1
|
Lee CH, Saw JE, Chen EHL, Wang CH, Uchihashi T, Chen RPY. The Positively Charged Cluster in the N-terminal Disordered Region may Affect Prion Protein Misfolding: Cryo-EM Structure of Hamster PrP(23-144) Fibrils. J Mol Biol 2024; 436:168576. [PMID: 38641239 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2024.168576] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2024] [Revised: 04/09/2024] [Accepted: 04/12/2024] [Indexed: 04/21/2024]
Abstract
Prions, the misfolding form of prion proteins, are contagious proteinaceous macromolecules. Recent studies have shown that infectious prion fibrils formed in the brain and non-infectious fibrils formed from recombinant prion protein in a partially denaturing condition have distinct structures. The amyloid core of the in vitro-prepared non-infectious fibrils starts at about residue 160, while that of infectious prion fibrils formed in the brain involves a longer sequence (residues ∼90-230) of structural conversion. The C-terminal truncated prion protein PrP(23-144) can form infectious fibrils under certain conditions and cause disease in animals. In this study, we used cryogenic electron microscopy (cryo-EM) to resolve the structure of hamster sHaPrP(23-144) fibrils prepared at pH 3.7. This 2.88 Å cryo-EM structure has an amyloid core covering residues 94-144. It comprises two protofilaments, each containing five β-strands arranged as a long hairpin plus an N-terminal β-strand. This N-terminal β-strand resides in a positively charged cluster region (named PCC2; sequence 96-111), which interacts with the turn region of the opposite protofilaments' hairpin to stabilize the fibril structure. Interestingly, this sHaPrP(23-144) fibril structure differs from a recently reported structure formed by the human or mouse counterpart at pH 6.5. Moreover, sHaPrP(23-144) fibrils have many structural features in common with infectious prions. Whether this structure is infectious remains to be determined. More importantly, the sHaPrP(23-144) structure is different from the sHaPrP(108-144) fibrils prepared in the same fibrillization buffer, indicating that the N-terminal disordered region, possibly the positively charged cluster, influences the misfolding pathway of the prion protein.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chih-Hsuan Lee
- Institute of Biological Chemistry, Academia Sinica, No. 128, Sec. 2, Academia Rd, Nankang, Taipei 115, Taiwan
| | - Jing-Ee Saw
- Institute of Biological Chemistry, Academia Sinica, No. 128, Sec. 2, Academia Rd, Nankang, Taipei 115, Taiwan; Institute of Biochemical Sciences, National Taiwan University, No. 1, Sec. 4, Roosevelt Rd, Taipei 106, Taiwan
| | - Eric H-L Chen
- Institute of Biological Chemistry, Academia Sinica, No. 128, Sec. 2, Academia Rd, Nankang, Taipei 115, Taiwan
| | - Chun-Hsiung Wang
- Institute of Biological Chemistry, Academia Sinica, No. 128, Sec. 2, Academia Rd, Nankang, Taipei 115, Taiwan
| | - Takayuki Uchihashi
- Department of Physics, Nagoya University, Nagoya 464-8602, Japan; Institute for Glyco-core Research (iGCORE), Nagoya University, Nagoya 464-8602, Japan; Exploratory Research Center on Life and Living Systems (ExCELLS), National Institutes of Natural Sciences, Okazaki, Aichi 444-8787, Japan
| | - Rita P-Y Chen
- Institute of Biological Chemistry, Academia Sinica, No. 128, Sec. 2, Academia Rd, Nankang, Taipei 115, Taiwan; Institute of Biochemical Sciences, National Taiwan University, No. 1, Sec. 4, Roosevelt Rd, Taipei 106, Taiwan; Neuroscience Program of Academia Sinica, Academia Sinica, No. 128, Sec. 2, Academia Rd, Nankang, Taipei 115, Taiwan.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Litberg TJ, Horowitz S. Roles of Nucleic Acids in Protein Folding, Aggregation, and Disease. ACS Chem Biol 2024; 19:809-823. [PMID: 38477936 PMCID: PMC11149768 DOI: 10.1021/acschembio.3c00695] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/14/2024]
Abstract
The role of nucleic acids in protein folding and aggregation is an area of continued research, with relevance to understanding both basic biological processes and disease. In this review, we provide an overview of the trajectory of research on both nucleic acids as chaperones and their roles in several protein misfolding diseases. We highlight key questions that remain on the biophysical and biochemical specifics of how nucleic acids have large effects on multiple proteins' folding and aggregation behavior and how this pertains to multiple protein misfolding diseases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Theodore J. Litberg
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry and The Knoebel Institute for Healthy Aging, University of Denver, Denver, CO, 80208, USA
- Department of Pharmacology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL, 60611, USA
- Center for Synthetic Biology, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
| | - Scott Horowitz
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry and The Knoebel Institute for Healthy Aging, University of Denver, Denver, CO, 80208, USA
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Bridges LR. RNA as a component of scrapie fibrils. Sci Rep 2024; 14:5011. [PMID: 38424114 PMCID: PMC10904389 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-55278-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2023] [Accepted: 02/22/2024] [Indexed: 03/02/2024] Open
Abstract
Recently, electron cryo-microscopy (cryo-EM) maps of fibrils from the brains of mice and hamsters with five infectious scrapie strains have been published and deposited in the electron microscopy data bank (EMDB). As noted by the primary authors, the fibrils contain a second component other than protein. The aim of the present study was to identify the nature of this second component in the published maps using an in silico approach. Extra densities (EDs) containing this component were continuous, straight, axial, at right angles to protein rungs and within hydrogen-bonding distance of protein, consistent with a structural role. EDs co-located with strips of basic residues, notably lysines, and formed a conspicuous cladding over parts of the N-terminal lobe of the protein. A Y-shaped polymer consistent with RNA was found, in places forming a single chain and at one location forming a duplex, comprising two antiparallel chains, and raising the intriguing possibility of replicative behaviour. To reflect the monotonous nature of the protein interface, it is suggested that the RNA may be a short tandem repeat. Fibrils from brains of patients with Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and other neurodegenerations also contain EDs and may be of a similar aetiology.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Leslie R Bridges
- Neuropathology, Cellular Pathology, South West London Pathology, St George's Hospital, St George's University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK.
- Molecular and Clinical Sciences Research Institute, St George's University of London, London, UK.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Chang SC, Hannaoui S, Arifin MI, Huang YH, Tang X, Wille H, Gilch S. Propagation of PrP Sc in mice reveals impact of aggregate composition on prion disease pathogenesis. Commun Biol 2023; 6:1162. [PMID: 37964018 PMCID: PMC10645910 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-023-05541-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2022] [Accepted: 11/03/2023] [Indexed: 11/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Infectious prions consist of PrPSc, a misfolded, aggregation-prone isoform of the host's prion protein. PrPSc assemblies encode distinct biochemical and biological properties. They harbor a specific profile of PrPSc species, from small oligomers to fibrils in different ratios, where the highest infectivity aligns with oligomeric particles. To investigate the impact of PrPSc aggregate complexity on prion propagation, biochemical properties, and disease pathogenesis, we fractionated elk prions by sedimentation velocity centrifugation, followed by sub-passages of individual fractions in cervidized mice. Upon first passage, different fractions generated PrPSc with distinct biochemical, biophysical, and neuropathological profiles. Notably, low or high molecular weight PrPSc aggregates caused different clinical signs of hyperexcitability or lethargy, respectively, which were retained over passage, whereas other properties converged. Our findings suggest that PrPSc quaternary structure determines an initial selection of a specific replication environment, resulting in transmissible features that are independent of PrPSc biochemical and biophysical properties.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sheng Chun Chang
- Department of Comparative Biology and Experimental Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Samia Hannaoui
- Department of Comparative Biology and Experimental Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Maria Immaculata Arifin
- Department of Comparative Biology and Experimental Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Yuan-Hung Huang
- Department of Comparative Biology and Experimental Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Xinli Tang
- Department of Biochemistry, Center for Prions and Protein Folding Diseases, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
| | - Holger Wille
- Department of Biochemistry, Center for Prions and Protein Folding Diseases, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
- Neuroscience and Mental Health Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
| | - Sabine Gilch
- Department of Comparative Biology and Experimental Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada.
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Bridges LR. Replicating RNA as a component of scrapie fibrils. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.08.17.553578. [PMID: 37645951 PMCID: PMC10462133 DOI: 10.1101/2023.08.17.553578] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/31/2023]
Abstract
Recently, electron cryo-microscopy (cryo-EM) maps of fibrils from the brains of mice and hamsters with five infectious scrapie strains have been published1-5 and deposited in the electron microscopy data bank (EMDB)6. This represents long-awaited near-atomic level structural evidence, widely expected to confirm the protein-only prion hypothesis7,8. Instead, the maps reveal a second component, other than protein. The aim of the present study was to identify the nature of this second component, in the published maps1-5, using an in silico approach. Extra densities (EDs) containing this component were continuous, straight, axial, at right angles to protein rungs and within hydrogen-bonding distance of protein, consistent with a role as guide and support in fibril construction. EDs co-located with strips of basic residues, notably lysines, and formed a conspicuous cladding over parts of the N-terminal lobe of the protein. In one ED, there was evidence of a Y-shaped polymer forming two antiparallel chains, consistent with replicating RNA. Although the protein-only prion hypothesis7 is still popular, convincing counter-evidence for an essential role of RNA as a cofactor has amassed in the last 20 years8. The present findings go beyond this in providing evidence for RNA as the genetic element of scrapie. To reflect the monotonous nature of the protein interface, it is suggested that the RNA may be a tandem repeat. This is against the protein-only prion hypothesis and in favour of a more orthodox agent, more akin to a virus. Fibrils from brains of patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and other neurodegenerations also contain EDs9 and may be of a similar aetiology.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Leslie R Bridges
- Neuropathology, Cellular Pathology, South West London Pathology, St George's Hospital, St George's University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK and Molecular and Clinical Sciences Research Institute, St George's University of London, London, UK
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Alves Conceição C, Assis de Lemos G, Barros CA, Vieira TCRG. What is the role of lipids in prion conversion and disease? Front Mol Neurosci 2023; 15:1032541. [PMID: 36704327 PMCID: PMC9871914 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2022.1032541] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2022] [Accepted: 12/19/2022] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
The molecular cause of transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs) involves the conversion of the cellular prion protein (PrPC) into its pathogenic form, called prion scrapie (PrPSc), which is prone to the formation of amorphous and amyloid aggregates found in TSE patients. Although the mechanisms of conversion of PrPC into PrPSc are not entirely understood, two key points are currently accepted: (i) PrPSc acts as a seed for the recruitment of native PrPC, inducing the latter's conversion to PrPSc; and (ii) other biomolecules, such as DNA, RNA, or lipids, can act as cofactors, mediating the conversion from PrPC to PrPSc. Interestingly, PrPC is anchored by a glycosylphosphatidylinositol molecule in the outer cell membrane. Therefore, interactions with lipid membranes or alterations in the membranes themselves have been widely investigated as possible factors for conversion. Alone or in combination with RNA molecules, lipids can induce the formation of PrP in vitro-produced aggregates capable of infecting animal models. Here, we discuss the role of lipids in prion conversion and infectivity, highlighting the structural and cytotoxic aspects of lipid-prion interactions. Strikingly, disorders like Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease also seem to be caused by changes in protein structure and share pathogenic mechanisms with TSEs. Thus, we posit that comprehending the process of PrP conversion is relevant to understanding critical events involved in a variety of neurodegenerative disorders and will contribute to developing future therapeutic strategies for these devastating conditions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Cyntia Alves Conceição
- Institute of Medical Biochemistry Leopoldo de Meis, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil,National Institute of Science and Technology for Structural Biology and Bioimaging, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Gabriela Assis de Lemos
- Institute of Medical Biochemistry Leopoldo de Meis, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil,National Institute of Science and Technology for Structural Biology and Bioimaging, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Caroline Augusto Barros
- Institute of Medical Biochemistry Leopoldo de Meis, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil,National Institute of Science and Technology for Structural Biology and Bioimaging, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Tuane C. R. G. Vieira
- Institute of Medical Biochemistry Leopoldo de Meis, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil,National Institute of Science and Technology for Structural Biology and Bioimaging, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil,*Correspondence: Tuane C. R. G. Vieira, ✉
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Artikis E, Kraus A, Caughey B. Structural biology of ex vivo mammalian prions. J Biol Chem 2022; 298:102181. [PMID: 35752366 PMCID: PMC9293645 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2022.102181] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2022] [Revised: 06/16/2022] [Accepted: 06/19/2022] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
The structures of prion protein (PrP)–based mammalian prions have long been elusive. However, cryo-EM has begun to reveal the near-atomic resolution structures of fully infectious ex vivo mammalian prion fibrils as well as relatively innocuous synthetic PrP amyloids. Comparisons of these various types of PrP fibrils are now providing initial clues to structural features that correlate with pathogenicity. As first indicated by electron paramagnetic resonance and solid-state NMR studies of synthetic amyloids, all sufficiently resolved PrP fibrils of any sort (n > 10) have parallel in-register intermolecular β-stack architectures. Cryo-EM has shown that infectious brain-derived prion fibrils of the rodent-adapted 263K and RML scrapie strains have much larger ordered cores than the synthetic fibrils. These bona fide prion strains share major structural motifs, but the conformational details and the overall shape of the fibril cross sections differ markedly. Such motif variations, as well as differences in sequence within the ordered polypeptide cores, likely contribute to strain-dependent templating. When present, N-linked glycans and glycophosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchors project outward from the fibril surface. For the mouse RML strain, these posttranslational modifications have little effect on the core structure. In the GPI-anchored prion structures, a linear array of GPI anchors along the twisting fibril axis appears likely to bind membranes in vivo, and as such, may account for pathognomonic membrane distortions seen in prion diseases. In this review, we focus on these infectious prion structures and their implications regarding prion replication mechanisms, strains, transmission barriers, and molecular pathogenesis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Efrosini Artikis
- Laboratory of Persistent Viral Diseases, Rocky Mountain Laboratories, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, MT 59840 USA
| | - Allison Kraus
- Department of Pathology, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA.
| | - Byron Caughey
- Laboratory of Persistent Viral Diseases, Rocky Mountain Laboratories, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, MT 59840 USA.
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Zwierzchowski-Zarate AN, Mendoza-Oliva A, Kashmer OM, Collazo-Lopez JE, White CL, Diamond MI. RNA induces unique tau strains and stabilizes Alzheimer's disease seeds. J Biol Chem 2022; 298:102132. [PMID: 35700826 PMCID: PMC9364032 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2022.102132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2022] [Revised: 06/08/2022] [Accepted: 06/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Tau aggregation underlies neurodegenerative tauopathies, and trans-cellular propagation of tau assemblies of unique structure, i.e. strains, may underlie the diversity of these disorders. Polyanions have been reported to induce tau aggregation in vitro, but the precise trigger to convert tau from an inert to a seed-competent form in disease states is unknown. RNA triggers tau fibril formation in vitro and has been observed to associate with neurofibrillary tangles in human brain. Here we have tested whether RNA exerts sequence-specific effects on tau assembly and strain formation. We found that three RNA homopolymers, polyA, polyU, and polyC, all bound tau, but only polyA RNA triggered seed and fibril formation. In addition, polyA:tau seeds and fibrils were sensitive to RNase. We also observed that the origin of the RNA influenced the ability of tau to adopt a structure that would form stable strains. Human RNA potently induced tau seed formation and created tau conformations that preferentially formed stable strains in a HEK293T cell model, whereas RNA from other sources, or heparin, produced strains that were not stably maintained in cultured cells. Finally, we found that soluble, but not insoluble seeds from Alzheimer's disease (AD) brain were also sensitive to RNase. We conclude that human RNA specifically induces formation of stable tau strains, and may trigger the formation of dominant pathological assemblies that propagate in AD, and possibly other tauopathies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Amy N Zwierzchowski-Zarate
- Center for Alzheimer's and Neurodegenerative Diseases, Peter O'Donnell Jr. Brain Institute, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX USA
| | - Aydé Mendoza-Oliva
- Center for Alzheimer's and Neurodegenerative Diseases, Peter O'Donnell Jr. Brain Institute, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX USA
| | - Omar M Kashmer
- Center for Alzheimer's and Neurodegenerative Diseases, Peter O'Donnell Jr. Brain Institute, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX USA
| | - Josue E Collazo-Lopez
- Center for Alzheimer's and Neurodegenerative Diseases, Peter O'Donnell Jr. Brain Institute, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX USA
| | - Charles L White
- Center for Alzheimer's and Neurodegenerative Diseases, Peter O'Donnell Jr. Brain Institute, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX USA
| | - Marc I Diamond
- Center for Alzheimer's and Neurodegenerative Diseases, Peter O'Donnell Jr. Brain Institute, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX USA.
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Teruya K, Doh-Ura K. Therapeutic development of polymers for prion disease. Cell Tissue Res 2022; 392:349-365. [PMID: 35307792 DOI: 10.1007/s00441-022-03604-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2021] [Accepted: 02/24/2022] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Prion diseases, also known as transmissible spongiform encephalopathies, are caused by the accumulation of abnormal isoforms of the prion protein (scrapie isoform of the prion protein, PrPSc) in the central nervous system. Many compounds with anti-prion activities have been found using in silico screening, in vitro models, persistently prion-infected cell models, and prion-infected rodent models. Some of these compounds include several types of polymers. Although the inhibition or removal of PrPSc production is the main target of therapy, the unique features of prions, namely protein aggregation and assembly accompanied by steric structural transformation, may require different strategies for the development of anti-prion drugs than those for conventional therapeutics targeting enzyme inhibition, agonist ligands, or modulation of signaling. In this paper, we first overview the history of the application of polymers to prion disease research. Next, we describe the characteristics of each type of polymer with anti-prion activity. Finally, we discuss the common features of these polymers. Although drug delivery of these polymers to the brain is a challenge, they are useful not only as leads for therapeutic drugs but also as tools to explore the structure of PrPSc and are indispensable for prion disease research.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kenta Teruya
- Department of Neurochemistry, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Seiryo-cho, Aoba-ku, Sendai, 980-8575, Japan
| | - Katsumi Doh-Ura
- Department of Neurochemistry, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Seiryo-cho, Aoba-ku, Sendai, 980-8575, Japan.
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Hochmair J, Exner C, Franck M, Dominguez-Baquero A, Diez L, Brognaro H, Kraushar ML, Mielke T, Radbruch H, Kaniyappan S, Falke S, Mandelkow E, Betzel C, Wegmann S. Molecular crowding and RNA synergize to promote phase separation, microtubule interaction, and seeding of Tau condensates. EMBO J 2022; 41:e108882. [PMID: 35298090 PMCID: PMC9156969 DOI: 10.15252/embj.2021108882] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2021] [Revised: 02/09/2022] [Accepted: 02/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Biomolecular condensation of the neuronal microtubule‐associated protein Tau (MAPT) can be induced by coacervation with polyanions like RNA, or by molecular crowding. Tau condensates have been linked to both functional microtubule binding and pathological aggregation in neurodegenerative diseases. We find that molecular crowding and coacervation with RNA, two conditions likely coexisting in the cytosol, synergize to enable Tau condensation at physiological buffer conditions and to produce condensates with a strong affinity to charged surfaces. During condensate‐mediated microtubule polymerization, their synergy enhances bundling and spatial arrangement of microtubules. We further show that different Tau condensates efficiently induce pathological Tau aggregates in cells, including accumulations at the nuclear envelope that correlate with nucleocytoplasmic transport deficits. Fluorescent lifetime imaging reveals different molecular packing densities of Tau in cellular accumulations and a condensate‐like density for nuclear‐envelope Tau. These findings suggest that a complex interplay between interaction partners, post‐translational modifications, and molecular crowding regulates the formation and function of Tau condensates. Conditions leading to prolonged existence of Tau condensates may induce the formation of seeding‐competent Tau and lead to distinct cellular Tau accumulations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Janine Hochmair
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Berlin, Germany
| | - Christian Exner
- Institute for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Laboratory for Structural Biology of Infection and Inflammation, University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Maximilian Franck
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Berlin, Germany
| | | | - Lisa Diez
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Berlin, Germany
| | - Hévila Brognaro
- Institute for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Laboratory for Structural Biology of Infection and Inflammation, University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
| | | | - Thorsten Mielke
- Max Planck Institute for Molecular Genetics (MOLGEN), Berlin, Germany
| | - Helena Radbruch
- Institute for Neuropathology, Charité Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Senthil Kaniyappan
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Bonn, Germany.,Department of Neurodegenerative Diseases and Geriatric Psychiatry, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Sven Falke
- Institute for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Laboratory for Structural Biology of Infection and Inflammation, University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Eckhard Mandelkow
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Bonn, Germany.,Department of Neurodegenerative Diseases and Geriatric Psychiatry, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Christian Betzel
- Institute for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Laboratory for Structural Biology of Infection and Inflammation, University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Susanne Wegmann
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Berlin, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Tandon A, Subramani VK, Kim KK, Park SH. Interaction of Prion Peptides with DNA Structures. ACS OMEGA 2022; 7:176-186. [PMID: 35036689 PMCID: PMC8756453 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.1c04328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2021] [Accepted: 11/09/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Prion protein aggregation is known to be modulated by macromolecules including nucleic acids. To clarify the role of nucleic acids in PrP pathology, we investigated the interaction between nucleic acids and the prion peptide (PrP)-a synthetic prion protein model peptide resembling a portion of the human prion protein in structure and function spanning amino acid residues 106-126. We used synthetic DNA lattices and natural DNA duplexes extracted from salmon (sDNA) bound with PrP and studied their interaction using distinct physical measurements. The formation of DNA lattices with PrP was visualized by atomic force microscopy (AFM) to investigate the influence of the PrP. PrP inhibited the growth of the double-crossover (DX) lattices significantly compared to the control peptide (CoP). We also conducted optical measurements such as ultraviolet-visible (UV-Vis), circular dichroism (CD), and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopies to validate the interaction between PrP and DNA immediately (D0) and after a 30-day incubation (D30) period. UV-Vis spectra showed variation in the absorbance intensities, specific for the binding of CoP and PrP to DNA. The CD analysis revealed the presence of various secondary structures, such as α-helices and β-sheets, in PrP- and PrP-bound sDNA complexes. The PrP-sDNA interaction was confirmed using FTIR by the change and shift of the absorption peak intensity and the alteration of PrP secondary structures in the presence of DNA. The cytotoxic effects of the PrP-bound sDNA complexes were assessed by a cytotoxicity assay in human neuroblastoma cells in culture. It confirmed that PrP with sDNA was less cytotoxic than CoP. This study provides new applications for DNA molecules by investigating their effect in complex with aggregated proteins. Our study unequivocally showed the beneficial effect of the interaction between DNA and the pathological prion protein. It therefore provides valuable information to exploit this effect in the development of potential therapeutics. Moreover, our work might serve as a basis for further studies investigating the role of DNA interactions with other amyloidogenic proteins.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anshula Tandon
- Department
of Physics, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon 16419, Korea
- Sungkyunkwan
Advanced Institute of Nanotechnology (SAINT), Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon 16419, Korea
| | - Vinod Kumar Subramani
- Department
of Precision Medicine, School of Medicine, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon 16419, Korea
| | - Kyeong Kyu Kim
- Sungkyunkwan
Advanced Institute of Nanotechnology (SAINT), Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon 16419, Korea
- Department
of Precision Medicine, School of Medicine, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon 16419, Korea
| | - Sung Ha Park
- Department
of Physics, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon 16419, Korea
- Sungkyunkwan
Advanced Institute of Nanotechnology (SAINT), Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon 16419, Korea
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Supattapone S. Cofactor molecules: Essential partners for infectious prions. PROGRESS IN MOLECULAR BIOLOGY AND TRANSLATIONAL SCIENCE 2020; 175:53-75. [PMID: 32958241 DOI: 10.1016/bs.pmbts.2020.07.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
The protein-only hypothesis predicts that infectious mammalian prions are composed solely of PrPSc, a misfolded conformer of the normal prion protein, PrPC. However, to date, all wild type protein-only PrPSc preparations lack significant levels of prion infectivity. Using a systemic biochemical approach, our laboratory isolated and identified two different endogenous cofactor molecules, RNA (Deleault et al., 2003 [50]; Deleault et al., 2007 [59]) and phosphatidylethanolamine (Deleault et al., 2012 [61]; Deleault et al., 2012 [18]), which facilitate the formation of prions with high levels of specific infectivity, leading us to propose to the alternative hypothesis that cofactor molecules are required to form wild type infectious prions (Deleault et al., 2007 [59]; Deleault et al., 2012 [18]; Geoghegan et al., 2007 [57]). In addition, we found that purified cofactor molecules restrict the strain properties of chemically defined infectious prions (Deleault et al., 2012 [18]), suggesting a "cofactor selection" model in which natural variation in the distribution of strain-specific cofactor molecules in different parts of the brain may be responsible for strain-dependent patterns of neurotropism (Deleault et al., 2012 [18]; Geoghegan et al., 2007 [57]).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Surachai Supattapone
- Department of Biochemistry and Cell Biology and Department of Medicine, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH, United States.
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Frenkel-Pinter M, Samanta M, Ashkenasy G, Leman LJ. Prebiotic Peptides: Molecular Hubs in the Origin of Life. Chem Rev 2020; 120:4707-4765. [PMID: 32101414 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.9b00664] [Citation(s) in RCA: 148] [Impact Index Per Article: 37.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The fundamental roles that peptides and proteins play in today's biology makes it almost indisputable that peptides were key players in the origin of life. Insofar as it is appropriate to extrapolate back from extant biology to the prebiotic world, one must acknowledge the critical importance that interconnected molecular networks, likely with peptides as key components, would have played in life's origin. In this review, we summarize chemical processes involving peptides that could have contributed to early chemical evolution, with an emphasis on molecular interactions between peptides and other classes of organic molecules. We first summarize mechanisms by which amino acids and similar building blocks could have been produced and elaborated into proto-peptides. Next, non-covalent interactions of peptides with other peptides as well as with nucleic acids, lipids, carbohydrates, metal ions, and aromatic molecules are discussed in relation to the possible roles of such interactions in chemical evolution of structure and function. Finally, we describe research involving structural alternatives to peptides and covalent adducts between amino acids/peptides and other classes of molecules. We propose that ample future breakthroughs in origin-of-life chemistry will stem from investigations of interconnected chemical systems in which synergistic interactions between different classes of molecules emerge.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Moran Frenkel-Pinter
- NSF/NASA Center for Chemical Evolution, https://centerforchemicalevolution.com/.,School of Chemistry & Biochemistry, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332, United States
| | - Mousumi Samanta
- Department of Chemistry, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer Sheva 84105, Israel
| | - Gonen Ashkenasy
- Department of Chemistry, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer Sheva 84105, Israel
| | - Luke J Leman
- NSF/NASA Center for Chemical Evolution, https://centerforchemicalevolution.com/.,Department of Chemistry, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California 92037, United States
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Hackl S, Becker CFW. Prion protein-Semisynthetic prion protein (PrP) variants with posttranslational modifications. J Pept Sci 2019; 25:e3216. [PMID: 31713950 PMCID: PMC6899880 DOI: 10.1002/psc.3216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2019] [Revised: 08/23/2019] [Accepted: 08/23/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Deciphering the pathophysiologic events in prion diseases is challenging, and the role of posttranslational modifications (PTMs) such as glypidation and glycosylation remains elusive due to the lack of homogeneous protein preparations. So far, experimental studies have been limited in directly analyzing the earliest events of the conformational change of cellular prion protein (PrPC ) into scrapie prion protein (PrPSc ) that further propagates PrPC misfolding and aggregation at the cellular membrane, the initial site of prion infection, and PrP misfolding, by a lack of suitably modified PrP variants. PTMs of PrP, especially attachment of the glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchor, have been shown to be crucially involved in the PrPSc formation. To this end, semisynthesis offers a unique possibility to understand PrP behavior invitro and invivo as it provides access to defined site-selectively modified PrP variants. This approach relies on the production and chemoselective linkage of peptide segments, amenable to chemical modifications, with recombinantly produced protein segments. In this article, advances in understanding PrP conversion using semisynthesis as a tool to obtain homogeneous posttranslationally modified PrP will be discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Stefanie Hackl
- University of Vienna, Faculty of Chemistry, Institute of Biological Chemistry, Vienna, Austria
| | - Christian F W Becker
- University of Vienna, Faculty of Chemistry, Institute of Biological Chemistry, Vienna, Austria
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Modulation of p53 and prion protein aggregation by RNA. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-PROTEINS AND PROTEOMICS 2019; 1867:933-940. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbapap.2019.02.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2019] [Revised: 02/19/2019] [Accepted: 02/25/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
|
16
|
Abstract
The cellular prion protein, PrPC, is a small, cell surface glycoprotein with a function that is currently somewhat ill defined. It is also the key molecule involved in the family of neurodegenerative disorders called transmissible spongiform encephalopathies, which are also known as prion diseases. The misfolding of PrPC to a conformationally altered isoform, designated PrPTSE, is the main molecular process involved in pathogenesis and appears to precede many other pathologic and clinical manifestations of disease, including neuronal loss, astrogliosis, and cognitive loss. PrPTSE is also believed to be the major component of the infectious "prion," the agent responsible for disease transmission, and preparations of this protein can cause prion disease when inoculated into a naïve host. Thus, understanding the biochemical and biophysical properties of both PrPC and PrPTSE, and ultimately the mechanisms of their interconversion, is critical if we are to understand prion disease biology. Although entire books could be devoted to research pertaining to the protein, herein we briefly review the state of knowledge of prion biochemistry, including consideration of prion protein structure, function, misfolding, and dysfunction.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Andrew C Gill
- School of Chemistry, Joseph Banks Laboratories, University of Lincoln, Lincoln, United Kingdom; Division of Neurobiology, The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom.
| | - Andrew R Castle
- Division of Neurobiology, The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Makarava N, Savtchenko R, Lasch P, Beekes M, Baskakov IV. Preserving prion strain identity upon replication of prions in vitro using recombinant prion protein. Acta Neuropathol Commun 2018; 6:92. [PMID: 30208966 PMCID: PMC6134792 DOI: 10.1186/s40478-018-0597-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2018] [Accepted: 09/06/2018] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Last decade witnessed an enormous progress in generating authentic infectious prions or PrPSc in vitro using recombinant prion protein (rPrP). Previous work established that rPrP that lacks posttranslational modification is able to support replication of highly infectious PrPSc with assistance of cofactors of polyanionic nature and/or lipids. Unexpectedly, previous studies also revealed that seeding of rPrP by brain-derived PrPSc gave rise to new prion strains with new disease phenotypes documenting loss of a strain identity upon replication in rPrP substrate. Up to now, it remains unclear whether prion strain identity can be preserved upon replication in rPrP. The current study reports that faithful replication of hamster strain SSLOW could be achieved in vitro using rPrP as a substrate. We found that a mixture of phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) and synthetic nucleic acid polyA was sufficient for stable replication of hamster brain-derived SSLOW PrPSc in serial Protein Misfolding Cyclic Amplification (sPMCA) that uses hamster rPrP as a substrate. The disease phenotype generated in hamsters upon transmission of recombinant PrPSc produced in vitro was strikingly similar to the original SSLOW diseases phenotype with respect to the incubation time to disease, as well as clinical, neuropathological and biochemical features. Infrared microspectroscopy (IR-MSP) indicated that PrPSc produced in animals upon transmission of recombinant PrPSc is structurally similar if not identical to the original SSLOW PrPSc. The current study is the first to demonstrate that rPrP can support replication of brain-derived PrPSc while preserving its strain identity. In addition, the current work is the first to document that successful propagation of a hamster strain could be achieved in vitro using hamster rPrP.
Collapse
|
18
|
Katorcha E, Gonzalez-Montalban N, Makarava N, Kovacs GG, Baskakov IV. Prion replication environment defines the fate of prion strain adaptation. PLoS Pathog 2018; 14:e1007093. [PMID: 29928047 PMCID: PMC6013019 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1007093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2018] [Accepted: 05/14/2018] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The main risk of emergence of prion diseases in humans is associated with a cross-species transmission of prions of zoonotic origin. Prion transmission between species is regulated by a species barrier. Successful cross-species transmission is often accompanied by strain adaptation and result in stable changes of strain-specific disease phenotype. Amino acid sequences of host PrPC and donor PrPSc as well as strain-specific structure of PrPSc are believed to be the main factors that control species barrier and strain adaptation. Yet, despite our knowledge of the primary structures of mammalian prions, predicting the fate of prion strain adaptation is very difficult if possible at all. The current study asked the question whether changes in cofactor environment affect the fate of prions adaptation. To address this question, hamster strain 263K was propagated under normal or RNA-depleted conditions using serial Protein Misfolding Cyclic Amplification (PMCA) conducted first in mouse and then hamster substrates. We found that 263K propagated under normal conditions in mouse and then hamster substrates induced the disease phenotype similar to the original 263K. Surprisingly, 263K that propagated first in RNA-depleted mouse substrate and then normal hamster substrate produced a new disease phenotype upon serial transmission. Moreover, 263K that propagated in RNA-depleted mouse and then RNA-depleted hamster substrates failed to induce clinical diseases for three serial passages despite a gradual increase of PrPSc in animals. To summarize, depletion of RNA in prion replication reactions changed the rate of strain adaptation and the disease phenotype upon subsequent serial passaging of PMCA-derived materials in animals. The current studies suggest that replication environment plays an important role in determining the fate of prion strain adaptation. The main risk of emergence of prion diseases in humans is associated with a cross-species transmission of prions of zoonotic origin. Prion transmission between species is regulated by a species barrier. Amino acid sequences of host prion protein and donor prions are believed to be the main factors that control species barrier and strain adaptation. Yet, despite our knowledge of the primary structures of mammalian prions, predicting the fate of prion strain adaptation is very difficult. The current study asked the question whether changes in cofactor environment affect the fate of prions adaptation. To address this question, hamster prion strain was propagated under normal or RNA-depleted conditions in vitro first using mouse and then hamster substrates. This work demonstrated that depletion of RNA in prion replication reactions changed the rate of strain adaptation and the disease phenotype upon subsequent serial passaging in animals. The current studies suggest that replication environment plays an important role in determining the fate of prion strain adaptation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Elizaveta Katorcha
- Center for Biomedical Engineering and Technology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Nuria Gonzalez-Montalban
- Center for Biomedical Engineering and Technology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Natallia Makarava
- Center for Biomedical Engineering and Technology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Gabor G. Kovacs
- Institute of Neurology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Ilia V. Baskakov
- Center for Biomedical Engineering and Technology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Legname G, Virgilio T, Bistaffa E, De Luca CMG, Catania M, Zago P, Isopi E, Campagnani I, Tagliavini F, Giaccone G, Moda F. Effects of peptidyl-prolyl isomerase 1 depletion in animal models of prion diseases. Prion 2018; 12:127-137. [PMID: 29676205 DOI: 10.1080/19336896.2018.1464367] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Pin1 is a peptidyl-prolyl isomerase that induces the cis-trans conversion of specific Ser/Thr-Pro peptide bonds in phosphorylated proteins, leading to conformational changes through which Pin1 regulates protein stability and activity. Since down-regulation of Pin1 has been described in several neurodegenerative disorders, including Alzheimer's Disease (AD), Parkinson's Disease (PD) and Huntington's Disease (HD), we investigated its potential role in prion diseases. Animals generated on wild-type (Pin1+/+), hemizygous (Pin1+/-) or knock-out (Pin1-/-) background for Pin1 were experimentally infected with RML prions. The study indicates that, neither the total depletion nor reduced levels of Pin1 significantly altered the clinical and neuropathological features of the disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Giuseppe Legname
- a Laboratory of Prion Biology, Department of Neuroscience , Scuola Internazionale Superiore di Studi Avanzati (SISSA) , Trieste , Italy.,c ELETTRA Laboratory , Sincrotrone Trieste S.C.p.A , Basovizza, Trieste , Italy
| | - Tommaso Virgilio
- b Unit of Neuropathology and Neurology 5 , IRCCS Foundation Carlo Besta Neurological Institute , Milano , Italy.,d Institute for Research in Biomedicine, Università della Svizzera Italiana , Bellinzona , Switzerland
| | - Edoardo Bistaffa
- a Laboratory of Prion Biology, Department of Neuroscience , Scuola Internazionale Superiore di Studi Avanzati (SISSA) , Trieste , Italy.,b Unit of Neuropathology and Neurology 5 , IRCCS Foundation Carlo Besta Neurological Institute , Milano , Italy
| | - Chiara Maria Giulia De Luca
- b Unit of Neuropathology and Neurology 5 , IRCCS Foundation Carlo Besta Neurological Institute , Milano , Italy
| | - Marcella Catania
- b Unit of Neuropathology and Neurology 5 , IRCCS Foundation Carlo Besta Neurological Institute , Milano , Italy
| | - Paola Zago
- a Laboratory of Prion Biology, Department of Neuroscience , Scuola Internazionale Superiore di Studi Avanzati (SISSA) , Trieste , Italy
| | - Elisa Isopi
- a Laboratory of Prion Biology, Department of Neuroscience , Scuola Internazionale Superiore di Studi Avanzati (SISSA) , Trieste , Italy
| | - Ilaria Campagnani
- b Unit of Neuropathology and Neurology 5 , IRCCS Foundation Carlo Besta Neurological Institute , Milano , Italy
| | - Fabrizio Tagliavini
- b Unit of Neuropathology and Neurology 5 , IRCCS Foundation Carlo Besta Neurological Institute , Milano , Italy
| | - Giorgio Giaccone
- b Unit of Neuropathology and Neurology 5 , IRCCS Foundation Carlo Besta Neurological Institute , Milano , Italy
| | - Fabio Moda
- b Unit of Neuropathology and Neurology 5 , IRCCS Foundation Carlo Besta Neurological Institute , Milano , Italy
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Bera A, Biring S. A quantitative characterization of interaction between prion protein with nucleic acids. Biochem Biophys Rep 2018; 14:114-124. [PMID: 29872743 PMCID: PMC5986701 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrep.2018.04.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2017] [Revised: 04/10/2018] [Accepted: 04/12/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Binding of recombinant prion protein with small highly structured RNAs, prokaryotic and eukaryotic prion protein mRNA pseudoknots, tRNA and polyA has been studied by the change in fluorescence anisotropy of the intrinsic tryptophan groups of the protein. The affinities of these RNAs to the prion protein and the number of sites where the protein binds to the nucleic acids do not vary appreciably although the RNAs have very different compositions and structures. The binding parameters do not depend upon pH of the solution and show a poor co-operativity. The reactants form larger nucleoprotein complexes at pH 5 compared to that at neutral pH. The electrostatic force between the protein and nucleic acids dominates the binding interaction at neutral pH. In contrast, nucleic acid interaction with the incipient nonpolar groups exposed from the structured region of the prion protein dominates the reaction at pH 5. Prion protein of a particular species forms larger complexes with prion protein mRNA pseudoknots of the same species. The structure of the pseudoknots and not their base sequences probably dominates their interaction with prion protein. Possibilities of the conversion of the prion protein to its infectious form in the cytoplasm by nucleic acids have been discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alakesh Bera
- Infectiologie Animale et Santé Publique, Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, 37380 Nouzilly, France
| | - Sajal Biring
- Department of Electronic Engineering and Organic Electronics Research Center, Ming-Chi University of Technology, 84 Gungjuan Rd., Taishan Dist., New Taipei City 24301, Taiwan
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Cofactors influence the biological properties of infectious recombinant prions. Acta Neuropathol 2018; 135:179-199. [PMID: 29094186 DOI: 10.1007/s00401-017-1782-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2017] [Revised: 10/20/2017] [Accepted: 10/21/2017] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Prion diseases are caused by a misfolding of the cellular prion protein (PrP) to a pathogenic isoform named PrPSc. Prions exist as strains, which are characterized by specific pathological and biochemical properties likely encoded in the three-dimensional structure of PrPSc. However, whether cofactors determine these different PrPSc conformations and how this relates to their specific biological properties is largely unknown. To understand how different cofactors modulate prion strain generation and selection, Protein Misfolding Cyclic Amplification was used to create a diversity of infectious recombinant prion strains by propagation in the presence of brain homogenate. Brain homogenate is known to contain these mentioned cofactors, whose identity is only partially known, and which facilitate conversion of PrPC to PrPSc. We thus obtained a mix of distinguishable infectious prion strains. Subsequently, we replaced brain homogenate, by different polyanionic cofactors that were able to drive the evolution of mixed prion populations toward specific strains. Thus, our results show that a variety of infectious recombinant prions can be generated in vitro and that their specific type of conformation, i.e., the strain, is dependent on the cofactors available during the propagation process. These observations have significant implications for understanding the pathogenesis of prion diseases and their ability to replicate in different tissues and hosts. Importantly, these considerations might apply to other neurodegenerative diseases for which different conformations of misfolded proteins have been described.
Collapse
|
22
|
Igel-Egalon A, Béringue V, Rezaei H, Sibille P. Prion Strains and Transmission Barrier Phenomena. Pathogens 2018; 7:E5. [PMID: 29301257 PMCID: PMC5874731 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens7010005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2017] [Revised: 12/25/2017] [Accepted: 12/26/2017] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Several experimental evidences show that prions are non-conventional pathogens, which physical support consists only in proteins. This finding raised questions regarding the observed prion strain-to-strain variations and the species barrier that happened to be crossed with dramatic consequences on human health and veterinary policies during the last 3 decades. This review presents a focus on a few advances in the field of prion structure and prion strains characterization: from the historical approaches that allowed the concept of prion strains to emerge, to the last results demonstrating that a prion strain may in fact be a combination of a few quasi species with subtle biophysical specificities. Then, we will focus on the current knowledge on the factors that impact species barrier strength and species barrier crossing. Finally, we present probable scenarios on how the interaction of strain properties with host characteristics may account for differential selection of new conformer variants and eventually species barrier crossing.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Angélique Igel-Egalon
- Virologie et Immunologie Moléculaires, INRA, Université Paris-Saclay, UR892, 78350 Jouy-en-Josas, France.
| | - Vincent Béringue
- Virologie et Immunologie Moléculaires, INRA, Université Paris-Saclay, UR892, 78350 Jouy-en-Josas, France.
| | - Human Rezaei
- Virologie et Immunologie Moléculaires, INRA, Université Paris-Saclay, UR892, 78350 Jouy-en-Josas, France.
| | - Pierre Sibille
- Virologie et Immunologie Moléculaires, INRA, Université Paris-Saclay, UR892, 78350 Jouy-en-Josas, France.
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Role of the central lysine cluster and scrapie templating in the transmissibility of synthetic prion protein aggregates. PLoS Pathog 2017; 13:e1006623. [PMID: 28910420 PMCID: PMC5614645 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1006623] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2017] [Revised: 09/26/2017] [Accepted: 09/01/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Mammalian prion structures and replication mechanisms are poorly understood. Most synthetic recombinant prion protein (rPrP) amyloids prepared without cofactors are non-infectious or much less infectious than bona fide tissue-derived PrPSc. This effect has been associated with differences in folding of the aggregates, manifested in part by reduced solvent exclusion and protease-resistance in rPrP amyloids, especially within residues ~90-160. Substitution of 4 lysines within residues 101-110 of rPrP (central lysine cluster) with alanines (K4A) or asparagines (K4N) allows formation of aggregates with extended proteinase K (PK) resistant cores reminiscent of PrPSc, particularly when seeded with PrPSc. Here we have compared the infectivity of rPrP aggregates made with K4N, K4A or wild-type (WT) rPrP, after seeding with scrapie brain homogenate (ScBH) or normal brain homogenate (NBH). None of these preparations caused clinical disease on first passage into rodents. However, the ScBH-seeded fibrils (only) led to a subclinical pathogenesis as indicated by increases in prion seeding activity, neuropathology, and abnormal PrP in the brain. Seeding activities usually accumulated to much higher levels in animals inoculated with ScBH-seeded fibrils made with the K4N, rather than WT, rPrP molecules. Brain homogenates from subclinical animals induced clinical disease on second passage into "hamsterized" Tg7 mice, with shorter incubation times in animals inoculated with ScBH-seeded K4N rPrP fibrils. On second passage from animals inoculated with ScBH-seeded WT fibrils, we detected an additional PK resistant PrP fragment that was similar to that of bona fide PrPSc. Together these data indicate that both the central lysine cluster and scrapie seeding of rPrP aggregates influence the induction of PrP misfolding, neuropathology and clinical manifestations upon passage in vivo. We confirm that some rPrP aggregates can initiate further aggregation without typical pathogenesis in vivo. We also provide evidence that there is little, if any, biohazard associated with routine RT-QuIC assays.
Collapse
|
24
|
Marín-Moreno A, Fernández-Borges N, Espinosa JC, Andréoletti O, Torres JM. Transmission and Replication of Prions. PROGRESS IN MOLECULAR BIOLOGY AND TRANSLATIONAL SCIENCE 2017; 150:181-201. [PMID: 28838661 DOI: 10.1016/bs.pmbts.2017.06.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs) are a group of progressive, invariably fatal diseases that affect the nervous system of many mammals including humans. The key molecular event in the pathogenesis of TSEs is the conversion of the cellular prion protein PrPC into a disease-associated isoform PrPSc. The "protein-only hypothesis" argues that PrPSc itself is the infectious agent. In effect, PrPSc can adopt several structures that represent different prion strains. The interspecies transmission of TSEs is difficult because of differences between the host and donor primary PrP sequence. However, transmission is not impossible as this occurred when bovine spongiform encephalopathy spread to humans causing variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (vCJD). This event determined a need for a thorough understanding of prion replication and transmission so that we could be one step ahead of further threats for human health. This chapter focuses on these concepts and on new insights gained into prion propagation mechanisms.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Juan C Espinosa
- Centro de Investigación en Sanidad Animal, CISA-INIA, Madrid, Spain
| | - Olivier Andréoletti
- UMR INRA-ENVT 1225, Interactions Hôte Agent Pathogène, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire de Toulouse, Toulouse, France
| | - Juan M Torres
- Centro de Investigación en Sanidad Animal, CISA-INIA, Madrid, Spain.
| |
Collapse
|
25
|
Senesi M, Lewis V, Kim JH, Adlard PA, Finkelstein DI, Collins SJ. In vivo prion models and the disconnection between transmissibility and neurotoxicity. Ageing Res Rev 2017; 36:156-164. [PMID: 28450269 DOI: 10.1016/j.arr.2017.03.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/25/2016] [Revised: 02/03/2017] [Accepted: 03/17/2017] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
The primary causative event in the development of prion diseases is the misfolding of the normal prion protein (PrPC) into an ensemble of altered conformers (herein collectively denoted as PrPSc) that accumulate in the brain. Prominent amongst currently unresolved key aspects underpinning prion disease pathogenesis is whether transmission and toxicity are sub-served by different molecular species of PrPSc, which may directly impact on the development of effective targeted treatments. The use of murine models of prion disease has been of fundamental importance for probing the relationship between hypothesised "neurotoxic" and "transmissible" PrPSc and the associated kinetic profiles of their production during disease evolution, but unfortunately consensus has not been achieved. Recent in vivo studies have led to formulation of the "two-phase" hypothesis, which postulates that there is first an exponential increase in transmitting PrPSc species followed by an abrupt transition to propagation of neurotoxic PrPSc species. Such observations however, appear inconsistent with previous in vivo murine studies employing detailed time-course behavioural testing, wherein evidence of neurotoxicity could be detected early in disease progression. This review analyses the contributions of in vivo murine models attempting to provide insights into the relationship between transmitting and neurotoxic PrPSc species and explores possible refinements to the "two-phase hypothesis", that better accommodate the available historical and recent evidence.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Matteo Senesi
- Department of Medicine, Royal Melbourne Hospital, The University of Melbourne, Parkville 3010, Australia
| | - Victoria Lewis
- Department of Medicine, Royal Melbourne Hospital, The University of Melbourne, Parkville 3010, Australia
| | - Jee H Kim
- The Florey Department of Neuroscience and Mental Health, The University of Melbourne, Parkville 3010, Australia
| | - Paul A Adlard
- The Florey Department of Neuroscience and Mental Health, The University of Melbourne, Parkville 3010, Australia
| | - David I Finkelstein
- The Florey Department of Neuroscience and Mental Health, The University of Melbourne, Parkville 3010, Australia
| | - Steven J Collins
- Department of Medicine, Royal Melbourne Hospital, The University of Melbourne, Parkville 3010, Australia; The Florey Department of Neuroscience and Mental Health, The University of Melbourne, Parkville 3010, Australia.
| |
Collapse
|
26
|
PrP Knockout Cells Expressing Transmembrane PrP Resist Prion Infection. J Virol 2017; 91:JVI.01686-16. [PMID: 27847358 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01686-16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2016] [Accepted: 11/01/2016] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchoring of the prion protein (PrPC) influences PrPC misfolding into the disease-associated isoform, PrPres, as well as prion propagation and infectivity. GPI proteins are found in cholesterol- and sphingolipid-rich membrane regions called rafts. Exchanging the GPI anchor for a nonraft transmembrane sequence redirects PrPC away from rafts. Previous studies showed that nonraft transmembrane PrPC variants resist conversion to PrPres when transfected into scrapie-infected N2a neuroblastoma cells, likely due to segregation of transmembrane PrPC and GPI-anchored PrPres in distinct membrane environments. Thus, it remained unclear whether transmembrane PrPC might convert to PrPres if seeded by an exogenous source of PrPres not associated with host cell rafts and without the potential influence of endogenous expression of GPI-anchored PrPC To further explore these questions, constructs containing either a C-terminal wild-type GPI anchor signal sequence or a nonraft transmembrane sequence containing a flexible linker were expressed in a cell line derived from PrP knockout hippocampal neurons, NpL2. NpL2 cells have physiological similarities to primary neurons, representing a novel and advantageous model for studying transmissible spongiform encephalopathy (TSE) infection. Cells were infected with inocula from multiple prion strains and in different biochemical states (i.e., membrane bound as in brain microsomes from wild-type mice or purified GPI-anchorless amyloid fibrils). Only GPI-anchored PrPC supported persistent PrPres propagation. Our data provide strong evidence that in cell culture GPI anchor-directed membrane association of PrPC is required for persistent PrPres propagation, implicating raft microdomains as a location for conversion. IMPORTANCE Mechanisms of prion propagation, and what makes them transmissible, are poorly understood. Glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) membrane anchoring of the prion protein (PrPC) directs it to specific regions of cell membranes called rafts. In order to test the importance of the raft environment on prion propagation, we developed a novel model for prion infection where cells expressing either GPI-anchored PrPC or transmembrane-anchored PrPC, which partitions it to a different location, were treated with infectious, misfolded forms of the prion protein, PrPres We show that only GPI-anchored PrPC was able to convert to PrPres and able to serially propagate. The results strongly suggest that GPI anchoring and the localization of PrPC to rafts are crucial to the ability of PrPC to propagate as a prion.
Collapse
|
27
|
Abstract
Prion diseases are a group of invariably fatal and transmissible neurodegenerative disorders that are associated with the misfolding of the normal cellular prion protein, with the misfolded conformers constituting an infectious unit referred to as a "prion". Prions can spread within an affected organism by directly propagating this misfolding within and between cells and can transmit disease between animals of the same and different species. Prion diseases have a range of clinical phenotypes in humans and animals, with a principle determinant of this attributed to different conformations of the misfolded protein, referred to as prion strains. This chapter will describe the different clinical manifestations of prion diseases, the evidence that these diseases can be transmitted by an infectious protein and how the misfolding of this protein causes disease.
Collapse
|
28
|
Imamura M, Tabeta N, Kato N, Matsuura Y, Iwamaru Y, Yokoyama T, Murayama Y. Heparan Sulfate and Heparin Promote Faithful Prion Replication in Vitro by Binding to Normal and Abnormal Prion Proteins in Protein Misfolding Cyclic Amplification. J Biol Chem 2016; 291:26478-26486. [PMID: 27821590 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m116.745851] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2016] [Revised: 10/26/2016] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The precise mechanism underlying the conversion of normal prion protein (PrPC) into abnormal prion protein (PrPSc) remains unclear. Protein misfolding cyclic amplification (PMCA), an in vitro technique used for amplifying PrPSc, results in PrPSc replication that preserves the strain-specific characteristics of the input PrPSc; thus, PMCA mimics the process of in vivo PrPSc replication. Previous work has demonstrated that in PMCA, nucleic acids are critical for PrPSc amplification, but little information has been reported on glycosaminoglycan (GAG) participation in PrPSc replication in vitro Here, we investigated whether GAGs play a role in the faithful replication of PrPSc by using a modified PMCA performed with baculovirus-derived recombinant PrP (Bac-PrP) as a substrate. The addition of heparan sulfate (HS) or its analog heparin (HP) restored the conversion efficiency in PMCA that was inhibited through nucleic acid depletion. Moreover, the PMCA products obtained under these conditions were infectious and preserved the properties of the input PrPSc These data suggest that HS and HP play the same role as nucleic acids in facilitating faithful replication of prions in PMCA. Furthermore, we showed that HP binds to both Bac-PrP and Bac-PrPSc through the sulfated groups present on HP and that the N-terminal domain of Bac-PrPSc might potentially not be involved in the binding to HP. These results suggest that the interaction of GAGs such as HS and HP with PrPC and/or PrPSc through their sulfate groups is critical for the faithful replication of prions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Morikazu Imamura
- From the National Institute of Animal Health, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization (NARO), Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-0856, Japan
| | - Naoko Tabeta
- From the National Institute of Animal Health, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization (NARO), Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-0856, Japan
| | - Nobuko Kato
- From the National Institute of Animal Health, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization (NARO), Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-0856, Japan
| | - Yuichi Matsuura
- From the National Institute of Animal Health, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization (NARO), Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-0856, Japan
| | - Yoshifumi Iwamaru
- From the National Institute of Animal Health, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization (NARO), Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-0856, Japan
| | - Takashi Yokoyama
- From the National Institute of Animal Health, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization (NARO), Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-0856, Japan
| | - Yuichi Murayama
- From the National Institute of Animal Health, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization (NARO), Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-0856, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
29
|
MacLea KS. What Makes a Prion: Infectious Proteins From Animals to Yeast. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2016; 329:227-276. [PMID: 28109329 DOI: 10.1016/bs.ircmb.2016.08.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
While philosophers in ancient times had many ideas for the cause of contagion, the modern study of infective agents began with Fracastoro's 1546 proposal that invisible "spores" spread infectious disease. However, firm categorization of the pathogens of the natural world would need to await a mature germ theory that would not arise for 300 years. In the 19th century, the earliest pathogens described were bacteria and other cellular microbes. By the close of that century, the work of Ivanovsky and Beijerinck introduced the concept of a virus, an infective particle smaller than any known cell. Extending into the early-mid-20th century there was an explosive growth in pathogenic microbiology, with a cellular or viral cause identified for nearly every transmissible disease. A few occult pathogens remained to be discovered, including the infectious proteins (prions) proposed by Prusiner in 1982. This review discusses the prions identified in mammals, yeasts, and other organisms, focusing on the amyloid-based prions. I discuss the essential biochemical properties of these agents and the application of this knowledge to diseases of protein misfolding and aggregation, as well as the utility of yeast as a model organism to study prion and amyloid proteins that affect human and animal health. Further, I summarize the ideas emerging out of these studies that the prion concept may go beyond proteinaceous infectious particles and that prions may be a subset of proteins having general nucleating or seeding functions involved in noninfectious as well as infectious pathogenic protein aggregation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- K S MacLea
- University of New Hampshire, Manchester, NH, United States.
| |
Collapse
|
30
|
Ugalde CL, Finkelstein DI, Lawson VA, Hill AF. Pathogenic mechanisms of prion protein, amyloid-β and α-synuclein misfolding: the prion concept and neurotoxicity of protein oligomers. J Neurochem 2016; 139:162-180. [PMID: 27529376 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.13772] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2016] [Revised: 07/24/2016] [Accepted: 08/09/2016] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Proteinopathies represent a group of diseases characterized by the unregulated misfolding and aggregation of proteins. Accumulation of misfolded protein in the central nervous system (CNS) is associated with neurodegenerative diseases, such as the transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (or prion diseases), Alzheimer's disease, and the synucleinopathies (the most common of which is Parkinson's disease). Of these, the pathogenic mechanisms of prion diseases are particularly striking where the transmissible, causative agent of disease is the prion, or proteinaceous infectious particle. Prions are composed almost exclusively of PrPSc ; a misfolded isoform of the normal cellular protein, PrPC , which is found accumulated in the CNS in disease. Today, mounting evidence suggests other aggregating proteins, such as amyloid-β (Aβ) and α-synuclein (α-syn), proteins associated with Alzheimer's disease and synucleinopathies, respectively, share similar biophysical and biochemical properties with PrPSc that influences how they misfold, aggregate, and propagate in disease. In this regard, the definition of a 'prion' may ultimately expand to include other pathogenic proteins. Unifying knowledge of folded proteins may also reveal common mechanisms associated with other features of disease that are less understood, such as neurotoxicity. This review discusses the common features Aβ and α-syn share with PrP and neurotoxic mechanisms associated with these misfolded proteins. Several proteins are known to misfold and accumulate in the central nervous system causing a range of neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, and the prion diseases. Prions are transmissible misfolded conformers of the prion protein, PrP, which seed further generation of infectious proteins. Similar effects have recently been observed in proteins associated with Alzheimer's disease and the synucleinopathies, leading to the proposition that the definition of a 'prion' may ultimately expand to include other pathogenic proteins. Unifying knowledge of misfolded proteins may also reveal common mechanisms associated with other features of disease that are less understood, such as neurotoxicity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Cathryn L Ugalde
- Department of Biochemistry and Genetics, La Trobe Institute for Molecular Science, La Trobe University, Bundoora, Vic., Australia.,Howard Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, Parkville, Vic., Australia.,Department of Pathology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Vic., Australia.,Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Vic., Australia
| | - David I Finkelstein
- Howard Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, Parkville, Vic., Australia
| | - Victoria A Lawson
- Department of Pathology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Vic., Australia
| | - Andrew F Hill
- Department of Biochemistry and Genetics, La Trobe Institute for Molecular Science, La Trobe University, Bundoora, Vic., Australia. .,Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Vic., Australia.
| |
Collapse
|
31
|
Moudjou M, Chapuis J, Mekrouti M, Reine F, Herzog L, Sibille P, Laude H, Vilette D, Andréoletti O, Rezaei H, Dron M, Béringue V. Glycoform-independent prion conversion by highly efficient, cell-based, protein misfolding cyclic amplification. Sci Rep 2016; 6:29116. [PMID: 27384922 PMCID: PMC4935985 DOI: 10.1038/srep29116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2016] [Accepted: 06/15/2016] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Prions are formed of misfolded assemblies (PrPSc) of the variably N-glycosylated cellular prion protein (PrPC). In infected species, prions replicate by seeding the conversion and polymerization of host PrPC. Distinct prion strains can be recognized, exhibiting defined PrPSc biochemical properties such as the glycotype and specific biological traits. While strain information is encoded within the conformation of PrPSc assemblies, the storage of the structural information and the molecular requirements for self-perpetuation remain uncertain. Here, we investigated the specific role of PrPC glycosylation status. First, we developed an efficient protein misfolding cyclic amplification method using cells expressing the PrPC species of interest as substrate. Applying the technique to PrPC glycosylation mutants expressing cells revealed that neither PrPC nor PrPSc glycoform stoichiometry was instrumental to PrPSc formation and strainness perpetuation. Our study supports the view that strain properties, including PrPSc glycotype are enciphered within PrPSc structural backbone, not in the attached glycans.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mohammed Moudjou
- VIM, INRA, Université Paris-Saclay, 78350, Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | - Jérôme Chapuis
- VIM, INRA, Université Paris-Saclay, 78350, Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | - Mériem Mekrouti
- VIM, INRA, Université Paris-Saclay, 78350, Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | - Fabienne Reine
- VIM, INRA, Université Paris-Saclay, 78350, Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | - Laetitia Herzog
- VIM, INRA, Université Paris-Saclay, 78350, Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | - Pierre Sibille
- VIM, INRA, Université Paris-Saclay, 78350, Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | - Hubert Laude
- VIM, INRA, Université Paris-Saclay, 78350, Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | - Didier Vilette
- VIM, INRA, Université Paris-Saclay, 78350, Jouy-en-Josas, France.,IHAP, INRA, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire de Toulouse, 31000, Toulouse, France
| | - Olivier Andréoletti
- IHAP, INRA, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire de Toulouse, 31000, Toulouse, France
| | - Human Rezaei
- VIM, INRA, Université Paris-Saclay, 78350, Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | - Michel Dron
- VIM, INRA, Université Paris-Saclay, 78350, Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | - Vincent Béringue
- VIM, INRA, Université Paris-Saclay, 78350, Jouy-en-Josas, France
| |
Collapse
|
32
|
Imamura M, Kato N, Iwamaru Y, Mohri S, Yokoyama T, Murayama Y. Multiple affinity purification of a baculovirus-derived recombinant prion protein with in vitro ability to convert to its pathogenic form. Prep Biochem Biotechnol 2016; 47:1-7. [PMID: 26918377 DOI: 10.1080/10826068.2016.1155058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
We previously showed that baculovirus-derived recombinant prion protein (Bac-PrP) can be converted to the misfolded infectious form (PrPSc) by protein misfolding cyclic amplification, an in vitro conversion technique. Bac-PrP, with post-translational modifications, would be useful for various applications such as using PrP as an immunogen for generating anti-PrP antibody, developing anti-prion drugs or diagnostic assays using in vitro conversion systems, and establishing an in vitro prion propagation model. For this purpose, highly purified Bac-PrP with in vitro conversion activity is necessary for use as a PrPC source, to minimize contamination. Furthermore, an exogenous affinity tag-free form is desirable to avoid potential steric interference by the affinity tags during the conversion process. In this study, we established purification methods for the untagged Bac-PrP under native conditions by combining exogenous double-affinity tags, namely, a polyhistidine-tag and a profinity eXact tag, with an octarepeat sequence of the N-terminal region of PrP, which has metal ion-binding affinity. The untagged Bac-PrP with near-homogeneity was obtained by three-step affinity purification, and it was shown that the final, purified Bac-PrP could convert to its pathogenic form. The presented purification procedure could be applied not only to PrP but also to other eukaryotic, recombinant proteins that require high purity and intact physiological activity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Morikazu Imamura
- a Influenza and Prion Disease Research Center, National Institute of Animal Health , Tsukuba , Ibaraki , Japan
| | - Nobuko Kato
- a Influenza and Prion Disease Research Center, National Institute of Animal Health , Tsukuba , Ibaraki , Japan
| | - Yoshifumi Iwamaru
- a Influenza and Prion Disease Research Center, National Institute of Animal Health , Tsukuba , Ibaraki , Japan
| | - Shirou Mohri
- a Influenza and Prion Disease Research Center, National Institute of Animal Health , Tsukuba , Ibaraki , Japan
| | - Takashi Yokoyama
- a Influenza and Prion Disease Research Center, National Institute of Animal Health , Tsukuba , Ibaraki , Japan
| | - Yuichi Murayama
- a Influenza and Prion Disease Research Center, National Institute of Animal Health , Tsukuba , Ibaraki , Japan
| |
Collapse
|
33
|
Murayama Y, Ono F, Shimozaki N, Shibata H. L-Arginine ethylester enhances in vitro amplification of PrP(Sc) in macaques with atypical L-type bovine spongiform encephalopathy and enables presymptomatic detection of PrP(Sc) in the bodily fluids. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2016; 470:563-568. [PMID: 26802462 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2016.01.105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2016] [Accepted: 01/17/2016] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Protease-resistant, misfolded isoforms (PrP(Sc)) of a normal cellular prion protein (PrP(C)) in the bodily fluids, including blood, urine, and saliva, are expected to be useful diagnostic markers of prion diseases, and nonhuman primate models are suited for performing valid diagnostic tests for human Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD). We developed an effective amplification method for PrP(Sc) derived from macaques infected with the atypical L-type bovine spongiform encephalopathy (L-BSE) prion by using mouse brain homogenate as a substrate in the presence of polyanions and L-arginine ethylester. This method was highly sensitive and detected PrP(Sc) in infected brain homogenate diluted up to 10(10) by sequential amplification. This method in combination with PrP(Sc) precipitation by sodium phosphotungstic acid is capable of amplifying very small amounts of PrP(Sc) contained in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), saliva, urine, and plasma of macaques that have been intracerebrally inoculated with the L-BSE prion. Furthermore, PrP(Sc) was detectable in the saliva or urine samples as well as CSF samples obtained at the preclinical phases of the disease. Thus, our novel method may be useful for furthering the understanding of bodily fluid leakage of PrP(Sc) in nonhuman primate models.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Y Murayama
- Influenza Prion Disease Research Center, National Institute of Animal Health, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan.
| | - F Ono
- Chiba Institute of Science Faculty of Risk and Crisis Management, Choshi, Chiba, Japan
| | - N Shimozaki
- Influenza Prion Disease Research Center, National Institute of Animal Health, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - H Shibata
- Tsukuba Primate Research Center, National Institutes of Biomedical Innovation, Health and Nutrition, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
34
|
Abstract
Proteins were described as distinct biological molecules and their significance in cellular processes was recognized as early as the 18th century. At the same time, Spanish shepherds observed a disease that compelled their Merino sheep to pathologically scrape against fences, a defining clinical sign that led to the disease being named scrapie. In the late 19th century, Robert Koch published his postulates for defining causative agents of disease. In the early 20th century, pathologists Creutzfeldt and Jakob described a neurodegenerative disease that would later be included with scrapie into a group of diseases known as transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs). Later that century, mounting evidence compelled a handful of scientists to betray the prevailing biological dogma governing pathogen replication that Watson and Crick so convincingly explained by cracking the genetic code just two decades earlier. Because TSEs seemed to defy these new rules, J.S. Griffith theorized mechanisms by which a pathogenic protein could encipher its own replication blueprint without a genetic code. Stanley Prusiner called this proteinaceous infectious pathogen a prion. Here we offer a concise account of the discovery of prions, the causative agent of TSEs, in the wider context of protein biochemistry and infectious disease. We highlight the discovery of prions in yeast and discuss the implication of prions as epigenomic carriers of biological and pathological information. We also consider expanding the prion hypothesis to include other proteins whose alternate isoforms confer new biological or pathological properties.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mark D Zabel
- Prion Research Center at Colorado State University, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Fort Collins, CO 80521, USA
| | - Crystal Reid
- Prion Research Center at Colorado State University, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Fort Collins, CO 80521, USA
| |
Collapse
|
35
|
Moreno-Del Álamo M, de la Espina SMD, Fernández-Tresguerres ME, Giraldo R. Pre-amyloid oligomers of the proteotoxic RepA-WH1 prionoid assemble at the bacterial nucleoid. Sci Rep 2015; 5:14669. [PMID: 26423724 PMCID: PMC4589793 DOI: 10.1038/srep14669] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2015] [Accepted: 09/03/2015] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Upon binding to short specific dsDNA sequences in vitro, the N-terminal WH1 domain of the plasmid DNA replication initiator RepA assembles as amyloid fibres. These are bundles of single or double twisted tubular filaments in which distorted RepA-WH1 monomers are the building blocks. When expressed in Escherichia coli, RepA-WH1 triggers the first synthetic amyloid proteinopathy in bacteria, recapitulating some of the features of mammalian prion diseases: it is vertically transmissible, albeit non-infectious, showing up in at least two phenotypically distinct and interconvertible strains. Here we report B3h7, a monoclonal antibody specific for oligomers of RepA-WH1, but which does not recognize the mature amyloid fibres. Unlike a control polyclonal antibody generated against the soluble protein, B3h7 interferes in vitro with DNA-promoted or amyloid-seeded assembly of RepA-WH1 fibres, thus the targeted oligomers are on-pathway amyloidogenic intermediates. Immuno-electron microscopy with B3h7 on thin sections of E. coli cells expressing RepA-WH1 consistently labels the bacterial nucleoid, but not the large cytoplasmic aggregates of the protein. This observation points to the nucleoid as the place where oligomeric amyloid precursors of RepA-WH1 are generated, and suggests that, once nucleated by DNA, further growth must continue in the cytoplasm due to entropic exclusion.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- María Moreno-Del Álamo
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Biology, Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas - CSIC, Madrid E28040, Spain
| | | | | | - Rafael Giraldo
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Biology, Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas - CSIC, Madrid E28040, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
36
|
Faburay B, Tark D, Kanthasamy AG, Richt JA. In vitro amplification of scrapie and chronic wasting disease PrP(res) using baculovirus-expressed recombinant PrP as substrate. Prion 2015; 8:393-403. [PMID: 25495764 DOI: 10.4161/19336896.2014.983753] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Protein misfolding cyclic amplification (PMCA) is an in vitro simulation of prion replication, which relies on the use of normal brain homogenate derived from host species as substrate for the specific amplification of abnormal prion protein, PrP(Sc). Studies showed that recombinant cellular PrP, PrP(C), expressed in Escherichia coli lacks N-glycosylation and an glycophosphatidyl inositol anchor (GPI) and therefore may not be the most suitable substrate in seeded PMCA reactions to recapitulate prion conversion in vitro. In this study, we expressed 2 PRNP genotypes of sheep, V136L141R154Q171 and A136F141R154Q171, and one genotype of white-tailed deer (Q95G96, X132,Y216) using the baculovirus expression system and evaluated their suitability as substrates in seeded-PMCA. It has been reported that host-encoded mammalian RNA molecules and divalent cations play a role in the pathogenesis of prion diseases, and RNA molecules have also been shown to improve the sensitivity of PMCA assays. Therefore, we also assessed the effect of co-factors, such as prion-specific mRNA molecules and a divalent cation, manganese, on protein conversion. Here, we report that baculovirus-expressed recombinant PrP(C) shows a glycoform and GPI-anchor profile similar to mammalian brain-derived PrP(C) and supports amplification of PrP(Sc) and PrP(CWD) derived from prion-affected animals in a single round of seeded PMCA in the absence of exogenous co-factors. Addition of species-specific in vitro transcribed PrP mRNA molecules stimulated the conversion efficiency resulting in increased PrP(Sc) or PrP(CWD) production. Addition of 2 to 20 μM of manganese chloride (MnCl2) to unseeded PMCA resulted in conversion of recombinant PrP(C) to protease-resistant PrP. Collectively, we demonstrate, for the first time, that baculovirus expressed sheep and deer PrP can serve as a substrate in protein misfolding cyclic amplification for sheep and deer prions in the absence of additional exogenous co-factors.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bonto Faburay
- a Department of Diagnostic Medicine and Pathobiology ; College of Veterinary Medicine ; Kansas State University ; Manhattan , KS USA
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
37
|
Dinkel PD, Holden MR, Matin N, Margittai M. RNA Binds to Tau Fibrils and Sustains Template-Assisted Growth. Biochemistry 2015; 54:4731-40. [PMID: 26177386 PMCID: PMC4526887 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biochem.5b00453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Tau fibrils are the main proteinacious components of neurofibrillary lesions in Alzheimer disease. Although RNA molecules are sequestered into these lesions, their relationship to Tau fibrils is only poorly understood. Such understanding, however, is important, as short fibrils can transfer between neurons and nonproteinacious factors including RNA could play a defining role in modulating the latter process. Here, we used sedimentation assays combined with electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR), fluorescence, and absorbance spectroscopy to determine the effects of RNA on Tau fibril structure and growth. We observe that, in the presence of RNA, three-repeat (3R) and four-repeat (4R) Tau form fibrils with parallel, in-register arrangement of β-strands and exhibit an asymmetric seeding barrier in which 4R Tau grows onto 3R Tau seeds but not vice versa. These structural features are similar to those previously observed for heparin-induced fibrils, indicating that basic conformational properties are conserved, despite their being molecular differences of the nucleating agents. Furthermore, RNA sustains template-assisted growth and binds to the fibril surface and can be exchanged by heparin. These findings suggest that, in addition to mediating fibrillization, cofactors decorating the surface of Tau fibrils may modulate biological interactions and thereby influence the spreading of Tau pathology in the human brain.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Paul D Dinkel
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Denver, Denver, Colorado 80208, United States
| | - Michael R Holden
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Denver, Denver, Colorado 80208, United States
| | - Nadira Matin
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Denver, Denver, Colorado 80208, United States
| | - Martin Margittai
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Denver, Denver, Colorado 80208, United States
| |
Collapse
|
38
|
Rouget R, Sharma G, LeBlanc AC. Cyclin-dependent kinase 5 phosphorylation of familial prion protein mutants exacerbates conversion into amyloid structure. J Biol Chem 2015; 290:5759-71. [PMID: 25572400 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m114.630699] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Familial prion protein (PrP) mutants undergo conversion from soluble and protease-sensitive to insoluble and partially protease-resistant proteins. Cyclin-dependent kinase 5 (Cdk5) phosphorylation of wild type PrP (pPrP) at serine 43 induces a conversion of PrP into aggregates and fibrils. Here, we investigated whether familial PrP mutants are predisposed to Cdk5 phosphorylation and whether phosphorylation of familial PrP mutants increases conversion. PrP mutants representing three major familial PrP diseases and different PrP structural domains were studied. We developed a novel in vitro kinase reaction coupled with Thioflavin T binding to amyloid structure assay to monitor phosphorylation-dependent amyloid conversion. Although non-phosphorylated full-length wild type or PrP mutants did not convert into amyloid, Cdk5 phosphorylation rapidly converted these into Thioflavin T-positive structures following first order kinetics. Dephosphorylation partially reversed conversion. Phosphorylation-dependent conversion of PrP from α-helical structures into β-sheet structures was confirmed by circular dichroism. Relative to wild type pPrP, most PrP mutants showed increased rate constants of conversion. In contrast, non-phosphorylated truncated PrP Y145X (where X represents a stop codon) and Q160X mutants converted spontaneously into Thioflavin T-positive fibrils after a lag phase of over 20 h, indicating nucleation-dependent polymerization. Phosphorylation reduced the lag phase by over 50% and thus accelerated the formation of the nucleating event. Consistently, phosphorylated Y145X and phosphorylated Q160X exacerbated conversion in a homologous seeding reaction, whereas WT pPrP could not seed WT PrP. These results demonstrate an influence of both the N terminus and the C terminus of PrP on conversion. We conclude that post-translational modifications of the flexible N terminus of PrP can cause or exacerbate PrP mutant conversion.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Raphaël Rouget
- From the Lady Davis Institute for Medical Research, Sir Mortimer B. Davis Jewish General Hospital, Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, McGill University, Montréal, Québec H3T 1E2, Canada and
| | - Gyanesh Sharma
- From the Lady Davis Institute for Medical Research, Sir Mortimer B. Davis Jewish General Hospital, Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, McGill University, Montréal, Québec H3T 1E2, Canada and Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, McGill University, 3775 University Street, Montréal, Québec H3A 2B4, Canada
| | - Andréa C LeBlanc
- From the Lady Davis Institute for Medical Research, Sir Mortimer B. Davis Jewish General Hospital, Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, McGill University, Montréal, Québec H3T 1E2, Canada and Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, McGill University, 3775 University Street, Montréal, Québec H3A 2B4, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
39
|
Abstract
Perhaps the most intriguing scientific question about mammalian prions is how these proteinaceous entities encode and propagate infectivity. Over the past decade, our laboratory has taken a reductionist biochemical approach to study this challenging question. Our studies have resulted in the identification of endogenous phospholipid and polyanionic cofactor molecules that facilitate prion formation in vitro. Using these cofactor molecules, we have been able to produce purified, chemically defined prions with high levels of specific infectivity for wild type animal hosts. Our most recent studies suggest that cofactor molecules may also play crucial roles in maintaining the infectious conformation and strain properties of mammalian prions. The ability to produce high titer prions in vitro using cofactors provides an unprecedented opportunity to study the structural mechanism of infectious prion formation directly.
Collapse
|
40
|
Ellett LJ, Coleman BM, Shambrook MC, Johanssen VA, Collins SJ, Masters CL, Hill AF, Lawson VA. Glycosaminoglycan sulfation determines the biochemical properties of prion protein aggregates. Glycobiology 2015; 25:745-55. [PMID: 25701659 DOI: 10.1093/glycob/cwv014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2014] [Accepted: 02/15/2015] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Prion diseases are transmissible neurodegenerative disorders associated with the conversion of the cellular prion protein, PrP(C), to a misfolded isoform called PrP(Sc). Although PrP(Sc) is a necessary component of the infectious prion, additional factors, or cofactors, have been shown to contribute to the efficient formation of transmissible PrP(Sc). Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) are attractive cofactor candidates as they can be found associated with PrP(Sc) deposits, have been shown to enhance PrP misfolding in vitro, are found in the same cellular compartments as PrP(C) and have been shown to be disease modifying in vivo. Here we investigated the effects of the sulfated GAGs, heparin and heparan sulfate (HS), on disease associated misfolding of full-length recombinant PrP. More specifically, the degree of sulfation of these molecules was investigated for its role in modulating the disease-associated characteristics of PrP. Both heparin and HS induced a β-sheet conformation in recombinant PrP that was associated with the formation of aggregated species; however, the biochemical properties of the aggregates formed in the presence of heparin or HS varied in solubility and protease resistance. Furthermore, these properties could be modified by changes in GAG sulfation, indicating that subtle changes in the properties of prion disease cofactors could initiate disease associated misfolding.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Bradley M Coleman
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology and Bio21 Molecular Science and Biotechnology Institute
| | - Mitch C Shambrook
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology and Bio21 Molecular Science and Biotechnology Institute
| | | | | | - Colin L Masters
- The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, The University Of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia
| | - Andrew F Hill
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology and Bio21 Molecular Science and Biotechnology Institute
| | | |
Collapse
|
41
|
Groveman BR, Kraus A, Raymond LD, Dolan MA, Anson KJ, Dorward DW, Caughey B. Charge neutralization of the central lysine cluster in prion protein (PrP) promotes PrP(Sc)-like folding of recombinant PrP amyloids. J Biol Chem 2015; 290:1119-28. [PMID: 25416779 PMCID: PMC4294479 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m114.619627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2014] [Revised: 11/20/2014] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The structure of the infectious form of prion protein, PrP(Sc), remains unclear. Most pure recombinant prion protein (PrP) amyloids generated in vitro are not infectious and lack the extent of the protease-resistant core and solvent exclusion of infectious PrP(Sc), especially within residues ∼90-160. Polyanionic cofactors can enhance infectivity and PrP(Sc)-like characteristics of such fibrils, but the mechanism of this enhancement is unknown. In considering structural models of PrP(Sc) multimers, we identified an obstacle to tight packing that might be overcome with polyanionic cofactors, namely, electrostatic repulsion between four closely spaced cationic lysines within a central lysine cluster of residues 101-110. For example, in our parallel in-register intermolecular β-sheet model of PrP(Sc), not only would these lysines be clustered within the 101-110 region of the primary sequence, but they would have intermolecular spacings of only ∼4.8 Å between stacked β-strands. We have now performed molecular dynamics simulations predicting that neutralization of the charges on these lysine residues would allow more stable parallel in-register packing in this region. We also show empirically that substitution of these clustered lysine residues with alanines or asparagines results in recombinant PrP amyloid fibrils with extended proteinase-K resistant β-sheet cores and infrared spectra that are more reminiscent of bona fide PrP(Sc). These findings indicate that charge neutralization at the central lysine cluster is critical for the folding and tight packing of N-proximal residues within PrP amyloid fibrils. This charge neutralization may be a key aspect of the mechanism by which anionic cofactors promote PrP(Sc) formation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Allison Kraus
- From the Laboratory of Persistent Viral Diseases and
| | | | - Michael A Dolan
- the Computational Biology Section, Bioinformatics and Computational Biosciences Branch, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892
| | | | - David W Dorward
- the Research Technologies Branch, Microscopy Unit, Rocky Mountain Laboratories, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, Montana 59840 and
| | - Byron Caughey
- From the Laboratory of Persistent Viral Diseases and
| |
Collapse
|
42
|
Smith JE, Mowles AK, Mehta AK, Lynn DG. Looked at life from both sides now. Life (Basel) 2014; 4:887-902. [PMID: 25513758 PMCID: PMC4284472 DOI: 10.3390/life4040887] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2014] [Revised: 12/01/2014] [Accepted: 12/02/2014] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
As the molecular top–down causality emerging through comparative genomics is combined with the bottom–up dynamic chemical networks of biochemistry, the molecular symbiotic relationships driving growth of the tree of life becomes strikingly apparent. These symbioses can be mutualistic or parasitic across many levels, but most foundational is the complex and intricate mutualism of nucleic acids and proteins known as the central dogma of biological information flow. This unification of digital and analog molecular information within a common chemical network enables processing of the vast amounts of information necessary for cellular life. Here we consider the molecular information pathways of these dynamic biopolymer networks from the perspective of their evolution and use that perspective to inform and constrain pathways for the construction of mutualistic polymers.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jillian E Smith
- Department of Chemistry and Biology, Emory University, 1515 Dickey Drive, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA.
| | - Allisandra K Mowles
- Department of Chemistry and Biology, Emory University, 1515 Dickey Drive, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA.
| | - Anil K Mehta
- Department of Chemistry and Biology, Emory University, 1515 Dickey Drive, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA.
| | - David G Lynn
- Department of Chemistry and Biology, Emory University, 1515 Dickey Drive, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
43
|
Cholesterol balance in prion diseases and Alzheimer's disease. Viruses 2014; 6:4505-35. [PMID: 25419621 PMCID: PMC4246236 DOI: 10.3390/v6114505] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2014] [Revised: 11/08/2014] [Accepted: 11/14/2014] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Prion diseases are transmissible and fatal neurodegenerative disorders of humans and animals. They are characterized by the accumulation of PrPSc, an aberrantly folded isoform of the cellular prion protein PrPC, in the brains of affected individuals. PrPC is a cell surface glycoprotein attached to the outer leaflet of the plasma membrane by a glycosyl-phosphatidyl-inositol (GPI) anchor. Specifically, it is associated with lipid rafts, membrane microdomains enriched in cholesterol and sphinoglipids. It has been established that inhibition of endogenous cholesterol synthesis disturbs lipid raft association of PrPC and prevents PrPSc accumulation in neuronal cells. Additionally, prion conversion is reduced upon interference with cellular cholesterol uptake, endosomal export, or complexation at the plasma membrane. Altogether, these results demonstrate on the one hand the importance of cholesterol for prion propagation. On the other hand, growing evidence suggests that prion infection modulates neuronal cholesterol metabolism. Similar results were reported in Alzheimer’s disease (AD): whereas amyloid β peptide formation is influenced by cellular cholesterol, levels of cholesterol in the brains of affected individuals increase during the clinical course of the disease. In this review, we summarize commonalities of alterations in cholesterol homeostasis and discuss consequences for neuronal function and therapy of prion diseases and AD.
Collapse
|
44
|
Saá P, Cervenakova L. Protein misfolding cyclic amplification (PMCA): Current status and future directions. Virus Res 2014; 207:47-61. [PMID: 25445341 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2014.11.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2014] [Revised: 10/05/2014] [Accepted: 11/06/2014] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs) most commonly known as prion diseases are invariably fatal neurological disorders that affect humans and animals. These disorders differ from other neurodegenerative conformational diseases caused by the accumulation in the brain of misfolded proteins, sometimes with amyloid properties, in their ability to infect susceptible species by various routes. While the infectious properties of amyloidogenic proteins, other than misfolded prion protein (PrP(TSE)), are currently under scrutiny, their potential to transmit from cell to cell, one of the intrinsic properties of the prion, has been recently shown in vitro and in vivo. Over the decades, various cell culture and laboratory animal models have been developed to study TSEs. These assays have been widely used in a variety of applications but showed to be time consuming and entailed elevated costs. Novel economic and fast alternatives became available with the development of in vitro assays that are based on the property of conformationally abnormal PrP(TSE) to recruit normal cellular PrP(C) to misfold. These include the cell-free conversion assay, protein misfolding cyclic amplification (PMCA) and quaking induced conversion assay (QuIC), of which the PMCA has been the only technology shown to generate infectious prions. Moreover, it allows indefinite amplification of PrP(TSE) with strain-specific biochemical and biological properties of the original molecules and under certain conditions may give rise to new spontaneously generated prions. The method also allows addressing the species barrier phenomena and assessing possible risks of animal-to-animal and animal-to-human transmission. Additionally, its unprecedented sensitivity has made possible the detection of as little as one infectious dose of PrP(TSE) and the biochemical identification of this protein in different tissues and biological fluids, including blood, cerebral spinal fluid (CSF), semen, milk, urine and saliva during the pre-clinical and clinical phases of the disease. The mechanistic similarities between TSEs and other conformational disorders have resulted in the adaptation of the PMCA to the amplification and detection of various amyloidogenic proteins. Here we provide a compelling discussion of the different applications of this technology to the study of TSEs and other neurodegenerative diseases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Paula Saá
- Transmissible Diseases Department, American National Red Cross, Biomedical Services, Holland Laboratory, 15601 Crabbs Branch Way, Rockville, MD 20855, United States.
| | - Larisa Cervenakova
- Transmissible Diseases Department, American National Red Cross, Biomedical Services, Holland Laboratory, 15601 Crabbs Branch Way, Rockville, MD 20855, United States
| |
Collapse
|
45
|
Groveman BR, Dolan MA, Taubner LM, Kraus A, Wickner RB, Caughey B. Parallel in-register intermolecular β-sheet architectures for prion-seeded prion protein (PrP) amyloids. J Biol Chem 2014; 289:24129-42. [PMID: 25028516 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m114.578344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 132] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Structures of the infectious form of prion protein (e.g. PrP(Sc) or PrP-Scrapie) remain poorly defined. The prevalent structural models of PrP(Sc) retain most of the native α-helices of the normal, noninfectious prion protein, cellular prion protein (PrP(C)), but evidence is accumulating that these helices are absent in PrP(Sc) amyloid. Moreover, recombinant PrP(C) can form amyloid fibrils in vitro that have parallel in-register intermolecular β-sheet architectures in the domains originally occupied by helices 2 and 3. Here, we provide solid-state NMR evidence that the latter is also true of initially prion-seeded recombinant PrP amyloids formed in the absence of denaturants. These results, in the context of a primarily β-sheet structure, led us to build detailed models of PrP amyloid based on parallel in-register architectures, fibrillar shapes and dimensions, and other available experimentally derived conformational constraints. Molecular dynamics simulations of PrP(90-231) octameric segments suggested that such linear fibrils, which are consistent with many features of PrP(Sc) fibrils, can have stable parallel in-register β-sheet cores. These simulations revealed that the C-terminal residues ∼124-227 more readily adopt stable tightly packed structures than the N-terminal residues ∼90-123 in the absence of cofactors. Variations in the placement of turns and loops that link the β-sheets could give rise to distinct prion strains capable of faithful template-driven propagation. Moreover, our modeling suggests that single PrP monomers can comprise the entire cross-section of fibrils that have previously been assumed to be pairs of laterally associated protofilaments. Together, these insights provide a new basis for deciphering mammalian prion structures.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bradley R Groveman
- From the Laboratory of Persistent Viral Diseases, Rocky Mountain Laboratories, NIAID, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, Montana 59840 and
| | - Michael A Dolan
- the Computational Biology Section, Bioinformatics and Computational Biosciences Branch, NIAID, and
| | - Lara M Taubner
- From the Laboratory of Persistent Viral Diseases, Rocky Mountain Laboratories, NIAID, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, Montana 59840 and
| | - Allison Kraus
- From the Laboratory of Persistent Viral Diseases, Rocky Mountain Laboratories, NIAID, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, Montana 59840 and
| | - Reed B Wickner
- Laboratory of Biochemistry and Genetics, NIDDK, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892
| | - Byron Caughey
- From the Laboratory of Persistent Viral Diseases, Rocky Mountain Laboratories, NIAID, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, Montana 59840 and
| |
Collapse
|
46
|
Vieira TCRG, Cordeiro Y, Caughey B, Silva JL. Heparin binding confers prion stability and impairs its aggregation. FASEB J 2014; 28:2667-76. [PMID: 24648544 DOI: 10.1096/fj.13-246777] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
The conversion of the prion protein (PrP) into scrapie PrP (PrP(Sc)) is a central event in prion diseases. Several molecules work as cofactors in the conversion process, including glycosaminoglycans (GAGs). GAGs exhibit a paradoxical effect, as they convert PrP into protease-resistant PrP (PrP-res) but also exert protective activity. We compared the stability and aggregation propensity of PrP and the heparin-PrP complex through the application of different in vitro aggregation approaches, including real-time quaking-induced conversion (RT-QuIC). Transmissible spongiform encephalopathy-associated forms from mouse and hamster brain homogenates were used to seed RT-QuIC-induced fibrillization. In our study, interaction between heparin and cellular PrP (PrP(C)) increased thermal PrP stability, leading to an 8-fold decrease in temperature-induced aggregation. The interaction of low-molecular-weight heparin (LMWHep) with the PrP N- or C-terminal domain affected not only the extent of PrP fibrillization but also its kinetics, lowering the reaction rate constant from 1.04 to 0.29 s(-1) and increasing the lag phase from 12 to 19 h in RT-QuIC experiments. Our findings explain the protective effect of heparin in different models of prion and prion-like neurodegenerative diseases and establish the groundwork for the development of therapeutic strategies based on GAGs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tuane C R G Vieira
- Centro Nacional de Ressonância Magnética Nuclear Jiri Jonas, Instituto de Bioquímica Médica Leopoldo De Meis, Instituto Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia de Biologia Estrutural e Bioimagem, and
| | - Yraima Cordeiro
- Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; and
| | - Byron Caughey
- Laboratory of Persistent Viral Diseases, Rocky Mountain Laboratories, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, U.S. National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, Montana, USA
| | - Jerson L Silva
- Centro Nacional de Ressonância Magnética Nuclear Jiri Jonas, Instituto de Bioquímica Médica Leopoldo De Meis, Instituto Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia de Biologia Estrutural e Bioimagem, and
| |
Collapse
|
47
|
Ludewigs H, Zuber C, Vana K, Nikles D, Zerr I, Weiss S. Therapeutic approaches for prion disorders. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther 2014; 5:613-30. [PMID: 17678425 DOI: 10.1586/14787210.5.4.613] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Prion diseases are lethal for both humans and animals, and affected individuals die after several months following a rapid disease progression. Although researchers have attempted for decades to develop effective therapeutics for the therapy of human prion disorders, until now no efficient drug has been available on the market for transmissible spongiform encephalopathy (TSE) treatment or cure. Approximately 200 patients worldwide have died or suffer from variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD). Incidences for sporadic and familial CJD are approximately 1.5-2 per million per year and one per 10 million per year, respectively, in Europe. This review summarizes classical and modern trials for the development of effective anti-TSE drugs, introduces potential effective delivery systems, such as lentiviral and adeno-associated virus systems for antiprion components, including antibodies and siRNAs, and presents vaccination trials. Most of the antiprion drugs target prion protein PrP(c) and/or PrP(Sc). Alternative targets are receptors and coreceptors for PrP, that is, the 37/67-kDa laminin receptor and heparan sulfate proteoglycanes. We review clinical trials for the treatment of TSEs and describe hindrances and chances for a breakthrough in therapy of prion disorders.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Heike Ludewigs
- Laboratorium für Molekulare Biologie, Genzentrum, Institut für Biochemie der LMU München, München, Germany.
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
48
|
Prion protein misfolding, strains, and neurotoxicity: an update from studies on Mammalian prions. Int J Cell Biol 2013; 2013:910314. [PMID: 24454379 PMCID: PMC3884631 DOI: 10.1155/2013/910314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2013] [Revised: 11/10/2013] [Accepted: 11/11/2013] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Prion diseases, also known as transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs), are a group of fatal neurodegenerative disorders affecting humans and other mammalian species. The central event in TSE pathogenesis is the conformational conversion of the cellular prion protein, PrPC, into the aggregate, β-sheet rich, amyloidogenic form, PrPSc. Increasing evidence indicates that distinct PrPSc conformers, forming distinct ordered aggregates, can encipher the phenotypic TSE variants related to prion strains. Prion strains are TSE isolates that, after inoculation into syngenic hosts, cause disease with distinct characteristics, such as incubation period, pattern of PrPSc distribution, and regional severity of histopathological changes in the brain. In analogy with other amyloid forming proteins, PrPSc toxicity is thought to derive from the existence of various intermediate structures prior to the amyloid fiber formation and/or their specific interaction with membranes. The latter appears particularly relevant for the pathogenesis of TSEs associated with GPI-anchored PrPSc, which involves major cellular membrane distortions in neurons. In this review, we update the current knowledge on the molecular mechanisms underlying three fundamental aspects of the basic biology of prions such as the putative mechanism of prion protein conversion to the pathogenic form PrPSc and its propagation, the molecular basis of prion strains, and the mechanism of induced neurotoxicity by PrPSc aggregates.
Collapse
|
49
|
Imamura M, Kato N, Okada H, Yoshioka M, Iwamaru Y, Shimizu Y, Mohri S, Yokoyama T, Murayama Y. Insect cell-derived cofactors become fully functional after proteinase K and heat treatment for high-fidelity amplification of glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored recombinant scrapie and BSE prion proteins. PLoS One 2013; 8:e82538. [PMID: 24367521 PMCID: PMC3867355 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0082538] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2013] [Accepted: 11/01/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The central event in prion infection is the conformational conversion of host-encoded cellular prion protein (PrP(C)) into the pathogenic isoform (PrP(Sc)). Diverse mammalian species possess the cofactors required for in vitro replication of PrP(Sc) by protein-misfolding cyclic amplification (PMCA), but lower organisms, such as bacteria, yeasts, and insects, reportedly lack the essential cofactors. Various cellular components, such as RNA, lipids, and other identified cofactor molecules, are commonly distributed in both eukaryotes and prokaryotes, but the reasons for the absence of cofactor activity in lower organisms remain to be elucidated. Previously, we reported that brain-derived factors were necessary for the in vitro replication of glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored baculovirus-derived recombinant PrP (Bac-PrP). Here, we demonstrate that following protease digestion and heat treatment, insect cell lysates had the functional cofactor activity required for Bac-PrP replication by PMCA. Mammalian PrP(Sc) seeds and Bac-PrP(Sc) generated by PMCA using Bac-PrP and insect cell-derived cofactors showed similar pathogenicity and produced very similar lesions in the brains of inoculated mice. These results suggested that the essential cofactors required for the high-fidelity replication of mammalian PrP(Sc) were present in the insect cells but that the cofactor activity was masked or inhibited in the native state. We suggest that not only RNA, but also DNA, are the key components of PMCA, although other cellular factors were necessary for the expression of the cofactor activity of nucleic acids. PMCA using only insect cell-derived substances (iPMCA) was highly useful for the ultrasensitive detection of PrP(Sc) of some prion strains.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Morikazu Imamura
- Influenza • Prion Disease Research Center, National Institute of Animal Health, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Nobuko Kato
- Influenza • Prion Disease Research Center, National Institute of Animal Health, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Hiroyuki Okada
- Influenza • Prion Disease Research Center, National Institute of Animal Health, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Miyako Yoshioka
- Influenza • Prion Disease Research Center, National Institute of Animal Health, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
- Research Area of Pathology and Pathophysiology, National Institute of Animal Health, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Yoshifumi Iwamaru
- Influenza • Prion Disease Research Center, National Institute of Animal Health, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Yoshihisa Shimizu
- Influenza • Prion Disease Research Center, National Institute of Animal Health, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Shirou Mohri
- Influenza • Prion Disease Research Center, National Institute of Animal Health, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Takashi Yokoyama
- Influenza • Prion Disease Research Center, National Institute of Animal Health, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Yuichi Murayama
- Influenza • Prion Disease Research Center, National Institute of Animal Health, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
- * E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
50
|
Elder AM, Henderson DM, Nalls AV, Wilham JM, Caughey BW, Hoover EA, Kincaid AE, Bartz JC, Mathiason CK. In vitro detection of prionemia in TSE-infected cervids and hamsters. PLoS One 2013; 8:e80203. [PMID: 24224043 PMCID: PMC3815098 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0080203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2013] [Accepted: 09/30/2013] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Blood-borne transmission of infectious prions during the symptomatic and asymptomatic stages of disease occurs for both human and animal transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs). The geographical distribution of the cervid TSE, chronic wasting disease (CWD), continues to spread across North America and the prospective number of individuals harboring an asymptomatic infection of human variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease (vCJD) in the United Kingdom has been projected to be ~1 in 3000 residents. Thus, it is important to monitor cervid and human blood products to ensure herd health and human safety. Current methods for detecting blood-associated prions rely primarily upon bioassay in laboratory animals. While bioassay provides high sensitivity and specificity, it requires many months, animals, and it is costly. Here we report modification of the real time quaking-induced conversion (RT-QuIC) assay to detect blood-borne prions in whole blood from prion-infected preclinical white-tailed deer, muntjac deer, and Syrian hamsters, attaining sensitivity of >90% while maintaining 100% specificity. Our results indicate that RT-QuIC methodology as modified can provide consistent and reliable detection of blood-borne prions in preclinical and symptomatic stages of two animal TSEs, offering promise for prionemia detection in other species, including humans.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alan M. Elder
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Davin M. Henderson
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Amy V. Nalls
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Jason M. Wilham
- Rocky Mountain Laboratories, National Institute for Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, Montana, United States of America
| | - Byron W. Caughey
- Rocky Mountain Laboratories, National Institute for Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, Montana, United States of America
| | - Edward A. Hoover
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Anthony E. Kincaid
- Medical Microbiology and Immunology, Creighton University, Omaha, Nebraska, United States of America
| | - Jason C. Bartz
- Medical Microbiology and Immunology, Creighton University, Omaha, Nebraska, United States of America
| | - Candace K. Mathiason
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|