
- Protein Binding
- Receptors, Androgen/genetics
- Receptors, Androgen/metabolism
- Signal Transduction/genetics
- Survival Analysis
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhi Long
- Department of Urology, Third Xiangya Hospital, Institute of Prostate Disease, Central South University, Changsha, China
- Department of Urologic Sciences, Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Yinan Li
- Department of Urologic Sciences, Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Yu Gan
- Department of Urologic Sciences, Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
- Department of Urology Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Dongyu Zhao
- Center for Bioinformatics and Computational Biology, Houston Methodist Research Institute, Houston, Texas, USA
- Department of Cardiothoracic Surgeries, Weill Cornell Medical College, Cornell University, New York, New York, USA
- Institute for Academic Medicine, Houston Methodist Hospital, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - Guangyu Wang
- Center for Bioinformatics and Computational Biology, Houston Methodist Research Institute, Houston, Texas, USA
- Department of Cardiothoracic Surgeries, Weill Cornell Medical College, Cornell University, New York, New York, USA
- Institute for Academic Medicine, Houston Methodist Hospital, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - Ning Xie
- Department of Urologic Sciences, Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Jessica M Lovnicki
- Department of Urologic Sciences, Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Ladan Fazli
- Department of Urologic Sciences, Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Qi Cao
- Department of Urology and Robert H. Lurie Comprehensive Cancer Cancer, Northwestern University Reinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Kaifu Chen
- Center for Bioinformatics and Computational Biology, Houston Methodist Research Institute, Houston, Texas, USA
- Department of Cardiothoracic Surgeries, Weill Cornell Medical College, Cornell University, New York, New York, USA
- Institute for Academic Medicine, Houston Methodist Hospital, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - Xuesen Dong
- Department of Urologic Sciences, Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
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14
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Tousignant KD, Rockstroh A, Taherian Fard A, Lehman ML, Wang C, McPherson SJ, Philp LK, Bartonicek N, Dinger ME, Nelson CC, Sadowski MC. Lipid Uptake Is an Androgen-Enhanced Lipid Supply Pathway Associated with Prostate Cancer Disease Progression and Bone Metastasis. Mol Cancer Res 2019; 17:1166-1179. [PMID: 30808729 DOI: 10.1158/1541-7786.mcr-18-1147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2018] [Revised: 01/03/2019] [Accepted: 02/21/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
De novo lipogenesis is a well-described androgen receptor (AR)-regulated metabolic pathway that supports prostate cancer tumor growth by providing fuel, membrane material, and steroid hormone precursor. In contrast, our current understanding of lipid supply from uptake of exogenous lipids and its regulation by AR is limited, and exogenous lipids may play a much more significant role in prostate cancer and disease progression than previously thought. By applying advanced automated quantitative fluorescence microscopy, we provide the most comprehensive functional analysis of lipid uptake in cancer cells to date and demonstrate that treatment of AR-positive prostate cancer cell lines with androgens results in significantly increased cellular uptake of fatty acids, cholesterol, and low-density lipoprotein particles. Consistent with a direct, regulatory role of AR in this process, androgen-enhanced lipid uptake can be blocked by the AR-antagonist enzalutamide, but is independent of proliferation and cell-cycle progression. This work for the first time comprehensively delineates the lipid transporter landscape in prostate cancer cell lines and patient samples by analysis of transcriptomics and proteomics data, including the plasma membrane proteome. We show that androgen exposure or deprivation regulates the expression of multiple lipid transporters in prostate cancer cell lines and tumor xenografts and that mRNA and protein expression of lipid transporters is enhanced in bone metastatic disease when compared with primary, localized prostate cancer. Our findings provide a strong rationale to investigate lipid uptake as a therapeutic cotarget in the fight against advanced prostate cancer in combination with inhibitors of lipogenesis to delay disease progression and metastasis. IMPLICATIONS: Prostate cancer exhibits metabolic plasticity in acquiring lipids from uptake and lipogenesis at different disease stages, indicating potential therapeutic benefit by cotargeting lipid supply.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaylyn D Tousignant
- Australian Prostate Cancer Research Centre, Queensland, Institute of Health and Biomedical Innovation, School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Health, Queensland University of Technology, Princess Alexandra Hospital, Translational Research Institute, Woolloongabba, Queensland, Australia
| | - Anja Rockstroh
- Australian Prostate Cancer Research Centre, Queensland, Institute of Health and Biomedical Innovation, School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Health, Queensland University of Technology, Princess Alexandra Hospital, Translational Research Institute, Woolloongabba, Queensland, Australia
| | - Atefeh Taherian Fard
- Australian Prostate Cancer Research Centre, Queensland, Institute of Health and Biomedical Innovation, School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Health, Queensland University of Technology, Princess Alexandra Hospital, Translational Research Institute, Woolloongabba, Queensland, Australia
| | - Melanie L Lehman
- Australian Prostate Cancer Research Centre, Queensland, Institute of Health and Biomedical Innovation, School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Health, Queensland University of Technology, Princess Alexandra Hospital, Translational Research Institute, Woolloongabba, Queensland, Australia
| | - Chenwei Wang
- Australian Prostate Cancer Research Centre, Queensland, Institute of Health and Biomedical Innovation, School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Health, Queensland University of Technology, Princess Alexandra Hospital, Translational Research Institute, Woolloongabba, Queensland, Australia
| | - Stephen J McPherson
- Australian Prostate Cancer Research Centre, Queensland, Institute of Health and Biomedical Innovation, School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Health, Queensland University of Technology, Princess Alexandra Hospital, Translational Research Institute, Woolloongabba, Queensland, Australia
| | - Lisa K Philp
- Australian Prostate Cancer Research Centre, Queensland, Institute of Health and Biomedical Innovation, School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Health, Queensland University of Technology, Princess Alexandra Hospital, Translational Research Institute, Woolloongabba, Queensland, Australia
| | - Nenad Bartonicek
- Kinghorn Centre for Clinical Genomics, Garvan Institute of Medical Research, Sydney, Australia
- St Vincent's Clinical School, UNSW Sydney, Sydney, Australia
| | - Marcel E Dinger
- Kinghorn Centre for Clinical Genomics, Garvan Institute of Medical Research, Sydney, Australia
- St Vincent's Clinical School, UNSW Sydney, Sydney, Australia
| | - Colleen C Nelson
- Australian Prostate Cancer Research Centre, Queensland, Institute of Health and Biomedical Innovation, School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Health, Queensland University of Technology, Princess Alexandra Hospital, Translational Research Institute, Woolloongabba, Queensland, Australia
| | - Martin C Sadowski
- Australian Prostate Cancer Research Centre, Queensland, Institute of Health and Biomedical Innovation, School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Health, Queensland University of Technology, Princess Alexandra Hospital, Translational Research Institute, Woolloongabba, Queensland, Australia.
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15
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Lin C, Salzillo TC, Bader DA, Wilkenfeld SR, Awad D, Pulliam TL, Dutta P, Pudakalakatti S, Titus M, McGuire SE, Bhattacharya PK, Frigo DE. Prostate Cancer Energetics and Biosynthesis. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2019; 1210:185-237. [PMID: 31900911 PMCID: PMC8096614 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-32656-2_10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Cancers must alter their metabolism to satisfy the increased demand for energy and to produce building blocks that are required to create a rapidly growing tumor. Further, for cancer cells to thrive, they must also adapt to an often changing tumor microenvironment, which can present new metabolic challenges (ex. hypoxia) that are unfavorable for most other cells. As such, altered metabolism is now considered an emerging hallmark of cancer. Like many other malignancies, the metabolism of prostate cancer is considerably different compared to matched benign tissue. However, prostate cancers exhibit distinct metabolic characteristics that set them apart from many other tumor types. In this chapter, we will describe the known alterations in prostate cancer metabolism that occur during initial tumorigenesis and throughout disease progression. In addition, we will highlight upstream regulators that control these metabolic changes. Finally, we will discuss how this new knowledge is being leveraged to improve patient care through the development of novel biomarkers and metabolically targeted therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chenchu Lin
- Department of Cancer Systems Imaging, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA
- The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center UTHealth Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Travis C Salzillo
- Department of Cancer Systems Imaging, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA
- The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center UTHealth Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Houston, TX, USA
| | - David A Bader
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Sandi R Wilkenfeld
- Department of Cancer Systems Imaging, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA
- The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center UTHealth Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Dominik Awad
- Department of Cancer Systems Imaging, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA
- The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center UTHealth Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Thomas L Pulliam
- Department of Cancer Systems Imaging, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA
- Center for Nuclear Receptors and Cell Signaling, University of Houston, Houston, TX, USA
- Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Houston, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Prasanta Dutta
- Department of Cancer Systems Imaging, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Shivanand Pudakalakatti
- Department of Cancer Systems Imaging, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Mark Titus
- Department of Genitourinary Medical Oncology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Sean E McGuire
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
- Department of Radiation Oncology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Pratip K Bhattacharya
- Department of Cancer Systems Imaging, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA
- The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Daniel E Frigo
- Department of Cancer Systems Imaging, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA.
- Center for Nuclear Receptors and Cell Signaling, University of Houston, Houston, TX, USA.
- Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Houston, Houston, TX, USA.
- Department of Genitourinary Medical Oncology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA.
- Molecular Medicine Program, The Houston Methodist Research Institute, Houston, TX, USA.
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16
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Cariello M, Ducheix S, Maqdasy S, Baron S, Moschetta A, Lobaccaro JMA. LXRs, SHP, and FXR in Prostate Cancer: Enemies or Ménage à Quatre With AR? NUCLEAR RECEPTOR SIGNALING 2018; 15:1550762918801070. [PMID: 30718981 PMCID: PMC6348739 DOI: 10.1177/1550762918801070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2017] [Accepted: 01/03/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Androgens and androgen receptor (AR, NR3C4) clearly play a crucial role in
prostate cancer progression. Besides, the link between metabolic disorders and
the risk of developing a prostate cancer has been emerging these last years.
Interestingly, “lipid” nuclear receptors such as LXRα/NR1H3 and LXRβ/NR1H2 (as
well as FXRα/NR1H4 and SHP/NR0B2) have been described to decrease the lipid
metabolism, while AR increases it. Moreover, these former orphan nuclear
receptors can regulate androgen levels and modulate AR activity. Thus, it is not
surprising to find such receptors involved in the physiology of prostate. This
review is focused on the roles of liver X receptors (LXRs), farnesoid X receptor
(FXR), and small heterodimeric partner (SHP) in prostate physiology and their
capabilities to interfere with the androgen-regulated pathways by modulating the
levels of active androgen within the prostate. By the use of prostate cancer
cell lines, mice deficient for these nuclear receptors and human tissue
libraries, several authors have pointed out the putative possibility to
pharmacologically target these receptors. These data open a new field of
research for the development of new drugs that could overcome the castration
resistance in prostate cancer, a usual phenomenon in patients.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Simon Ducheix
- Istituto Nazionale Biostrutture e Biosistemi, Roma, Italy
| | - Salwan Maqdasy
- Université Clermont Auvergne, Clermont-Ferrand, France.,Centre de Recherche en Nutrition Humaine d'Auvergne, Clermont-Ferrand, France.,CHU Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - Silvère Baron
- Université Clermont Auvergne, Clermont-Ferrand, France.,Centre de Recherche en Nutrition Humaine d'Auvergne, Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - Antonio Moschetta
- "Aldo Moro" University of Bari, Italy.,Istituto Nazionale Biostrutture e Biosistemi, Roma, Italy.,IRCCS Istituto Oncologico "Giovanni Paolo II," Bari, Italy
| | - Jean-Marc A Lobaccaro
- "Aldo Moro" University of Bari, Italy.,Istituto Nazionale Biostrutture e Biosistemi, Roma, Italy.,Université Clermont Auvergne, Clermont-Ferrand, France.,Centre de Recherche en Nutrition Humaine d'Auvergne, Clermont-Ferrand, France
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17
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Galbraith L, Leung HY, Ahmad I. Lipid pathway deregulation in advanced prostate cancer. Pharmacol Res 2018; 131:177-184. [PMID: 29466694 DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2018.02.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2018] [Revised: 02/08/2018] [Accepted: 02/14/2018] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
The link between prostate cancer (PC) development and lipid metabolism is well established, with AR intimately involved in a number of lipogenic processes involving SREBP1, PPARG, FASN, ACC, ACLY and SCD1. Recently, there is growing evidence implicating the role of obesity and peri-prostatic adipose tissue (PPAT) in PC aggressiveness and related mortality, suggesting the importance of lipid pathways in both localised and disseminated disease. A number of promising agents are in development to target the lipogenic axis in PC, and the likelihood is that these agents will form part of combination drug strategies, with targeting of multiple metabolic pathways (e.g. FASN and CPT1), or in combination with AR pathway inhibitors (SCD1 and AR).
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Galbraith
- CRUK Beatson Institute, Garscube Estate, Switchback Road, Bearsden, Glasgow G61 1BD, UK; Institute of Cancer Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G61 1QH, UK
| | - Hing Y Leung
- CRUK Beatson Institute, Garscube Estate, Switchback Road, Bearsden, Glasgow G61 1BD, UK; Institute of Cancer Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G61 1QH, UK
| | - Imran Ahmad
- CRUK Beatson Institute, Garscube Estate, Switchback Road, Bearsden, Glasgow G61 1BD, UK; Institute of Cancer Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G61 1QH, UK.
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18
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Liu S, Kumari S, Hu Q, Senapati D, Venkadakrishnan VB, Wang D, DePriest AD, Schlanger SE, Ben-Salem S, Valenzuela MM, Willard B, Mudambi S, Swetzig WM, Das GM, Shourideh M, Koochekpour S, Falzarano SM, Magi-Galluzzi C, Yadav N, Chen X, Lao C, Wang J, Billaud JN, Heemers HV. A comprehensive analysis of coregulator recruitment, androgen receptor function and gene expression in prostate cancer. eLife 2017; 6:e28482. [PMID: 28826481 PMCID: PMC5608510 DOI: 10.7554/elife.28482] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2017] [Accepted: 08/17/2017] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Standard treatment for metastatic prostate cancer (CaP) prevents ligand-activation of androgen receptor (AR). Despite initial remission, CaP progresses while relying on AR. AR transcriptional output controls CaP behavior and is an alternative therapeutic target, but its molecular regulation is poorly understood. Here, we show that action of activated AR partitions into fractions that are controlled preferentially by different coregulators. In a 452-AR-target gene panel, each of 18 clinically relevant coregulators mediates androgen-responsiveness of 0-57% genes and acts as a coactivator or corepressor in a gene-specific manner. Selectivity in coregulator-dependent AR action is reflected in differential AR binding site composition and involvement with CaP biology and progression. Isolation of a novel transcriptional mechanism in which WDR77 unites the actions of AR and p53, the major genomic drivers of lethal CaP, to control cell cycle progression provides proof-of-principle for treatment via selective interference with AR action by exploiting AR dependence on coregulators.
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Affiliation(s)
- Song Liu
- Department of Biostatistics and BioinformaticsRoswell Park Cancer InstituteBuffaloUnited States
| | - Sangeeta Kumari
- Department of Cancer BiologyCleveland ClinicClevelandUnited States
| | - Qiang Hu
- Department of Biostatistics and BioinformaticsRoswell Park Cancer InstituteBuffaloUnited States
| | | | | | - Dan Wang
- Department of Biostatistics and BioinformaticsRoswell Park Cancer InstituteBuffaloUnited States
| | - Adam D DePriest
- Department of Cancer GeneticsRoswell Park Cancer InstituteBuffaloUnited States
| | | | - Salma Ben-Salem
- Department of Cancer BiologyCleveland ClinicClevelandUnited States
| | | | - Belinda Willard
- Department of Research Core ServicesCleveland ClinicClevelandUnited States
| | - Shaila Mudambi
- Department of Cell Stress BiologyRoswell Park Cancer InstituteBuffaloUnited States
| | - Wendy M Swetzig
- Department of Pharmacology and TherapeuticsRoswell Park Cancer InstituteBuffaloUnited States
| | - Gokul M Das
- Department of Pharmacology and TherapeuticsRoswell Park Cancer InstituteBuffaloUnited States
| | - Mojgan Shourideh
- Department of Cancer GeneticsRoswell Park Cancer InstituteBuffaloUnited States
| | | | | | | | - Neelu Yadav
- Department of Pharmacology and TherapeuticsRoswell Park Cancer InstituteBuffaloUnited States
| | - Xiwei Chen
- Department of Biostatistics and BioinformaticsRoswell Park Cancer InstituteBuffaloUnited States
| | - Changshi Lao
- Institute for Nanosurface Science and EngineeringShenzhen UniversityShenzhenChina
| | - Jianmin Wang
- Department of Biostatistics and BioinformaticsRoswell Park Cancer InstituteBuffaloUnited States
| | | | - Hannelore V Heemers
- Department of Cancer BiologyCleveland ClinicClevelandUnited States
- Department of UrologyCleveland ClinicClevelandUnited States
- Department of Hematology/Medical OncologyCleveland ClinicClevelandUnited States
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19
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Vafaee F, Krycer JR, Ma X, Burykin T, James DE, Kuncic Z. ORTI: An Open-Access Repository of Transcriptional Interactions for Interrogating Mammalian Gene Expression Data. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0164535. [PMID: 27723773 PMCID: PMC5056720 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0164535] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2015] [Accepted: 09/27/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Transcription factors (TFs) play a fundamental role in coordinating biological processes in response to stimuli. Consequently, we often seek to determine the key TFs and their regulated target genes (TGs) amidst gene expression data. This requires a knowledge-base of TF-TG interactions, which would enable us to determine the topology of the transcriptional network and predict novel regulatory interactions. To address this, we generated an Open-access Repository of Transcriptional Interactions, ORTI, by integrating available TF-TG interaction databases. These databases rely on different types of experimental evidence, including low-throughput assays, high-throughput screens, and bioinformatics predictions. We have subsequently categorised TF-TG interactions in ORTI according to the quality of this evidence. To demonstrate its capabilities, we applied ORTI to gene expression data and identified modulated TFs using an enrichment analysis. Combining this with pairwise TF-TG interactions enabled us to visualise temporal regulation of a transcriptional network. Additionally, ORTI enables the prediction of novel TF-TG interactions, based on how well candidate genes co-express with known TGs of the target TF. By filtering out known TF-TG interactions that are unlikely to occur within the experimental context, this analysis predicts context-specific TF-TG interactions. We show that this can be applied to experimental designs of varying complexities. In conclusion, ORTI is a rich and publicly available database of experimentally validated mammalian transcriptional interactions which is accompanied with tools that can identify and predict transcriptional interactions, serving as a useful resource for unravelling the topology of transcriptional networks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fatemeh Vafaee
- Charles Perkins Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
- School of Mathematics and Statistics, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
- * E-mail: (FV); (ZK)
| | - James R. Krycer
- Charles Perkins Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Xiuquan Ma
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
- Diabetes and Metabolism Division, Garvan Institute of Medical Research, Darlinghurst, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Timur Burykin
- Charles Perkins Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - David E. James
- Charles Perkins Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
- Sydney Medical School, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Zdenka Kuncic
- Charles Perkins Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
- School of Physics, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
- * E-mail: (FV); (ZK)
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20
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Hashimoto M, Kobayashi K, Yamazaki M, Kazuki Y, Takehara S, Oshimura M, Chiba K. Cyp3a deficiency enhances androgen receptor activity and cholesterol synthesis in the mouse prostate. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2016; 163:121-8. [PMID: 27137100 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2016.04.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2015] [Revised: 04/12/2016] [Accepted: 04/27/2016] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Testosterone regulates cellular functions in the prostate through activation of the androgen receptor (AR), which may enhance expression levels of cholesterogenic enzymes through activation of sterol regulatory element-binding protein2 (SREBP2). Because testosterone is inactivated to 6β-hydroxytestosterone by cytochrome P450 3A (CYP3A), we examined the effects of Cyp3a deficiency on circulating testosterone levels and its effects on activation of the AR and expression levels of cholesterogenic enzymes in the prostate using Cyp3a-knockout (Cyp3a(-/-)) mice. The results showed that Cyp3a(-/-) mice had remarkably increased free testosterone levels in plasma along with suppressed testosterone 6β-hydroxylation activities in liver microsomes, suggesting that Cyp3a is a major determinant of systemic levels of testosterone in mice. The results also showed that mRNA expression levels of the AR target genes were increased significantly, and that AR bindings to the promoter region of the AR target genes were more abundant in the prostates of Cyp3a(-/-) mice. These findings suggest that AR activation was stimulated in the prostate of Cyp3a(-/-) mice. In addition, the protein expression levels of SREBP cleavage-activating protein (SCAP), mRNA expression levels of SREBP2 target genes and total cholesterol contents were increased in the prostates of Cyp3a(-/-) mice. The findings suggest that Cyp3a deficiency stimulated the expression of Scap via activation of the AR, which elevated cholesterogenic gene expression levels through activation of SREBP2 and increased total cholesterol contents in the prostate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mari Hashimoto
- Laboratory of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chiba University, 1-8-1 Inohana, Chuo-ku, Chiba-shi, Chiba, Japan
| | - Kaoru Kobayashi
- Laboratory of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chiba University, 1-8-1 Inohana, Chuo-ku, Chiba-shi, Chiba, Japan.
| | - Mana Yamazaki
- Laboratory of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chiba University, 1-8-1 Inohana, Chuo-ku, Chiba-shi, Chiba, Japan
| | - Yasuhiro Kazuki
- Department of Biomedical Science, Institute of Regenerative Medicine and Biofunction, Graduate School of Medical Science, Tottori University, 86 Nishi-cho, Yonago, Tottori, Japan; Chromosome Engineering Research Center, Tottori University, 86 Nishi-cho, Yonago, Tottori, Japan
| | - Shoko Takehara
- Chromosome Engineering Research Center, Tottori University, 86 Nishi-cho, Yonago, Tottori, Japan
| | - Mitsuo Oshimura
- Chromosome Engineering Research Center, Tottori University, 86 Nishi-cho, Yonago, Tottori, Japan
| | - Kan Chiba
- Laboratory of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chiba University, 1-8-1 Inohana, Chuo-ku, Chiba-shi, Chiba, Japan
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21
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Sun S, Wen J, Qiu F, Yin Y, Xu G, Li T, Nie J, Xiong G, Zhang C, Liao D, Chen J, Tuo Q. Identification of the C-terminal domain of Daxx acts as a potential regulator of intracellular cholesterol synthesis in HepG2 cells. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2016; 480:139-145. [PMID: 27671201 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2016.09.102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2016] [Accepted: 09/20/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Daxx is a highly conserved nuclear transcriptional factor, which has been implicated in many nuclear processes including transcription and cell cycle regulation. Our previous study demonstrated Daxx also plays a role in regulation of intracellular cholesterol content. Daxx contains several domains that are essential for interaction with a growing number of proteins. To delineate the underlying mechanism of hypocholesterolemic activity of Daxx, we constructed a set of plasmids which can be used to overexpress different fragments of Daxx and transfected to HepG2 cells. We found that the C- terminal region Daxx626-740 clearly reduced intracellular cholesterol levels and inhibited the expression of SREBPs and SCAP. In GST pull-down experiments and Double immunofluorescence assays, Daxx626-740 was demonstrated to bind directly to androgen receptor (AR). Our findings suggest that the interaction of Daxx626-740 and AR abolishes the AR-mediated activation of SCAP/SREBPs pathway, which suppresses the de novo cholesterol synthesis. Thus, C-terminal domain of Daxx acts as a potential regulator of intracellular cholesterol content in HepG2 cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaowei Sun
- Institute of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, School of Life Science and Technology, University of South China, Hengyang 421001, Hunan, China; Medical School, Hunan University of Chinese Medicine, Changsha 410208, Hunan, China
| | - Juan Wen
- Institute of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, School of Life Science and Technology, University of South China, Hengyang 421001, Hunan, China
| | - Fei Qiu
- Medical School, Hunan University of Chinese Medicine, Changsha 410208, Hunan, China
| | - Yufang Yin
- Department of Pharmacology, Medical School of Southern Illinois University, Springfield, IL 62702, USA
| | - Guina Xu
- Institute of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, School of Life Science and Technology, University of South China, Hengyang 421001, Hunan, China
| | - Tianping Li
- Institute of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, School of Life Science and Technology, University of South China, Hengyang 421001, Hunan, China
| | - Juan Nie
- Medical School, Hunan University of Chinese Medicine, Changsha 410208, Hunan, China
| | - Guozuo Xiong
- Institute of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, School of Life Science and Technology, University of South China, Hengyang 421001, Hunan, China
| | - Caiping Zhang
- Institute of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, School of Life Science and Technology, University of South China, Hengyang 421001, Hunan, China
| | - Duangfang Liao
- Medical School, Hunan University of Chinese Medicine, Changsha 410208, Hunan, China
| | - Jianxiong Chen
- Medical School, Hunan University of Chinese Medicine, Changsha 410208, Hunan, China; Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, MS, USA.
| | - Qinhui Tuo
- Medical School, Hunan University of Chinese Medicine, Changsha 410208, Hunan, China.
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22
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Eivers SB, Kinsella BT. Regulated expression of the prostacyclin receptor (IP) gene by androgens within the vasculature: Combined role for androgens and serum cholesterol. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-GENE REGULATORY MECHANISMS 2016; 1859:1333-51. [PMID: 27365208 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagrm.2016.06.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2016] [Revised: 06/13/2016] [Accepted: 06/24/2016] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
The prostanoid prostacyclin plays a key cardioprotective role within the vasculature. There is increasing evidence that androgens may also confer cardioprotection but through unknown mechanisms. This study investigated whether the androgen dihydrotestosterone (DHT) may regulate expression of the prostacyclin/I prostanoid receptor or, in short, the IP in platelet-progenitor megakaryoblastic and vascular endothelial cells. DHT significantly increased IP mRNA and protein expression, IP-induced cAMP generation and promoter (PrmIP)-directed gene expression in all cell types examined. The androgen-responsive region was localised to a cis-acting androgen response element (ARE), which lies in close proximity to a functional sterol response element (SRE) within the core promoter. In normal serum conditions, DHT increased IP expression through classic androgen receptor (AR) binding to the functional ARE within the PrmIP. However, under conditions of low-cholesterol, DHT led to further increases in IP expression through an indirect mechanism involving AR-dependent upregulation of SCAP expression and enhanced SREBP1 processing & binding to the SRE within the PrmIP. Chromatin immunoprecipitation assays confirmed DHT-induced AR binding to the ARE in vivo in cells cultured in normal serum while, in conditions of low cholesterol, DHT led to increased AR and SREBP1 binding to the functional ARE and SRE cis-acting elements, respectively, within the core PrmIP resulting in further increases in IP expression. Collectively, these data establish that the human IP gene is under the transcriptional regulation of DHT, where this regulation is further influenced by serum-cholesterol levels. This may explain, in part, some of the protective actions of androgens within the vasculature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah B Eivers
- UCD School of Biomolecular and Biomedical Sciences, UCD Conway Institute of Biomolecular and Biomedical Research, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland
| | - B Therese Kinsella
- UCD School of Biomolecular and Biomedical Sciences, UCD Conway Institute of Biomolecular and Biomedical Research, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland.
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23
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Butler LM, Centenera MM, Swinnen JV. Androgen control of lipid metabolism in prostate cancer: novel insights and future applications. Endocr Relat Cancer 2016; 23:R219-27. [PMID: 27130044 DOI: 10.1530/erc-15-0556] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2016] [Accepted: 04/28/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
One of the most typical hallmarks of prostate cancer cells is their exquisite dependence on androgens, which is the basis of the widely applied androgen deprivation therapy. Among the variety of key cellular processes and functions that are regulated by androgens, lipid metabolism stands out by its complex regulation and its many intricate links with cancer cell biology. Here, we review our current knowledge on the links between androgens and lipid metabolism in prostate cancer, and highlight recent developments and insights into the links between key oncogenic stimuli and altered lipid synthesis and/or uptake that may hold significant potential for biomarker development and provide new vulnerabilities for therapeutic intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa M Butler
- School of MedicineUniversity of Adelaide, South Australian Health and Medical Research Institute, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
| | - Margaret M Centenera
- School of MedicineUniversity of Adelaide, South Australian Health and Medical Research Institute, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
| | - Johannes V Swinnen
- Laboratory of Lipid Metabolism and CancerDepartment of Oncology, LKI - Leuven Cancer Institute, KU Leuven - University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
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24
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Shih JW, Wang LY, Hung CL, Kung HJ, Hsieh CL. Non-Coding RNAs in Castration-Resistant Prostate Cancer: Regulation of Androgen Receptor Signaling and Cancer Metabolism. Int J Mol Sci 2015; 16:28943-78. [PMID: 26690121 PMCID: PMC4691085 DOI: 10.3390/ijms161226138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2015] [Revised: 11/17/2015] [Accepted: 11/26/2015] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Hormone-refractory prostate cancer frequently relapses from therapy and inevitably progresses to a bone-metastatic status with no cure. Understanding of the molecular mechanisms conferring resistance to androgen deprivation therapy has the potential to lead to the discovery of novel therapeutic targets for type of prostate cancer with poor prognosis. Progression to castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) is characterized by aberrant androgen receptor (AR) expression and persistent AR signaling activity. Alterations in metabolic activity regulated by oncogenic pathways, such as c-Myc, were found to promote prostate cancer growth during the development of CRPC. Non-coding RNAs represent a diverse family of regulatory transcripts that drive tumorigenesis of prostate cancer and various other cancers by their hyperactivity or diminished function. A number of studies have examined differentially expressed non-coding RNAs in each stage of prostate cancer. Herein, we highlight the emerging impacts of microRNAs and long non-coding RNAs linked to reactivation of the AR signaling axis and reprogramming of the cellular metabolism in prostate cancer. The translational implications of non-coding RNA research for developing new biomarkers and therapeutic strategies for CRPC are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing-Wen Shih
- Integrated Translational Lab, The Center of Translational Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei 11031, Taiwan.
- The Ph.D. Program for Translational Medicine, College of Medical Science and Technology, Taipei Medical University, Taipei 11031, Taiwan.
| | - Ling-Yu Wang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California at Davis, Sacramento, CA 95817, USA.
| | - Chiu-Lien Hung
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California at Davis, Sacramento, CA 95817, USA.
| | - Hsing-Jien Kung
- Integrated Translational Lab, The Center of Translational Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei 11031, Taiwan.
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California at Davis, Sacramento, CA 95817, USA.
- Institute of Molecular and Genomic Medicine, National Health Research Institutes, Zhunan, Miaoli County 35053, Taiwan.
| | - Chia-Ling Hsieh
- The Ph.D. Program for Translational Medicine, College of Medical Science and Technology, Taipei Medical University, Taipei 11031, Taiwan.
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25
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Heemers HV. Targeting androgen receptor action for prostate cancer treatment: does the post-receptor level provide novel opportunities? Int J Biol Sci 2014; 10:576-87. [PMID: 24948870 PMCID: PMC4062950 DOI: 10.7150/ijbs.8479] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2014] [Accepted: 01/23/2014] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The standard of care for patients who suffer from non-organ confined prostate cancer (CaP) is androgen deprivation therapy (ADT). ADT exploits the reliance of CaP cells on androgen receptor (AR) signaling throughout CaP progression from androgen-stimulated (AS) to castration-recurrent (CR) disease. AR is a member of the nuclear receptor family of ligand-activated transcription factors. Ligand-activated AR relocates from the cytoplasm to the nucleus, where it binds to Androgen Response Elements (AREs) to regulate transcription of target genes that control CaP cell behavior and progression. Current forms of ADT interfere at 2 levels along the AR signaling axis. At the pre-receptor level, ADT limits the availability of ligand for AR, while at the receptor level, ADT interrupts AR-ligand interactions. Both forms of ADT induce remission, but are not curative and, because of extraprostatic actions, are associated with severe side effects. Here, the potential of interference with the molecular regulation of AR-dependent transcription and the action of AR target genes, at the post receptor level, as the foundation for the development of novel, more CaP- specific selective forms of ADT is explored.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannelore V. Heemers
- Departments of Urology and Cancer Genetics, Roswell Park Cancer Institute, Buffalo, NY 14263, USA
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26
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Tsouko E, Khan AS, White MA, Han JJ, Shi Y, Merchant FA, Sharpe MA, Xin L, Frigo DE. Regulation of the pentose phosphate pathway by an androgen receptor-mTOR-mediated mechanism and its role in prostate cancer cell growth. Oncogenesis 2014; 3:e103. [PMID: 24861463 PMCID: PMC4035695 DOI: 10.1038/oncsis.2014.18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2014] [Accepted: 04/23/2014] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Cancer cells display an increased demand for glucose. Therefore, identifying the specific aspects of glucose metabolism that are involved in the pathogenesis of cancer may uncover novel therapeutic nodes. Recently, there has been a renewed interest in the role of the pentose phosphate pathway in cancer. This metabolic pathway is advantageous for rapidly growing cells because it provides nucleotide precursors and helps regenerate the reducing agent NADPH, which can contribute to reactive oxygen species (ROS) scavenging. Correspondingly, clinical data suggest glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD), the rate-limiting enzyme of the pentose phosphate pathway, is upregulated in prostate cancer. We hypothesized that androgen receptor (AR) signaling, which plays an essential role in the disease, mediated prostate cancer cell growth in part by increasing flux through the pentose phosphate pathway. Here, we determined that G6PD, NADPH and ribose synthesis were all increased by AR signaling. Further, this process was necessary to modulate ROS levels. Pharmacological or molecular inhibition of G6PD abolished these effects and blocked androgen-mediated cell growth. Mechanistically, regulation of G6PD via AR in both hormone-sensitive and castration-resistant models of prostate cancer was abolished following rapamycin treatment, indicating that AR increased flux through the pentose phosphate pathway by the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR)-mediated upregulation of G6PD. Accordingly, in two separate mouse models of Pten deletion/elevated mTOR signaling, Pb-Cre;Pten(f/f) and K8-CreER(T2);Pten(f/f), G6PD levels correlated with prostate cancer progression in vivo. Importantly, G6PD levels remained high during progression to castration-resistant prostate cancer. Taken together, our data suggest that AR signaling can promote prostate cancer through the upregulation of G6PD and therefore, the flux of sugars through the pentose phosphate pathway. Hence, these findings support a vital role for other metabolic pathways (that is, not glycolysis) in prostate cancer cell growth and maintenance.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Tsouko
- Center for Nuclear Receptors and Cell Signaling, Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Houston, Houston, TX, USA
| | - A S Khan
- Center for Nuclear Receptors and Cell Signaling, Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Houston, Houston, TX, USA
| | - M A White
- Center for Nuclear Receptors and Cell Signaling, Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Houston, Houston, TX, USA
| | - J J Han
- Center for Nuclear Receptors and Cell Signaling, Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Houston, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Y Shi
- Center for Nuclear Receptors and Cell Signaling, Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Houston, Houston, TX, USA
| | - F A Merchant
- Department of Engineering Technology, University of Houston, Houston, TX, USA
| | - M A Sharpe
- Department of Neurosurgery, Houston Methodist Research Institute, Houston, TX, USA
| | - L Xin
- 1] Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA [2] Department of Pathology and Immunology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA [3] Dan L. Duncan Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA
| | - D E Frigo
- 1] Center for Nuclear Receptors and Cell Signaling, Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Houston, Houston, TX, USA [2] Center for Genomic Medicine, Houston Methodist Research Institute, Houston, TX, USA
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27
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Abstract
Testosterone is a hormone that plays a key role in carbohydrate, fat and protein metabolism. It has been known for some time that testosterone has a major influence on body fat composition and muscle mass in the male. Testosterone deficiency is associated with an increased fat mass (in particular central adiposity), reduced insulin sensitivity, impaired glucose tolerance, elevated triglycerides and cholesterol and low HDL-cholesterol. All these factors are found in the metabolic syndrome (MetS) and type 2 diabetes, contributing to cardiovascular risk. Clinical trials demonstrate that testosterone replacement therapy improves the insulin resistance found in these conditions as well as glycaemic control and also reduces body fat mass, in particular truncal adiposity, cholesterol and triglycerides. The mechanisms by which testosterone acts on pathways to control metabolism are not fully clear. There is, however, an increasing body of evidence from animal, cell and clinical studies that testosterone at the molecular level controls the expression of important regulatory proteins involved in glycolysis, glycogen synthesis and lipid and cholesterol metabolism. The effects of testosterone differ in the major tissues involved in insulin action, which include liver, muscle and fat, suggesting a complex regulatory influence on metabolism. The cumulative effects of testosterone on these biochemical pathways would account for the overall benefit on insulin sensitivity observed in clinical trials. This review discusses the current knowledge of the metabolic actions of testosterone and how testosterone deficiency contributes to the clinical disease states of obesity, MetS and type 2 diabetes and the role of testosterone replacement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel M Kelly
- Department of Human Metabolism, Medical School, The University of Sheffield, Sheffield S10 2RX, UK
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28
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Williams KJ, Argus JP, Zhu Y, Wilks MQ, Marbois BN, York AG, Kidani Y, Pourzia AL, Akhavan D, Lisiero DN, Komisopoulou E, Henkin AH, Soto H, Chamberlain BT, Vergnes L, Jung ME, Torres JZ, Liau LM, Christofk HR, Prins RM, Mischel PS, Reue K, Graeber TG, Bensinger SJ. An essential requirement for the SCAP/SREBP signaling axis to protect cancer cells from lipotoxicity. Cancer Res 2013; 73:2850-62. [PMID: 23440422 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-13-0382-t] [Citation(s) in RCA: 140] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
The sterol regulatory element-binding proteins (SREBP) are key transcriptional regulators of lipid metabolism and cellular growth. It has been proposed that SREBP signaling regulates cellular growth through its ability to drive lipid biosynthesis. Unexpectedly, we find that loss of SREBP activity inhibits cancer cell growth and viability by uncoupling fatty acid synthesis from desaturation. Integrated lipid profiling and metabolic flux analysis revealed that cancer cells with attenuated SREBP activity maintain long-chain saturated fatty acid synthesis, while losing fatty acid desaturation capacity. We traced this defect to the uncoupling of fatty acid synthase activity from stearoyl-CoA desaturase 1 (SCD1)-mediated desaturation. This deficiency in desaturation drives an imbalance between the saturated and monounsaturated fatty acid pools resulting in severe lipotoxicity. Importantly, replenishing the monounsaturated fatty acid pool restored growth to SREBP-inhibited cells. These studies highlight the importance of fatty acid desaturation in cancer growth and provide a novel mechanistic explanation for the role of SREBPs in cancer metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin J Williams
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles 90095, USA
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29
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Cholesterol accumulation in prostate cancer: a classic observation from a modern perspective. Biochim Biophys Acta Rev Cancer 2013; 1835:219-29. [PMID: 23357067 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbcan.2013.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2012] [Revised: 01/12/2013] [Accepted: 01/15/2013] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Prostate cancer (PCa) is the most common cancer in men in developed countries. Epidemiological studies have associated high blood-cholesterol levels with an increased risk of PCa, whilst cholesterol-lowering drugs (statins) reduce the risk of advanced PCa. Furthermore, normal prostate epithelial cells have an abnormally high cholesterol content, with cholesterol levels increasing further during progression to PCa. In this review, we explore why and how this occurs. Concurrent to this observation, intense efforts have been expended in cardiovascular research to better understand the regulators of cholesterol homeostasis. Here, we apply this knowledge to elucidate the molecular mechanisms driving the accumulation of cholesterol in PCa. For instance, recent evidence from our group and others shows that major signalling players in prostate growth and differentiation, such as androgens and Akt, modulate the key transcriptional regulators of cholesterol homeostasis to enhance cholesterol levels. This includes adjusting central carbon metabolism to sustain greater lipid synthesis. Perturbations in cholesterol homeostasis appear to be maintained even when PCa approaches the advanced, 'castration-resistant' state. Overall, this provides a link between cholesterol accumulation and PCa cell growth. Given there is currently no cure for castration-resistant PCa, could cholesterol metabolism be a novel target for PCa therapy? Overall, this review presents a picture that cholesterol metabolism is important for PCa development: growth-promoting factors stimulate cholesterol accumulation, which in turn presents a possible target for chemotherapy. Consequently, we recommend future investigations, both to better elucidate the mechanisms driving this accumulation and applying it in novel chemotherapeutic strategies.
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30
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Biomarker-based targeting of the androgen-androgen receptor axis in advanced prostate cancer. Adv Urol 2012; 2012:781459. [PMID: 22956944 PMCID: PMC3432332 DOI: 10.1155/2012/781459] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2012] [Accepted: 06/09/2012] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent therapeutic advances for managing advanced prostate cancer include the successful targeting of the androgen-AR axis with several new drugs in castrate resistant prostate cancer including abiraterone acetate and enzalutamide (MDV3100). This translational progress from “bench to bed-side” has resulted in an enlarging repertoire of novel and traditional drug choices now available for use in advanced prostate cancer therapeutics, which has had a positive clinical impact in prolonging longevity and quality of life of advanced prostate cancer patients. In order to further the clinical utility of these drugs, development of predictive biomarkers guiding individual therapeutic choices remains an ongoing challenge. This paper will summarize the potential in developing predictive biomarkers based on the pathophysiology of the androgen-AR axis in tumor tissue from patients with advanced prostate cancer as well as inherited variation in the patient's genome. Specific examples of rational clinical trial designs incorporating potential predictive biomarkers from these pathways will illustrate several aspects of pharmacogenetic and pharmacogenomic predictive biomarker development in advanced prostate cancer therapeutics.
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31
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Dervishi E, Joy M, Alvarez-Rodriguez J, Serrano M, Calvo JH. The forage type (grazing versus hay pasture) fed to ewes and the lamb sex affect fatty acid profile and lipogenic gene expression in the longissimus muscle of suckling lambs1. J Anim Sci 2012; 90:54-66. [DOI: 10.2527/jas.2011-4057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- E. Dervishi
- Unidad de Tecnología en Producción Animal, Centro de Investigación y Tecnología Agroalimentaria (CITA), Avda Montañana 930, 50059 Zaragoza, Spain
| | - M. Joy
- Unidad de Tecnología en Producción Animal, Centro de Investigación y Tecnología Agroalimentaria (CITA), Avda Montañana 930, 50059 Zaragoza, Spain
| | - J. Alvarez-Rodriguez
- Unidad de Tecnología en Producción Animal, Centro de Investigación y Tecnología Agroalimentaria (CITA), Avda Montañana 930, 50059 Zaragoza, Spain
| | - M. Serrano
- Departamento de Mejora Genética Animal, Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Tecnología Agraria y Alimentaria (INIA), Ctra. La Coruña 7.5, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - J. H. Calvo
- Unidad de Tecnología en Producción Animal, Centro de Investigación y Tecnología Agroalimentaria (CITA), Avda Montañana 930, 50059 Zaragoza, Spain
- ARAID Fundacion Agencia Aragonesa para la Investigacion y Desarrollo, 50004 Zaragoza, Spain
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32
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De Gendt K, Denolet E, Willems A, Daniels VW, Clinckemalie L, Denayer S, Wilkinson MF, Claessens F, Swinnen JV, Verhoeven G. Expression of Tubb3, a beta-tubulin isotype, is regulated by androgens in mouse and rat Sertoli cells. Biol Reprod 2011; 85:934-45. [PMID: 21734264 DOI: 10.1095/biolreprod.110.090704] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Our previous analysis of Sertoli cell androgen receptor (AR) knockout (SCARKO) mice revealed that several cytoskeletal components are a potential target of androgen action. Here, we found that one of these components, the beta-tubulin isotype Tubb3, is differentially regulated in testes from SCARKO mice (relative to littermate controls) from Postnatal Day 10 to adulthood. The Tubb3 gene is unique in this respect, as at Day 10, no other beta-tubulin genes are significantly regulated by AR. We further characterized androgen regulation of Tubb3 in vivo and in vitro and demonstrated that it is a conserved feature in both mice and rats. To investigate whether androgens directly regulate Tubb3 expression, we screened for androgen response elements (AREs) in the Tubb3 gene. In silico analysis revealed the presence of four ARE motifs in Tubb3 intron 1, two of which bind to AR in vitro. Mutation of one of these (ARE1) strongly reduced androgen-dependent reporter gene expression. These results, coupled with the finding that the AR binds to the Tubb3 ARE region in vivo, suggest that Tubb3 is a direct target of AR. Our data strengthen the contention that androgens exert their effects on spermatogenesis, in part, through modulation of the Sertoli cell cytoskeleton. Androgen regulation of beta-tubulin has also been described in neurons, fortifying the already known similarity in microtubule organization in Sertoli cell processes and neurons, the only other cell type in which Tubb3 is known to be expressed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karel De Gendt
- Laboratory of Experimental Medicine and Endocrinology, Catholic University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
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33
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Massie CE, Lynch A, Ramos-Montoya A, Boren J, Stark R, Fazli L, Warren A, Scott H, Madhu B, Sharma N, Bon H, Zecchini V, Smith DM, DeNicola GM, Mathews N, Osborne M, Hadfield J, MacArthur S, Adryan B, Lyons SK, Brindle KM, Griffiths J, Gleave ME, Rennie PS, Neal DE, Mills IG. The androgen receptor fuels prostate cancer by regulating central metabolism and biosynthesis. EMBO J 2011; 30:2719-33. [PMID: 21602788 PMCID: PMC3155295 DOI: 10.1038/emboj.2011.158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 483] [Impact Index Per Article: 37.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2010] [Accepted: 04/21/2011] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
The androgen receptor (AR) is a key regulator of prostate growth and the principal drug target for the treatment of prostate cancer. Previous studies have mapped AR targets and identified some candidates which may contribute to cancer progression, but did not characterize AR biology in an integrated manner. In this study, we took an interdisciplinary approach, integrating detailed genomic studies with metabolomic profiling and identify an anabolic transcriptional network involving AR as the core regulator. Restricting flux through anabolic pathways is an attractive approach to deprive tumours of the building blocks needed to sustain tumour growth. Therefore, we searched for targets of the AR that may contribute to these anabolic processes and could be amenable to therapeutic intervention by virtue of differential expression in prostate tumours. This highlighted calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase kinase 2, which we show is overexpressed in prostate cancer and regulates cancer cell growth via its unexpected role as a hormone-dependent modulator of anabolic metabolism. In conclusion, it is possible to progress from transcriptional studies to a promising therapeutic target by taking an unbiased interdisciplinary approach.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Andy Lynch
- CRUK Cambridge Research Institute, Cambridge, UK
| | | | - Joan Boren
- CRUK Cambridge Research Institute, Cambridge, UK
| | - Rory Stark
- CRUK Cambridge Research Institute, Cambridge, UK
| | - Ladan Fazli
- The Vancouver Prostate Centre, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Anne Warren
- Department of Pathology, Addenbrookes Hospital, Cambridge, UK
| | - Helen Scott
- CRUK Cambridge Research Institute, Cambridge, UK
| | | | - Naomi Sharma
- CRUK Cambridge Research Institute, Cambridge, UK
| | - Helene Bon
- CRUK Cambridge Research Institute, Cambridge, UK
| | | | | | | | - Nik Mathews
- CRUK Cambridge Research Institute, Cambridge, UK
| | | | | | | | - Boris Adryan
- Cambridge Systems Biology Centre and Department of Genetics, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | | | | | | | - Martin E Gleave
- The Vancouver Prostate Centre, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Paul S Rennie
- The Vancouver Prostate Centre, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - David E Neal
- CRUK Cambridge Research Institute, Cambridge, UK
| | - Ian G Mills
- CRUK Cambridge Research Institute, Cambridge, UK
- Centre for Molecular Medicine Norway, Nordic European Molecular Biology Laboratory Partnership, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
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34
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Abstract
The biological action of androgenic male sex steroid hormones in prostate tissue is mediated by the androgen receptor, a nuclear transcription factor. The transcriptional program of androgenic signaling in the prostate consists of thousands of gene targets whose products play a role in almost all cellular functions, including cellular proliferation, survival, lipid metabolism, and differentiation. This review will provide a summary of the most recent data regarding androgen-regulated target genes and modulation of androgen receptor activity, especially with regard to androgen-dependent and castration-recurrent prostate cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristin R Lamont
- Department of Urology, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, 200 First Street SW, Rochester, MN 55905, USA
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35
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Son BK, Akishita M, Iijima K, Ogawa S, Maemura K, Yu J, Takeyama K, Kato S, Eto M, Ouchi Y. Androgen receptor-dependent transactivation of growth arrest-specific gene 6 mediates inhibitory effects of testosterone on vascular calcification. J Biol Chem 2010; 285:7537-44. [PMID: 20048160 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m109.055087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Recent epidemiological studies have found that androgen deficiency is associated with a higher incidence of cardiovascular disease in men. However, little is known about the mechanism underlying the cardioprotective effects of androgens. Here we show the inhibitory effects of testosterone on vascular calcification and a critical role of androgen receptor (AR)-dependent transactivation of growth arrest-specific gene 6 (Gas6), a key regulator of inorganic phosphate (P(i))-induced calcification of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMC). Testosterone and nonaromatizable androgen dihydrotestosterone inhibited P(i)-induced calcification of human aortic VSMC in a concentration-dependent manner. Androgen inhibited P(i)-induced VSMC apoptosis, an essential process for VSMC calcification. The effects on VSMC calcification were mediated by restoration of P(i)-induced down-regulation of Gas6 expression and a subsequent reduction of Akt phosphorylation. These effects of androgen were blocked by an AR antagonist, flutamide, but not by an estrogen receptor antagonist, ICI 182,780. We then explored the mechanistic role of the AR in Gas6 expression and found an abundant expression of AR predominantly in the nucleus of VSMC and two consensus ARE sequences in the Gas6 promoter region. Dihydrotestosterone stimulated Gas6 promoter activity, and this effect was abrogated by flutamide and by AR siRNA. Site-specific mutation revealed that the proximal ARE was essential for androgen-dependent transactivation of Gas6. Furthermore, chromatin immunoprecipitation assays demonstrated ligand-dependent binding of the AR to the proximal ARE of Gas6. These results indicate that AR signaling directly regulates Gas6 transcription, which leads to inhibition of vascular calcification, and provides a mechanistic insight into the cardioprotective action of androgens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bo-Kyung Son
- Department of Geriatric Medicine, the Graduate School of Medicine, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, University of Tokyo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8655, Japan
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36
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Heemers HV, Regan KM, Schmidt LJ, Anderson SK, Ballman KV, Tindall DJ. Androgen modulation of coregulator expression in prostate cancer cells. Mol Endocrinol 2009; 23:572-83. [PMID: 19164447 DOI: 10.1210/me.2008-0363] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Aberrant coregulator expression that occurs during prostate cancer (PCa) progression correlates with poor prognosis and aggressive disease. This has been attributed to the ability to regulate androgen receptor-mediated transcription. We have shown previously that the androgenic milieu regulates the expression of the coactivators p300 and FHL2, with severe consequences for PCa cell proliferation and androgen receptor transcriptional activity. To determine the extent of androgen dependency of coregulator genes, we designed a cDNA-mediated annealing, selection, extension, and ligation RNA profiling array that probes the expression of 186 coregulators. Using this assay, we demonstrated androgen control over approximately 30% of coregulator genes in PCa cells. For a subset of 15 functionally diverse coregulators, androgen regulation was confirmed using real-time RT-PCR and immunoblotting. The extent, dose dependency, and kinetics by which androgens affect coregulator expression differed widely, indicating diverse molecular mechanisms underlying these effects. Moreover, differences in coregulator expression were observed between isogenic androgen-dependent and castration-recurrent PCa cells. Small interfering RNA-mediated changes in coregulator expression had profound effects on cell proliferation, which were most pronounced in castration-recurrent cells. Taken together, our integrated approach combining expression profiling, characterization of androgen-dependent coregulator expression, and validation of the importance of altered coregulator expression for cell proliferation identified several potential novel therapeutic targets for PCa treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannelore V Heemers
- Departments of Urology Research/Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Mayo Clinic, 200 First Street Southwest, Rochester, Minnesota 55905.
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37
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Dehm SM, Schmidt LJ, Heemers HV, Vessella RL, Tindall DJ. Splicing of a novel androgen receptor exon generates a constitutively active androgen receptor that mediates prostate cancer therapy resistance. Cancer Res 2008; 68:5469-77. [PMID: 18593950 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-08-0594] [Citation(s) in RCA: 643] [Impact Index Per Article: 40.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The standard systemic treatment for prostate cancer (PCa) is androgen ablation, which causes tumor regression by inhibiting activity of the androgen receptor (AR). Invariably, PCa recurs with a fatal androgen-refractory phenotype. Importantly, the growth of androgen-refractory PCa remains dependent on the AR through various mechanisms of aberrant AR activation. Here, we studied the 22Rv1 PCa cell line, which was derived from a CWR22 xenograft that relapsed during androgen ablation. Three AR isoforms are expressed in 22Rv1 cells: a full-length version with duplicated exon 3 and two truncated versions lacking the COOH terminal domain (CTD). We found that CTD-truncated AR isoforms are encoded by mRNAs that have a novel exon 2b at their 3' end. Functionally, these AR isoforms are constitutively active and promote the expression of endogenous AR-dependent genes, as well as the proliferation of 22Rv1 cells in a ligand-independent manner. AR mRNAs containing exon 2b and their protein products are expressed in commonly studied PCa cell lines. Moreover, exon 2b-derived species are enriched in xenograft-based models of therapy-resistant PCa. Together, our data describe a simple and effective mechanism by which PCa cells can synthesize a constitutively active AR and thus circumvent androgen ablation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Scott M Dehm
- Department of Urology and Biochemistry, Mayo Clinical College of Medicine, Rochester, Minnesota, USA.
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38
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Kaarbø M, Klokk TI, Saatcioglu F. Androgen signaling and its interactions with other signaling pathways in prostate cancer. Bioessays 2008; 29:1227-38. [PMID: 18008377 DOI: 10.1002/bies.20676] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Prostate cancer is the most frequently diagnosed non-skin cancer and the third leading cause of cancer mortality in men. In the initial stages, prostate cancer is dependent on androgens for growth, which is the basis for androgen ablation therapy. However, in most cases, prostate cancer progresses to a hormone refractory phenotype for which there is no effective therapy available at present. The androgen receptor (AR) is required for prostate cancer growth in all stages, including the relapsed, "androgen-independent" tumors in the presence of very low levels of androgens. This review focuses on AR function and AR-target genes and summarizes the major signaling pathways implicated in prostate cancer progression, their crosstalk with each other and with AR signaling. This complex network of interactions is providing a deeper insight into prostate carcinogenesis and may form the basis for novel diagnostic and therapeutic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mari Kaarbø
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of Oslo, Norway
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39
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Suh JH, Gong EY, Kim JB, Lee IK, Choi HS, Lee K. Sterol regulatory element-binding protein-1c represses the transactivation of androgen receptor and androgen-dependent growth of prostatic cells. Mol Cancer Res 2008; 6:314-24. [PMID: 18245227 DOI: 10.1158/1541-7786.mcr-07-0354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Sterol regulatory element-binding protein-1c (SREBP-1c) is a basic helix-loop-helix transcription factor that plays an important role in lipid homeostasis. Here, we show that SREBP-1c regulates androgen receptor (AR) transactivation through direct interaction with AR and represses androgen-dependent growth of prostatic cells. Transient transfection studies show that SREBP-1c specifically inhibits the transactivation of AR. Chromatin immunoprecipitation assays reveal that SREBP-1c is recruited with AR onto the endogenous AR target promoter. Moreover, adenovirus-mediated overexpression of SREBP-1c decreases the mRNA level of the prostate-specific antigen gene, an endogenous target gene of AR, supporting SREBP-1c modulation of AR transactivation. In vivo and in vitro protein interaction assays show that SREBP-1c directly interacts with AR through the activation function-1 domain of AR. In addition, transfection studies and glutathione S-transferase pull-down competition experiments reveal that the SREBP-1c-mediated repression of AR transactivation is accomplished through competition with certain AR coactivators for AR interaction. The SREBP-1c-mediated inhibition of AR transactivation also involves the recruitment of histone deacetylase 1. Finally, adenovirus-mediated overexpression of SREBP-1c inhibits androgen-induced proliferation of prostatic cells in vitro and in vivo, and small interfering RNA-mediated down-regulation of SREBP-1 enhances androgen-induced proliferation of prostatic cells as well as the transactivation of AR. Taken together, these results suggest that SREBP-1c acts as an AR corepressor and may play an important role in the regulation of AR-dependent prostatic cell growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ji Ho Suh
- Hormone Research Center, Chonnam National University, Gwangju, Republic of Korea
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40
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Tuo QH, Liang L, Zhu BY, Cao X, Liao DF. Effect of Daxx on cholesterol accumulation in hepatic cells. World J Gastroenterol 2008; 14:435-40. [PMID: 18200667 PMCID: PMC2679133 DOI: 10.3748/wjg.14.435] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
AIM: To study the effect of Daxx on cholesterol accumulation in hepatic cells.
METHODS: Sprague Dawley (SD) rats were fed a normal or high fat diet for 6 wk, and serum lipids and Daxx expression of hepatic tissues were measured by immunoblot assays. HepG2 cells were transfected with the pEGFP-C1/Daxx or pEGFP-C1 plasmid. Cells stably transfected with Daxx were identified by RT-PCR analysis. Total cholesterol levels were determined by high performance liquid chromatography. Activated-SREBP and caveolin-1 were assayed by western blotting.
RESULTS: Hepatic Daxx protein was higher in normal rats than in high fat diet-fed rats. Noticeable negative correlations were seen between Daxx and LDL-C (γ = -7.56, P = 0.018), and between Daxx and TC (γ = -9.07, P = 0.01), respectively. The total cholesterol of HepG2/GFP-Daxx cells was lower than that of control cells or HepG2/GFP cells (9.28 ± 0.19 vs 14.36 ± 4.45 or 13.94 ± 2.62, both P < 0.05). Furthermore, in HepG2/GFP cells, the expression of activated SREBP was lower than that of control cells, whereas caveolin-1 expression was higher.
CONCLUSION: Overexpression of Daxx in HepG2 cells decreased intracellular cholesterol accumulation, which might be associated with inhibition of SREBP activity and an increase in caveolin-1 expression.
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41
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Hsieh AC, Small EJ, Ryan CJ. Androgen-response elements in hormone-refractory prostate cancer: implications for treatment development. Lancet Oncol 2007; 8:933-9. [PMID: 17913662 DOI: 10.1016/s1470-2045(07)70316-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Many attempts have been made to derive genetic signatures for progressive prostate cancer for both prognostic and therapeutic purposes. These investigations have resulted in the discovery of many pathways, but the signatures exhibit heterogeneity and restricted reproducibility. A thorough and disciplined analysis of genes with androgen-response elements that are expressed in progressive, castration-resistant prostate cancer is an integral step towards the development of new therapeutic or diagnostic targets. We discuss the effects of bona-fide downstream targets of the androgen receptor on cellular proliferation, evasion of apoptosis, and angiogenesis, and consider the clinical potential of these targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew C Hsieh
- Department of Medicine, and UCSF Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California-San Francisco, 94143, USA.
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42
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Prescott J, Jariwala U, Jia L, Cogan JP, Barski A, Pregizer S, Shen HC, Arasheben A, Neilson JJ, Frenkel B, Coetzee GA. Androgen receptor-mediated repression of novel target genes. Prostate 2007; 67:1371-83. [PMID: 17624924 DOI: 10.1002/pros.20623] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The androgen receptor (AR) plays a pivotal role in prostate cancer (PCa) initiation and progression. To date, studies have focused disproportionately on androgen-stimulated genes such as prostate-specific antigen (PSA), while repressed genes have gained little attention, even though they too may be involved in regulating cell growth, differentiation, and apoptosis. METHODS ChIP Display was used to identify putative AR target genes in the ablation-resistant human PCa cell line, C4-2B. Quantitative real-time reverse transcription-PCR analysis was used to measure gene expression in cells subjected to dihydrotestosterone (DHT) timecourse and dose-response, as well as AR knock-down and bicalutamide-treatments. RESULTS We report on three genes, KIAA1217, CHRM1, and WBSCR28, which were newly identified in a screen for AR-occupied regions in C4-2B PCa cells, and which were repressed by treatment with DHT. AR knock-down resulted in increased KIAA1217, CHRM1, and WBSCR28 mRNA, indicating that, like PSA stimulation, AR represses these three genes even in the absence of added ligand. DHT decreased KIAA1217 and CHRM1 pre-mRNA levels, suggesting AR-mediated transcriptional inhibition. Cycloheximide attenuated DHT-mediated repression of CHRM1, suggesting the requirement of new protein synthesis. Furthermore, bicalutamide treatment did not mimic, but rather antagonized DHT-mediated KIAA1217 repression. Unlike the handful of androgen-repressed genes studied thus far, AR occupancy at KIAA1217, CHRM1, and WBSCR28 was mapped outside their respective 5'-promoter regions. CONCLUSIONS Many more genes likely share AR-mediated gene repression through distal regulatory elements. Further study of such targets and their transcriptional regulation may help explain the receptor's tumorigenicity in PCa.
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MESH Headings
- Androgen Antagonists/pharmacology
- Anilides/pharmacology
- Cell Line, Tumor
- Cycloheximide/pharmacology
- Dihydrotestosterone/pharmacology
- Gene Expression Regulation, Neoplastic
- Humans
- Male
- Nitriles/pharmacology
- Prostatic Neoplasms/genetics
- Prostatic Neoplasms/metabolism
- Protein Synthesis Inhibitors/pharmacology
- RNA, Messenger/biosynthesis
- RNA, Messenger/genetics
- RNA, Small Interfering/genetics
- Receptor, Muscarinic M1
- Receptors, Androgen/genetics
- Receptors, Androgen/metabolism
- Receptors, Androgen/physiology
- Receptors, Muscarinic/biosynthesis
- Receptors, Muscarinic/genetics
- Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction
- Tosyl Compounds/pharmacology
- Transfection
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer Prescott
- Department of Preventive Medicine, Norris Cancer Center, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, USA
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43
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Rice L, Handayani R, Cui Y, Medrano T, Samedi V, Baker H, Szabo NJ, Rosser CJ, Goodison S, Shiverick KT. Soy isoflavones exert differential effects on androgen responsive genes in LNCaP human prostate cancer cells. J Nutr 2007; 137:964-72. [PMID: 17374662 PMCID: PMC1975677 DOI: 10.1093/jn/137.4.964] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The high consumption of soy isoflavones in Asian diets has been correlated to a lower incidence of clinically important cases of prostate cancer. This study characterized the effects of a soy-derived isoflavone concentrate (ISF) on growth and gene expression profiles in the LNCaP, an androgen-sensitive human prostate cancer cell line. ISF caused a dose-dependent decrease in viability (P < 0.05) and DNA synthesis (P < 0.01), as well as an accumulation of cells in G(2)/M, and G(0)/G(1) phases of the cell cycle compared with controls. Using Affymetrix oligonucleotide DNA microarrays (U133A), we determined that ISF upregulated 80 genes and downregulated 33 genes (P < 0.05) involving androgen-regulated genes and pathways controlling cell cycle, metabolism, and intracellular trafficking. Changes in the expression of the genes of interest, identified by microarrays, were validated by Western immunoblot, Northern blot, and luciferase reporter assays. Prostate-specific antigen, homeobox protein NKX3, and cyclin B mRNA were significantly reduced, whereas mRNA was significantly upregulated for p21(CIP1), a major cell cycle inhibitory protein, and fatty acid and cholesterol synthesis pathway genes. ISF also significantly increased cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor p27(KIP1) and FOXO3A/FKHRL1, a forkhead transcription factor. A differential pattern of androgen-regulated genes was apparent with genes involved in prostate cancer progression being downregulated by ISF, whereas metabolism genes were upregulated. In summary, we found that ISF inhibits the growth of LNCaP cells through the modulation of cell cycle progression and the differential expression of androgen-regulated genes. Thus, ISF treatment serves to identify new therapeutic targets designed to prevent proliferation of malignant prostate cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lori Rice
- Department of Radiation Oncology, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA.
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44
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Creekmore AL, Ziegler YS, Bonéy JL, Nardulli AM. Estrogen receptor alpha regulates expression of the breast cancer 1 associated ring domain 1 (BARD1) gene through intronic DNA sequence. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2007; 267:106-15. [PMID: 17275994 PMCID: PMC1933484 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2007.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2006] [Revised: 01/05/2007] [Accepted: 01/05/2007] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
We have used a chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP)-based cloning strategy to isolate and identify genes associated with estrogen receptor alpha (ERalpha) in MCF-7 human breast cancer cells. One of the gene regions isolated was a 288bp fragment from the ninth intron of the breast cancer 1 associated ring domain (BARD1) gene. We demonstrated that ERalpha associated with this region of the endogenous BARD 1 gene in MCF-7 cells, that ERalpha bound to three of five ERE half sites located in the 288bp BARD1 region, and that this 288bp BARD1 region conferred estrogen responsiveness to a heterologous promoter. Importantly, treatment of MCF-7 cells with estrogen increased BARD1 mRNA and protein levels. These findings demonstrate that ChIP cloning strategies can be utilized to successfully isolate regulatory regions that are far removed from the transcription start site and assist in identifying cis elements involved in conferring estrogen responsiveness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy L Creekmore
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
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45
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Abstract
1. The link between cholesterol and cardiovascular disease is well-established. Emerging evidence is now forging a tantalizing link between cholesterol and cancer. 2. Results from a number of case-control studies have indicated that the commonly prescribed cholesterol-lowering drugs, the statins, may reduce the risk of certain cancers, although this area certainly remains controversial. 3. Herein, the recent literature examining statins and cancer is reviewed briefly and the relationship between a key cholesterol homeostatic pathway and signalling pathways that are involved in carcinogenesis is discussed. In particular, how the sterol-regulatory element binding protein, Akt and Hedgehog pathways may converge in cancer is reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew J Brown
- School of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.
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46
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Abstract
Androgens are critical regulators of prostate differentiation and function, as well as prostate cancer growth and survival. Therefore, androgen ablation is the preferred systemic treatment for disseminated prostate cancer. Androgen action is exerted in target tissues via binding the androgen receptor (AR), a nuclear receptor transcription factor. Historically, the gene expression program mediated by the AR has been poorly understood. However, recent gene expression profiling and more traditional single-gene characterization studies have revealed many androgen-regulated genes that are important mediators of androgen action in both normal and malignant prostate tissue. This review will focus on the androgen-regulated gene expression program, and examine how recently identified androgen-regulated genes are likely to contribute to the development and progression of prostate cancer. We will also summarize several recent studies that have attempted to unravel how these genes are deregulated in androgen depletion independent prostate cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Scott M Dehm
- Department of Urology, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Rochester, Minnesota 55905, USA
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47
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Carter CJ. Convergence of genes implicated in Alzheimer's disease on the cerebral cholesterol shuttle: APP, cholesterol, lipoproteins, and atherosclerosis. Neurochem Int 2006; 50:12-38. [PMID: 16973241 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuint.2006.07.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2006] [Revised: 06/30/2006] [Accepted: 07/11/2006] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Polymorphic genes associated with Alzheimer's disease (see ) delineate a clearly defined pathway related to cerebral and peripheral cholesterol and lipoprotein homoeostasis. They include all of the key components of a glia/neurone cholesterol shuttle including cholesterol binding lipoproteins APOA1, APOA4, APOC1, APOC2, APOC3, APOD, APOE and LPA, cholesterol transporters ABCA1, ABCA2, lipoprotein receptors LDLR, LRP1, LRP8 and VLDLR, and the cholesterol metabolising enzymes CYP46A1 and CH25H, whose oxysterol products activate the liver X receptor NR1H2 and are metabolised to esters by SOAT1. LIPA metabolises cholesterol esters, which are transported by the cholesteryl ester transport protein CETP. The transcription factor SREBF1 controls the expression of most enzymes of cholesterol synthesis. APP is involved in this shuttle as it metabolises cholesterol to 7-betahydroxycholesterol, a substrate of SOAT1 and HSD11B1, binds to APOE and is tethered to LRP1 via APPB1, APBB2 and APBB3 at the cytoplasmic domain and via LRPAP1 at the extracellular domain. APP cleavage products are also able to prevent cholesterol binding to APOE. BACE cleaves both APP and LRP1. Gamma-secretase (PSEN1, PSEN2, NCSTN) cleaves LRP1 and LRP8 as well as APP and their degradation products control transcription factor TFCP2, which regulates thymidylate synthase (TS) and GSK3B expression. GSK3B is known to phosphorylate the microtubule protein tau (MAPT). Dysfunction of this cascade, carved out by genes implicated in Alzheimer's disease, may play a major role in its pathology. Many other genes associated with Alzheimer's disease affect cholesterol or lipoprotein function and/or have also been implicated in atherosclerosis, a feature of Alzheimer's disease, and this duality may well explain the close links between vascular and cerebral pathology in Alzheimer's disease. The definition of many of these genes as risk factors is highly contested. However, when polymorphic susceptibility genes belong to the same signaling pathway, the risk associated with multigenic disease is better related to the integrated effects of multiple polymorphisms of genes within the same pathway than to variants in any single gene [Wu, X., Gu, J., Grossman, H.B., Amos, C.I., Etzel, C., Huang, M., Zhang, Q., Millikan, R.E., Lerner, S., Dinney, C.P., Spitz, M.R., 2006. Bladder cancer predisposition: a multigenic approach to DNA-repair and cell-cycle-control genes. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 78, 464-479.]. Thus, the fact that Alzheimer's disease susceptibility genes converge on a clearly defined signaling network has important implications for genetic association studies.
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW This review evaluates recent findings on the mechanisms by which lipogenic enzymes are upregulated or activated in cancer cells, the implications of increased lipogenesis for cancer cell biology and the feasibility of exploiting this pathway and its regulators as targets for antineoplastic intervention. RECENT FINDINGS The list of cancer types showing increased lipogenic enzyme expression keeps growing and further evidence is accumulating that growth factor signaling and particularly activation of the phosphatidylinositol 3'-kinase/protein kinase B pathway plays a role in this process. This signaling pathway stimulates lipogenic gene transcription through activation of the lipogenic transcription factor sterol regulatory element-binding protein-1 and directly activates lipogenic enzymes such as ATP-citrate lyase, linking the upregulation of lipogenesis in cancer cells to the well known tumor-associated increase in glycolysis. Steroid hormones, overexpression of the ubiquitin-specific protease-2a and mutations in breast cancer susceptibility gene 1 may further enhance lipid synthesis. While fatty acid synthase is further established as a target for antineoplastic intervention, recent findings show that interference with acetyl-CoA carboxylase-alpha, ATP citrate lyase or the AMP-activated protein kinase limits cancer cell proliferation and survival. SUMMARY The same disturbances in signaling pathways responsible for oncogenic transformation may also contribute to the increased lipogenesis observed in tumor cells. Increased lipogenesis involves modulation of multiple lipogenic enzymes at both transcriptional and posttranscriptional level and is linked to other cancer-associated metabolic changes. Not only fatty acid synthase, but in fact all key enzymes involved in fatty acid synthesis as well as key metabolic regulators are potential targets for antineoplastic intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johannes V Swinnen
- Laboratory for Experimental Medicine and Endocrinology, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Campus Gasthuisberg, Leuven, Belgium.
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Schirra F, Richards SM, Liu M, Suzuki T, Yamagami H, Sullivan DA. Androgen regulation of lipogenic pathways in the mouse meibomian gland. Exp Eye Res 2006; 83:291-6. [PMID: 16579987 DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2005.11.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2005] [Revised: 11/22/2005] [Accepted: 11/25/2005] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
We hypothesize that androgens regulate lipogenesis in the meibomian gland. To test this hypothesis, we sought to determine whether androgens increase the mRNA levels of key lipogenic enzymes involved in the synthesis of cholesterol and fatty acids. In addition, we examined whether androgens stimulate the expression of genes for sterol regulatory element binding proteins (SREBP) 1 and 2, which are transcription factors that play an important role in the coordinate regulation of lipogenic enzymes. Meibomian glands were obtained from castrated mice, that were treated with vehicle or testosterone for 2 weeks. Tissues were processed for the analysis of selected mRNAs by real-time PCR. Our results show that testosterone increases the mRNA levels of critical lipogenic enzymes, including those related to ATP-citrate lyase, acetyl-CoA-synthase, acetyl-CoA-carboxylase, acetoacetyl-CoA-synthase and 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl CoA synthase 1. Our findings also demonstrate that androgens upregulate the expression of genes encoding the transcription factors SREBPs 1 and 2. Our results indicate that androgens may control multiple aspects of lipogenesis in the meibomian gland.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frank Schirra
- Schepens Eye Research Institute and the Department of Ophthalmology, Harvard Medical School, 20 Staniford Street, Boston, MA 02114, USA
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Heemers HV, Verhoeven G, Swinnen JV. Androgen activation of the sterol regulatory element-binding protein pathway: Current insights. Mol Endocrinol 2006; 20:2265-77. [PMID: 16455816 DOI: 10.1210/me.2005-0479] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The cellular effects of androgens are mediated by a cognate receptor, the androgen receptor. Typically, the androgen receptor is viewed to exert its activity by binding to androgen response elements located in or near the promoter region of target genes, thereby directly affecting the expression of these genes. However, increasing evidence indicates that androgens may also indirectly influence the expression of genes that do not contain androgen response elements by modulating the activity of secondary transcription factors, mediating the expression of growth factors acting in a paracrine or autocrine fashion, or by inducing changes in the production of other hormones. These indirect effects of androgens can induce cascade-like actions and may play an important role in more complex processes involving coordinated responses of genes, cells, and organs. Previously, our laboratory has identified and characterized a novel indirect mechanism of androgen action involving proteolytical activation of the key lipogenic transcription factor sterol regulatory element-binding protein (SREBP), resulting in the coordinate up-regulation of entire cellular lipogenic pathways. Interestingly, activation of SREBPs by androgens occurs not only under normal physiological conditions but has also been observed in a growing number of pathologies, and more in particular in the setting of steroid-regulated cancers, where increased lipogenesis has been shown to have remarkable diagnostic and prognostic potential and is considered a prime target for novel therapeutic approaches. This review aims to analyze current insights into the molecular mechanism(s) underlying androgen activation of the SREBP pathway and to ascertain the extent to which this phenomenon can be generalized to androgen-responsive cell systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannelore V Heemers
- Laboratory for Experimental Medicine and Endocrinology, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Campus Gasthuisberg, Herestraat 49, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium
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