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Tandon S, Aggarwal P, Sarkar S. Polyglutamine disorders: Pathogenesis and potential drug interventions. Life Sci 2024; 344:122562. [PMID: 38492921 DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2024.122562] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2023] [Revised: 02/27/2024] [Accepted: 03/13/2024] [Indexed: 03/18/2024]
Abstract
Polyglutamine/poly(Q) diseases are a group nine hereditary neurodegenerative disorders caused due to abnormally expanded stretches of CAG trinucleotide in functionally distinct genes. All human poly(Q) diseases are characterized by the formation of microscopically discernable poly(Q) positive aggregates, the inclusion bodies. These toxic inclusion bodies are responsible for the impairment of several cellular pathways such as autophagy, transcription, cell death, etc., that culminate in disease manifestation. Although, these diseases remain largely without treatment, extensive research has generated mounting evidences that various events of poly(Q) pathogenesis can be developed as potential drug targets. The present review article briefly discusses the key events of disease pathogenesis, model system-based investigations that support the development of effective therapeutic interventions against pathogenesis of human poly(Q) disorders, and a comprehensive list of pharmacological and bioactive compounds that have been experimentally shown to alleviate poly(Q)-mediated neurotoxicity. Interestingly, due to the common cause of pathogenesis, all poly(Q) diseases share etiology, thus, findings from one disease can be potentially extrapolated to other poly(Q) diseases as well.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shweta Tandon
- Department of Genetics, University of Delhi South Campus, Benito Juarez Road, New Delhi 110021, India
| | - Prerna Aggarwal
- Department of Genetics, University of Delhi South Campus, Benito Juarez Road, New Delhi 110021, India
| | - Surajit Sarkar
- Department of Genetics, University of Delhi South Campus, Benito Juarez Road, New Delhi 110021, India.
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2
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Figueiredo F, Sárkány Z, Silva A, Vilasboas-Campos D, Maciel P, Teixeira-Castro A, Martins PM, Macedo-Ribeiro S. Drug repurposing of dopaminergic drugs to inhibit ataxin-3 aggregation. Biomed Pharmacother 2023; 165:115258. [PMID: 37549460 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2023.115258] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2023] [Revised: 07/24/2023] [Accepted: 07/29/2023] [Indexed: 08/09/2023] Open
Abstract
The accumulation of mutant ataxin-3 (Atx3) in neuronal nuclear inclusions is a pathological hallmark of Machado-Joseph disease (MJD), also known as Spinocerebellar Ataxia Type 3. Decreasing the protein aggregation burden is a possible disease-modifying strategy to tackle MJD and other neurodegenerative disorders for which only symptomatic treatments are currently available. We performed a drug repurposing screening to identify inhibitors of Atx3 aggregation with known toxicological and pharmacokinetic profiles. Interestingly, dopamine hydrochloride and other catecholamines are among the most potent inhibitors of Atx3 aggregation in vitro. Our results indicate that low micromolar concentrations of dopamine markedly delay the formation of mature amyloid fibrils of mutant Atx3 through the inhibition of the earlier oligomerization steps. Although dopamine itself does not cross the blood-brain barrier, dopamine levels in the brain can be increased by low doses of dopamine precursors and dopamine agonists commonly used to treat Parkinsonian symptoms. In agreement, treatment with levodopa ameliorated motor symptoms in a C. elegans model of MJD. These findings suggest a possible application of dopaminergic drugs to halt or reduce Atx3 accumulation in the brains of MJD patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francisco Figueiredo
- Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde (i3S), Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal; Instituto de Biologia Molecular e Celular (IBMC), Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal; Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas Abel Salazar (ICBAS), Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Zsuzsa Sárkány
- Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde (i3S), Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal; Instituto de Biologia Molecular e Celular (IBMC), Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Alexandra Silva
- Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde (i3S), Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal; Instituto de Biologia Molecular e Celular (IBMC), Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Daniela Vilasboas-Campos
- Life and Health Sciences Research Institute (ICVS), School of Medicine, University of Minho, Braga, Portugal; ICVS/3B's - PT Government Associate Laboratory, Braga, Guimarães, Portugal
| | - Patrícia Maciel
- Life and Health Sciences Research Institute (ICVS), School of Medicine, University of Minho, Braga, Portugal; ICVS/3B's - PT Government Associate Laboratory, Braga, Guimarães, Portugal
| | - Andreia Teixeira-Castro
- Life and Health Sciences Research Institute (ICVS), School of Medicine, University of Minho, Braga, Portugal; ICVS/3B's - PT Government Associate Laboratory, Braga, Guimarães, Portugal
| | - Pedro M Martins
- Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde (i3S), Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal; Instituto de Biologia Molecular e Celular (IBMC), Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal.
| | - Sandra Macedo-Ribeiro
- Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde (i3S), Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal; Instituto de Biologia Molecular e Celular (IBMC), Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal.
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3
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Hong JY, Wang JY, Yue HW, Zhang XL, Zhang SX, Jiang LL, Hu HY. Coaggregation of polyglutamine (polyQ) proteins is mediated by polyQ-tract interactions and impairs cellular proteostasis. Acta Biochim Biophys Sin (Shanghai) 2023. [PMID: 37171184 DOI: 10.3724/abbs.2023081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Nine polyglutamine (polyQ) proteins have already been identified that are considered to be associated with the pathologies of neurodegenerative disorders called polyQ diseases, but whether these polyQ proteins mutually interact and synergize in proteinopathies remains to be elucidated. In this study, 4 polyQ-containing proteins, androgen receptor (AR), ataxin-7 (Atx7), huntingtin (Htt) and ataxin-3 (Atx3), are used as model molecules to investigate their heterologous coaggregation and consequent impact on cellular proteostasis. Our data indicate that the N-terminal fragment of polyQ-expanded (PQE) Atx7 or Htt can coaggregate with and sequester AR and Atx3 into insoluble aggregates or inclusions through their respective polyQ tracts. In vitro coprecipitation and NMR titration experiments suggest that this specific coaggregation depends on polyQ lengths and is probably mediated by polyQ-tract interactions. Luciferase reporter assay shows that these coaggregation and sequestration effects can deplete the cellular availability of AR and consequently impair its transactivation function. This study provides valid evidence supporting the viewpoint that coaggregation of polyQ proteins is mediated by polyQ-tract interactions and benefits our understanding of the molecular mechanism underlying the accumulation of different polyQ proteins in inclusions and their copathological causes of polyQ diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun-Ye Hong
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Shanghai Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Center for Excellence in Molecular Cell Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Jian-Yang Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Shanghai Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Center for Excellence in Molecular Cell Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Hong-Wei Yue
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Shanghai Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Center for Excellence in Molecular Cell Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Xiang-Le Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Shanghai Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Center for Excellence in Molecular Cell Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Shu-Xian Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Shanghai Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Center for Excellence in Molecular Cell Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Lei-Lei Jiang
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Shanghai Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Center for Excellence in Molecular Cell Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, China
| | - Hong-Yu Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Shanghai Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Center for Excellence in Molecular Cell Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, China
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4
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Incebacak Eltemur RD, Nguyen HP, Weber JJ. Calpain-mediated proteolysis as driver and modulator of polyglutamine toxicity. Front Mol Neurosci 2022; 15:1020104. [PMID: 36385755 PMCID: PMC9648470 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2022.1020104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2022] [Accepted: 09/26/2022] [Indexed: 09/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Among posttranslational modifications, directed proteolytic processes have the strongest impact on protein integrity. They are executed by a variety of cellular machineries and lead to a wide range of molecular consequences. Compared to other forms of proteolytic enzymes, the class of calcium-activated calpains is considered as modulator proteases due to their limited proteolytic activity, which changes the structure and function of their target substrates. In the context of neurodegeneration and - in particular - polyglutamine disorders, proteolytic events have been linked to modulatory effects on the molecular pathogenesis by generating harmful breakdown products of disease proteins. These findings led to the formulation of the toxic fragment hypothesis, and calpains appeared to be one of the key players and auspicious therapeutic targets in Huntington disease and Machado Joseph disease. This review provides a current survey of the role of calpains in proteolytic processes found in polyglutamine disorders. Together with insights into general concepts behind toxic fragments and findings in polyglutamine disorders, this work aims to inspire researchers to broaden and deepen the knowledge in this field, which will help to evaluate calpain-mediated proteolysis as a unifying and therapeutically targetable posttranslational mechanism in neurodegeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rana Dilara Incebacak Eltemur
- Department of Human Genetics, Ruhr University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
- Institute of Medical Genetics and Applied Genomics, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Huu Phuc Nguyen
- Department of Human Genetics, Ruhr University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Jonasz Jeremiasz Weber
- Department of Human Genetics, Ruhr University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
- Institute of Medical Genetics and Applied Genomics, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
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5
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Weber JJ, Anger SC, Pereira Sena P, Incebacak Eltemur RD, Huridou C, Fath F, Gross C, Casadei N, Riess O, Nguyen HP. Calpains as novel players in the molecular pathogenesis of spinocerebellar ataxia type 17. Cell Mol Life Sci 2022; 79:262. [PMID: 35482253 PMCID: PMC9050766 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-022-04274-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2021] [Revised: 03/07/2022] [Accepted: 03/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Spinocerebellar ataxia type 17 (SCA17) is a neurodegenerative disease caused by a polyglutamine-encoding trinucleotide repeat expansion in the gene of transcription factor TATA box-binding protein (TBP). While its underlying pathomechanism is elusive, polyglutamine-expanded TBP fragments of unknown origin mediate the mutant protein’s toxicity. Calcium-dependent calpain proteases are protagonists in neurodegenerative disorders. Here, we demonstrate that calpains cleave TBP, and emerging C-terminal fragments mislocalize to the cytoplasm. SCA17 cell and rat models exhibited calpain overactivation, leading to excessive fragmentation and depletion of neuronal proteins in vivo. Transcriptome analysis of SCA17 cells revealed synaptogenesis and calcium signaling perturbations, indicating the potential cause of elevated calpain activity. Pharmacological or genetic calpain inhibition reduced TBP cleavage and aggregation, consequently improving cell viability. Our work underlines the general significance of calpains and their activating pathways in neurodegenerative disorders and presents these proteases as novel players in the molecular pathogenesis of SCA17.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonasz Jeremiasz Weber
- Department of Human Genetics, Ruhr University Bochum, Universitätsstraße 150, 44801, Bochum, Germany.,Institute of Medical Genetics and Applied Genomics, University of Tübingen, 72076, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Stefanie Cari Anger
- Institute of Medical Genetics and Applied Genomics, University of Tübingen, 72076, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Priscila Pereira Sena
- Institute of Medical Genetics and Applied Genomics, University of Tübingen, 72076, Tübingen, Germany.,Graduate School of Cellular Neuroscience, University of Tübingen, 72074, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Rana Dilara Incebacak Eltemur
- Department of Human Genetics, Ruhr University Bochum, Universitätsstraße 150, 44801, Bochum, Germany.,Institute of Medical Genetics and Applied Genomics, University of Tübingen, 72076, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Chrisovalantou Huridou
- Department of Human Genetics, Ruhr University Bochum, Universitätsstraße 150, 44801, Bochum, Germany.,Institute of Medical Genetics and Applied Genomics, University of Tübingen, 72076, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Florian Fath
- Department of Human Genetics, Ruhr University Bochum, Universitätsstraße 150, 44801, Bochum, Germany.,Institute of Medical Genetics and Applied Genomics, University of Tübingen, 72076, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Caspar Gross
- Institute of Medical Genetics and Applied Genomics, University of Tübingen, 72076, Tübingen, Germany.,NGS Competence Center Tübingen, 72076, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Nicolas Casadei
- Institute of Medical Genetics and Applied Genomics, University of Tübingen, 72076, Tübingen, Germany.,NGS Competence Center Tübingen, 72076, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Olaf Riess
- Institute of Medical Genetics and Applied Genomics, University of Tübingen, 72076, Tübingen, Germany.,NGS Competence Center Tübingen, 72076, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Huu Phuc Nguyen
- Department of Human Genetics, Ruhr University Bochum, Universitätsstraße 150, 44801, Bochum, Germany.
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Anti-Excitotoxic Effects of N-Butylidenephthalide Revealed by Chemically Insulted Purkinje Progenitor Cells Derived from SCA3 iPSCs. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23031391. [PMID: 35163312 PMCID: PMC8836169 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23031391] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2021] [Revised: 01/15/2022] [Accepted: 01/17/2022] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Spinocerebellar ataxia type 3 (SCA3) is characterized by the over-repetitive CAG codon in the ataxin-3 gene (ATXN3), which encodes the mutant ATXN3 protein. The pathological defects of SCA3 such as the impaired aggresomes, autophagy, and the proteasome have been reported previously. To date, no effective treatment is available for SCA3 disease. This study aimed to study anti-excitotoxic effects of n-butylidenephthalide by chemically insulted Purkinje progenitor cells derived from SCA3 iPSCs. We successfully generated Purkinje progenitor cells (PPs) from SCA3 patient-derived iPSCs. The PPs, expressing both neural and Purkinje progenitor's markers, were acquired after 35 days of differentiation. In comparison with the PPs derived from control iPSCs, SCA3 iPSCs-derived PPs were more sensitive to the excitotoxicity induced by quinolinic acid (QA). The observations of QA-treated SCA3 PPs showing neural degeneration including neurite shrinkage and cell number decrease could be used to quickly and efficiently identify drug candidates. Given that the QA-induced neural cell death of SCA3 PPs was established, the activity of calpain in SCA3 PPs was revealed. Furthermore, the expression of cleaved poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase 1 (PARP1), a marker of apoptotic pathway, and the accumulation of ATXN3 proteolytic fragments were observed. When SCA3 PPs were treated with n-butylidenephthalide (n-BP), upregulated expression of calpain 2 and concurrent decreased level of calpastatin could be reversed, and the overall calpain activity was accordingly suppressed. Such findings reveal that n-BP could not only inhibit the cleavage of ATXN3 but also protect the QA-induced excitotoxicity from the Purkinje progenitor loss.
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7
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Fourier A, Quadrio I. Proteinopathies associated to repeat expansion disorders. J Neural Transm (Vienna) 2022; 129:173-185. [DOI: 10.1007/s00702-021-02454-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2021] [Accepted: 12/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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8
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Robinson KJ, Tym MC, Hogan A, Watchon M, Yuan KC, Plenderleith SK, Don EK, Laird AS. Flow cytometry allows rapid detection of protein aggregates in cellular and zebrafish models of spinocerebellar ataxia 3. Dis Model Mech 2021; 14:dmm049023. [PMID: 34473252 PMCID: PMC8524651 DOI: 10.1242/dmm.049023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2021] [Accepted: 08/23/2021] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Spinocerebellar ataxia 3 (SCA3, also known as Machado-Joseph disease) is a neurodegenerative disease caused by inheritance of a CAG repeat expansion within the ATXN3 gene, resulting in polyglutamine (polyQ) repeat expansion within the ataxin-3 protein. In this study, we have identified protein aggregates in both neuronal-like (SHSY5Y) cells and transgenic zebrafish expressing human ataxin-3 with expanded polyQ. We have adapted a previously reported flow cytometry methodology named flow cytometric analysis of inclusions and trafficking, allowing rapid quantification of detergent insoluble forms of ataxin-3 fused to a GFP in SHSY5Y cells and cells dissociated from the zebrafish larvae. Flow cytometric analysis revealed an increased number of detergent-insoluble ataxin-3 particles per nuclei in cells and in zebrafish expressing polyQ-expanded ataxin-3 compared to those expressing wild-type human ataxin-3. Treatment with compounds known to modulate autophagic activity altered the number of detergent-insoluble ataxin-3 particles in cells and zebrafish expressing mutant human ataxin-3. We conclude that flow cytometry can be harnessed to rapidly count ataxin-3 aggregates, both in vitro and in vivo, and can be used to compare potential therapies targeting protein aggregates. This article has an associated First Person interview with the first author of the paper.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Angela S. Laird
- Centre for Motor Neuron Disease Research, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Health and Human Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW 2109, Australia
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Robinson KJ, Yuan K, Plenderleith SK, Watchon M, Laird AS. A Novel Calpain Inhibitor Compound Has Protective Effects on a Zebrafish Model of Spinocerebellar Ataxia Type 3. Cells 2021; 10:cells10102592. [PMID: 34685571 PMCID: PMC8533844 DOI: 10.3390/cells10102592] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2021] [Revised: 09/22/2021] [Accepted: 09/22/2021] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Spinocerebellar ataxia type 3 (SCA3) is a hereditary ataxia caused by inheritance of a mutated form of the human ATXN3 gene containing an expanded CAG repeat region, encoding a human ataxin-3 protein with a long polyglutamine (polyQ) repeat region. Previous studies have demonstrated that ataxin-3 containing a long polyQ length is highly aggregation prone. Cleavage of the ataxin-3 protein by calpain proteases has been demonstrated to be enhanced in SCA3 models, leading to an increase in the aggregation propensity of the protein. Here, we tested the therapeutic potential of a novel calpain inhibitor BLD-2736 for the treatment of SCA3 by testing its efficacy on a transgenic zebrafish model of SCA3. We found that treatment with BLD-2736 from 1 to 6 days post-fertilisation (dpf) improves the swimming of SCA3 zebrafish larvae and decreases the presence of insoluble protein aggregates. Furthermore, delaying the commencement of treatment with BLD-2736, until a timepoint when protein aggregates were already known to be present in the zebrafish larvae, was still successful at removing enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) fused-ataxin-3 aggregates and improving the zebrafish swimming. Finally, we demonstrate that treatment with BLD-2736 increased the synthesis of LC3II, increasing the activity of the autophagy protein quality control pathway. Together, these findings suggest that BLD-2736 warrants further investigation as a treatment for SCA3 and related neurodegenerative diseases.
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Simões AT, Carmona V, Duarte-Neves J, Cunha-Santos J, Pereira de Almeida L. Identification of the calpain-generated toxic fragment of ataxin-3 protein provides new avenues for therapy of Machado-Joseph disease| Spinocerebellar ataxia type 3. Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol 2021; 48:e12748. [PMID: 34273111 DOI: 10.1111/nan.12748] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2021] [Revised: 06/26/2021] [Accepted: 07/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
AIMS Machado-Joseph disease (MJD) is the most frequent dominantly inherited cerebellar ataxia worldwide. Expansion of a CAG trinucleotide in the MJD1 gene translates into a polyglutamine tract within ataxin-3, which upon proteolysis may lead to MJD. The aim of this work was to understand the in vivo contribution of calpain proteases to the pathogenesis of MJD. Therefore, we investigated (a) the calpain cleavage sites in ataxin-3 protein, (b) the most toxic ataxin-3 fragment generated by calpain cleavage and (c) whether targeting calpain cleavage sites of mutant ataxin-3 could be a therapeutic strategy for MJD. METHODS We generated truncated and calpain-resistant constructs at the predicted cleavage sites of ataxin-3 using inverse PCR mutagenesis. Lentiviral vectors encoding these constructs were transduced in the adult mouse brain prior to western blot and immunohistochemical analysis 5 and 8 weeks later. RESULTS We identified the putative calpain cleavage sites for both wild-type and mutant ataxin-3 proteins. The mutation of these sites eliminated the formation of the toxic fragments, namely, the 26-kDa fragment, the major contributor for striatal degeneration. Nonetheless, reducing the formation of both the 26- and 34-kDa fragments was required to preclude the intranuclear localisation of ataxin-3. A neuroprotective effect was observed upon mutagenesis of calpain cleavage sites within mutant ataxin-3 protein. CONCLUSIONS These findings suggest that the calpain system should be considered a target for MJD therapy. The identified calpain cleavage sites will contribute to the design of targeted drugs and genome editing systems for those specific locations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Teresa Simões
- CNC-Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal.,CIBB-Center for Innovative Biomedicine and Biotechnology, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Vítor Carmona
- CNC-Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal.,CIBB-Center for Innovative Biomedicine and Biotechnology, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Joana Duarte-Neves
- CNC-Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal.,CIBB-Center for Innovative Biomedicine and Biotechnology, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Janete Cunha-Santos
- CNC-Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal.,CIBB-Center for Innovative Biomedicine and Biotechnology, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Luís Pereira de Almeida
- CNC-Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal.,CIBB-Center for Innovative Biomedicine and Biotechnology, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal.,Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
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11
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Weber JJ, Haas E, Maringer Y, Hauser S, Casadei NLP, Chishti AH, Riess O, Hübener-Schmid J. Calpain-1 ablation partially rescues disease-associated hallmarks in models of Machado-Joseph disease. Hum Mol Genet 2021; 29:892-906. [PMID: 31960910 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddaa010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2019] [Revised: 01/14/2020] [Accepted: 01/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Proteolytic fragmentation of polyglutamine-expanded ataxin-3 is a concomitant and modifier of the molecular pathogenesis of Machado-Joseph disease (MJD), the most common autosomal dominant cerebellar ataxia. Calpains, a group of calcium-dependent cysteine proteases, are important mediators of ataxin-3 cleavage and implicated in multiple neurodegenerative conditions. Pharmacologic and genetic approaches lowering calpain activity showed beneficial effects on molecular and behavioural disease characteristics in MJD model organisms. However, specifically targeting one of the calpain isoforms by genetic means has not yet been evaluated as a potential therapeutic strategy. In our study, we tested whether calpains are overactivated in the MJD context and if reduction or ablation of calpain-1 expression ameliorates the disease-associated phenotype in MJD cells and mice. In all analysed MJD models, we detected an elevated calpain activity at baseline. Lowering or removal of calpain-1 in cells or mice counteracted calpain system overactivation and led to reduced cleavage of ataxin-3 without affecting its aggregation. Moreover, calpain-1 knockout in YAC84Q mice alleviated excessive fragmentation of important synaptic proteins. Despite worsening some motor characteristics, YAC84Q mice showed a rescue of body weight loss and extended survival upon calpain-1 knockout. Together, our findings emphasize the general potential of calpains as a therapeutic target in MJD and other neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonasz J Weber
- Institute of Medical Genetics and Applied Genomics, University of Tübingen, Tübingen 72076, Germany.,Centre for Rare Diseases, University of Tübingen, Tübingen 72076, Germany.,Department of Human Genetics, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum 44801, Germany
| | - Eva Haas
- Institute of Medical Genetics and Applied Genomics, University of Tübingen, Tübingen 72076, Germany.,Centre for Rare Diseases, University of Tübingen, Tübingen 72076, Germany
| | - Yacine Maringer
- Institute of Medical Genetics and Applied Genomics, University of Tübingen, Tübingen 72076, Germany.,Centre for Rare Diseases, University of Tübingen, Tübingen 72076, Germany
| | - Stefan Hauser
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases, Tübingen 72076, Germany
| | - Nicolas L P Casadei
- Institute of Medical Genetics and Applied Genomics, University of Tübingen, Tübingen 72076, Germany.,Centre for Rare Diseases, University of Tübingen, Tübingen 72076, Germany
| | - Athar H Chishti
- Department of Developmental, Molecular and Chemical Biology, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, MA 02111, USA
| | - Olaf Riess
- Institute of Medical Genetics and Applied Genomics, University of Tübingen, Tübingen 72076, Germany.,Centre for Rare Diseases, University of Tübingen, Tübingen 72076, Germany
| | - Jeannette Hübener-Schmid
- Institute of Medical Genetics and Applied Genomics, University of Tübingen, Tübingen 72076, Germany.,Centre for Rare Diseases, University of Tübingen, Tübingen 72076, Germany
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12
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Raj K, Akundi RS. Mutant Ataxin-3-Containing Aggregates (MATAGGs) in Spinocerebellar Ataxia Type 3: Dynamics of the Disorder. Mol Neurobiol 2021; 58:3095-3118. [PMID: 33629274 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-021-02314-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2020] [Accepted: 01/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Spinocerebellar ataxia type 3 (SCA3) is the most common type of SCA worldwide caused by abnormal polyglutamine expansion in the coding region of the ataxin-3 gene. Ataxin-3 is a multi-faceted protein involved in various cellular processes such as deubiquitination, cytoskeletal organisation, and transcriptional regulation. The presence of an expanded poly(Q) stretch leads to altered processing and misfolding of the protein culminating in the production of insoluble protein aggregates in the cell. Various post-translational modifications affect ataxin-3 fibrillation and aggregation. This review provides an exhaustive assessment of the various pathogenic mechanisms undertaken by the mutant ataxin-3-containing aggregates (MATAGGs) for disease induction and neurodegeneration. This includes in-depth discussion on MATAGG dynamics including their formation, role in neuronal pathogenesis, and the debate over the toxic v/s protective nature of the MATAGGs in disease progression. Additionally, the currently available therapeutic strategies against SCA3 have been reviewed. The shift in the focus of such strategies, from targeting the steps that lead to or reduce aggregate formation to targeting the expression of mutant ataxin-3 itself via RNA-based therapeutics, has also been presented. We also discuss the intriguing promise that various growth and neurotrophic factors, especially the insulin pathway, hold in the modulation of SCA3 progression. These emerging areas show the newer directions through which SCA3 can be targeted including various preclinical and clinical trials. All these advances made in the last three decades since the discovery of the ataxin-3 gene have been critically reviewed here.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kritika Raj
- Neuroinflammation Research Lab, Faculty of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, South Asian University, Chanakyapuri, New Delhi, 110021, India
| | - Ravi Shankar Akundi
- Neuroinflammation Research Lab, Faculty of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, South Asian University, Chanakyapuri, New Delhi, 110021, India.
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Lee JH, Lin SY, Liu JW, Lin SZ, Harn HJ, Chiou TW. n-Butylidenephthalide Modulates Autophagy to Ameliorate Neuropathological Progress of Spinocerebellar Ataxia Type 3 through mTOR Pathway. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:6339. [PMID: 34199295 PMCID: PMC8231882 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22126339] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2021] [Revised: 06/09/2021] [Accepted: 06/11/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Spinocerebellar ataxia type 3 (SCA3), a hereditary and lethal neurodegenerative disease, is attributed to the abnormal accumulation of undegradable polyglutamine (polyQ), which is encoded by mutated ataxin-3 gene (ATXN3). The toxic fragments processed from mutant ATXN3 can induce neuronal death, leading to the muscular incoordination of the human body. Some treatment strategies of SCA3 are preferentially focused on depleting the abnormal aggregates, which led to the discovery of small molecule n-butylidenephthalide (n-BP). n-BP-promoted autophagy protected the loss of Purkinje cell in the cerebellum that regulates the network associated with motor functions. We report that the n-BP treatment may be effective in treating SCA3 disease. n-BP treatment led to the depletion of mutant ATXN3 with the expanded polyQ chain and the toxic fragments resulting in increased metabolic activity and alleviated atrophy of SCA3 murine cerebellum. Furthermore, n-BP treated animal and HEK-293GFP-ATXN3-84Q cell models could consistently show the depletion of aggregates through mTOR inhibition. With its unique mechanism, the two autophagic inhibitors Bafilomycin A1 and wortmannin could halt the n-BP-induced elimination of aggregates. Collectively, n-BP shows promising results for the treatment of SCA3.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jui-Hao Lee
- Everfront Biotech Inc., New Taipei City 22180, Taiwan; (J.-H.L.); (S.-Y.L.); (J.-W.L.)
- Department of Life Science, Graduate Institute of Biotechnology, National Dong-Hwa University, Hualien 97447, Taiwan
| | - Si-Yin Lin
- Everfront Biotech Inc., New Taipei City 22180, Taiwan; (J.-H.L.); (S.-Y.L.); (J.-W.L.)
- Department of Life Science, Graduate Institute of Biotechnology, National Dong-Hwa University, Hualien 97447, Taiwan
| | - Jen-Wei Liu
- Everfront Biotech Inc., New Taipei City 22180, Taiwan; (J.-H.L.); (S.-Y.L.); (J.-W.L.)
- Department of Life Science, Graduate Institute of Biotechnology, National Dong-Hwa University, Hualien 97447, Taiwan
| | - Shinn-Zong Lin
- Bioinnovation Center, Buddhist Tzu Chi Medical Foundation, Hualien 97002, Taiwan;
- Department of Neurosurgery, Hualien Tzu Chi Hospital, Buddhist Tzu Chi Medical Foundation, Tzu Chi University, Hualien 97002, Taiwan
| | - Horng-Jyh Harn
- Bioinnovation Center, Buddhist Tzu Chi Medical Foundation, Hualien 97002, Taiwan;
- Department of Pathology, Hualien Tzu Chi Hospital, Buddhist Tzu Chi Medical Foundation, Tzu Chi University, Hualien 97002, Taiwan
| | - Tzyy-Wen Chiou
- Department of Life Science, Graduate Institute of Biotechnology, National Dong-Hwa University, Hualien 97447, Taiwan
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Hommersom MP, Buijsen RAM, van Roon-Mom WMC, van de Warrenburg BPC, van Bokhoven H. Human Induced Pluripotent Stem Cell-Based Modelling of Spinocerebellar Ataxias. Stem Cell Rev Rep 2021; 18:441-456. [PMID: 34031815 PMCID: PMC8930896 DOI: 10.1007/s12015-021-10184-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Abstract Dominant spinocerebellar ataxias (SCAs) constitute a large group of phenotypically and genetically heterogeneous disorders that mainly present with dysfunction of the cerebellum as their main hallmark. Although animal and cell models have been highly instrumental for our current insight into the underlying disease mechanisms of these neurodegenerative disorders, they do not offer the full human genetic and physiological context. The advent of human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs) and protocols to differentiate these into essentially every cell type allows us to closely model SCAs in a human context. In this review, we systematically summarize recent findings from studies using hiPSC-based modelling of SCAs, and discuss what knowledge has been gained from these studies. We conclude that hiPSC-based models are a powerful tool for modelling SCAs as they contributed to new mechanistic insights and have the potential to serve the development of genetic therapies. However, the use of standardized methods and multiple clones of isogenic lines are essential to increase validity and reproducibility of the insights gained. Graphical Abstract ![]()
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Affiliation(s)
- Marina P Hommersom
- Department of Human Genetics, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition, and Behaviour, Radboud University Medical Center, 6500 HB, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Ronald A M Buijsen
- Department of Human Genetics, Leiden University Medical Center, 2300 RC, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Willeke M C van Roon-Mom
- Department of Human Genetics, Leiden University Medical Center, 2300 RC, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Bart P C van de Warrenburg
- Department of Neurology, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University Medical Center, 6500 HB, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
| | - Hans van Bokhoven
- Department of Human Genetics, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition, and Behaviour, Radboud University Medical Center, 6500 HB, Nijmegen, The Netherlands. .,Department of Cognitive Neuroscience, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University Medical Center, 6500 HB, Nijmegen, Netherlands.
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PolyQ-expanded proteins impair cellular proteostasis of ataxin-3 through sequestering the co-chaperone HSJ1 into aggregates. Sci Rep 2021; 11:7815. [PMID: 33837238 PMCID: PMC8035147 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-87382-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2020] [Accepted: 03/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Polyglutamine (polyQ) expansion of proteins can trigger protein misfolding and amyloid-like aggregation, which thus lead to severe cytotoxicities and even the respective neurodegenerative diseases. However, why polyQ aggregation is toxic to cells is not fully elucidated. Here, we took the fragments of polyQ-expanded (PQE) ataxin-7 (Atx7) and huntingtin (Htt) as models to investigate the effect of polyQ aggregates on the cellular proteostasis of endogenous ataxin-3 (Atx3), a protein that frequently appears in diverse inclusion bodies. We found that PQE Atx7 and Htt impair the cellular proteostasis of Atx3 by reducing its soluble as well as total Atx3 level but enhancing formation of the aggregates. Expression of these polyQ proteins promotes proteasomal degradation of endogenous Atx3 and accumulation of its aggregated form. Then we verified that the co-chaperone HSJ1 is an essential factor that orchestrates the balance of cellular proteostasis of Atx3; and further discovered that the polyQ proteins can sequester HSJ1 into aggregates or inclusions in a UIM domain-dependent manner. Thereby, the impairment of Atx3 proteostasis may be attributed to the sequestration and functional loss of cellular HSJ1. This study deciphers a potential mechanism underlying how PQE protein triggers proteinopathies, and also provides additional evidence in supporting the hijacking hypothesis that sequestration of cellular interacting partners by protein aggregates leads to cytotoxicity or neurodegeneration.
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Robinson KJ, Watchon M, Laird AS. Aberrant Cerebellar Circuitry in the Spinocerebellar Ataxias. Front Neurosci 2020; 14:707. [PMID: 32765211 PMCID: PMC7378801 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2020.00707] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2020] [Accepted: 06/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The spinocerebellar ataxias (SCAs) are a heterogeneous group of neurodegenerative diseases that share convergent disease features. A common symptom of these diseases is development of ataxia, involving impaired balance and motor coordination, usually stemming from cerebellar dysfunction and neurodegeneration. For most spinocerebellar ataxias, pathology can be attributed to an underlying gene mutation and the impaired function of the encoded protein through loss or gain-of-function effects. Strikingly, despite vast heterogeneity in the structure and function of disease-causing genes across the SCAs and the cellular processes affected, the downstream effects have considerable overlap, including alterations in cerebellar circuitry. Interestingly, aberrant function and degeneration of Purkinje cells, the major output neuronal population present within the cerebellum, precedes abnormalities in other neuronal populations within many SCAs, suggesting that Purkinje cells have increased vulnerability to cellular perturbations. Factors that are known to contribute to perturbed Purkinje cell function in spinocerebellar ataxias include altered gene expression resulting in altered expression or functionality of proteins and channels that modulate membrane potential, downstream impairments in intracellular calcium homeostasis and changes in glutamatergic input received from synapsing climbing or parallel fibers. This review will explore this enhanced vulnerability and the aberrant cerebellar circuitry linked with it in many forms of SCA. It is critical to understand why Purkinje cells are vulnerable to such insults and what overlapping pathogenic mechanisms are occurring across multiple SCAs, despite different underlying genetic mutations. Enhanced understanding of disease mechanisms will facilitate the development of treatments to prevent or slow progression of the underlying neurodegenerative processes, cerebellar atrophy and ataxic symptoms.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Angela S. Laird
- Centre for Motor Neuron Disease Research, Department of Biomedical Science, Faculty of Medicine, Health and Human Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia
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Chen YS, Hong ZX, Lin SZ, Harn HJ. Identifying Therapeutic Targets for Spinocerebellar Ataxia Type 3/Machado-Joseph Disease through Integration of Pathological Biomarkers and Therapeutic Strategies. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21093063. [PMID: 32357546 PMCID: PMC7246822 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21093063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2020] [Revised: 04/21/2020] [Accepted: 04/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Spinocerebellar ataxia type 3/Machado-Joseph disease (SCA3/MJD) is a progressive motor disease with no broadly effective treatment. However, most current therapies are based on symptoms rather than the underlying disease mechanisms. In this review, we describe potential therapeutic strategies based on known pathological biomarkers and related pathogenic processes. The three major conclusions from the current studies are summarized as follows: (i) for the drugs currently being tested in clinical trials; a weak connection was observed between drugs and SCA3/MJD biomarkers. The only two exceptions are the drugs suppressing glutamate-induced calcium influx and chemical chaperon. (ii) For most of the drugs that have been tested in animal studies, there is a direct association with pathological biomarkers. We further found that many drugs are associated with inducing autophagy, which is supported by the evidence of deficient autophagy biomarkers in SCA3/MJD, and that there may be more promising therapeutics. (iii) Some reported biomarkers lack relatively targeted drugs. Low glucose utilization, altered amino acid metabolism, and deficient insulin signaling are all implicated in SCA3/MJD, but there have been few studies on treatment strategies targeting these abnormalities. Therapeutic strategies targeting multiple pathological SCA3/MJD biomarkers may effectively block disease progression and preserve neurological function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Shuan Chen
- Bioinnovation Center, Buddhist Tzu Chi Medical Foundation, Hualien 97002, Taiwan
- Department of Medical Research, Hualien Tzu Chi Hospital, Buddhist Tzu Chi Medical Foundation, Hualien 97002, Taiwan
- Correspondence: (Y.-S.C.); (H.-J.H.); Tel.: +886-3-856-1825 (Y.-S.C. & H.-J.H.); Fax: +886-3-856-0977 (H.-J.H.)
| | - Zhen-Xiang Hong
- Bioinnovation Center, Buddhist Tzu Chi Medical Foundation, Hualien 97002, Taiwan
| | - Shinn-Zong Lin
- Bioinnovation Center, Buddhist Tzu Chi Medical Foundation, Hualien 97002, Taiwan
- Department of Neurosurgery, Hualien Tzu Chi Hospital, Buddhist Tzu Chi Medical Foundation, Hualien 97002, Taiwan
| | - Horng-Jyh Harn
- Bioinnovation Center, Buddhist Tzu Chi Medical Foundation, Hualien 97002, Taiwan
- Department of Pathology, Hualien Tzu Chi Hospital, Tzu Chi University, Buddhist Tzu Chi Medical Foundation, Hualien 97002, Taiwan
- Correspondence: (Y.-S.C.); (H.-J.H.); Tel.: +886-3-856-1825 (Y.-S.C. & H.-J.H.); Fax: +886-3-856-0977 (H.-J.H.)
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18
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Dantuma NP, Herzog LK. Machado-Joseph Disease: A Stress Combating Deubiquitylating Enzyme Changing Sides. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2020; 1233:237-260. [PMID: 32274760 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-38266-7_10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Machado-Joseph disease (MJD), also known as Spinocerebellar ataxia type 3 (SCA3), is an autosomal dominant inheritable neurodegenerative disorder. After a long pre-symptomatic period, this late-onset disease progressively disables patients and typically leads to premature death. Neuronal loss in specific regions of the cerebellum, brainstem and basal ganglia as well as the spinal cord explains the spectra of debilitating neurological symptoms, most strikingly progressive limb, and gait ataxia. The genetic cause of MJD is a polyglutamine (polyQ) repeat expansion in the gene that encodes ataxin-3. This polyQ-containing protein displays a well-defined catalytic activity as ataxin-3 is a deubiquitylating enzyme that removes and disassembles ubiquitin chains from specific substrates. While mutant ataxin-3 with an expanded polyQ repeat induces cellular stress due to its propensity to aggregate, the native functions of wild-type ataxin-3 are linked to the cellular countermeasures against the very same stress conditions inflicted by polyQ-containing and other aggregation-prone proteins. Hence, a mixture of gain-of-function and loss-of-function mechanisms are likely to contribute to the neuronal demise observed in MJD. In this review, we discuss the intimate link between ataxin-3 and cellular stress and its relevance for therapeutic intervention in MJD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nico P Dantuma
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology (CMB), Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden.
| | - Laura K Herzog
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology (CMB), Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
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Prestori F, Moccia F, D’Angelo E. Disrupted Calcium Signaling in Animal Models of Human Spinocerebellar Ataxia (SCA). Int J Mol Sci 2019; 21:ijms21010216. [PMID: 31892274 PMCID: PMC6981692 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21010216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2019] [Revised: 12/22/2019] [Accepted: 12/24/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Spinocerebellar ataxias (SCAs) constitute a heterogeneous group of more than 40 autosomal-dominant genetic and neurodegenerative diseases characterized by loss of balance and motor coordination due to dysfunction of the cerebellum and its efferent connections. Despite a well-described clinical and pathological phenotype, the molecular and cellular events that underlie neurodegeneration are still poorly undaerstood. Emerging research suggests that mutations in SCA genes cause disruptions in multiple cellular pathways but the characteristic SCA pathogenesis does not begin until calcium signaling pathways are disrupted in cerebellar Purkinje cells. Ca2+ signaling in Purkinje cells is important for normal cellular function as these neurons express a variety of Ca2+ channels, Ca2+-dependent kinases and phosphatases, and Ca2+-binding proteins to tightly maintain Ca2+ homeostasis and regulate physiological Ca2+-dependent processes. Abnormal Ca2+ levels can activate toxic cascades leading to characteristic death of Purkinje cells, cerebellar atrophy, and ataxia that occur in many SCAs. The output of the cerebellar cortex is conveyed to the deep cerebellar nuclei (DCN) by Purkinje cells via inhibitory signals; thus, Purkinje cell dysfunction or degeneration would partially or completely impair the cerebellar output in SCAs. In the absence of the inhibitory signal emanating from Purkinje cells, DCN will become more excitable, thereby affecting the motor areas receiving DCN input and resulting in uncoordinated movements. An outstanding advantage in studying the pathogenesis of SCAs is represented by the availability of a large number of animal models which mimic the phenotype observed in humans. By mainly focusing on mouse models displaying mutations or deletions in genes which encode for Ca2+ signaling-related proteins, in this review we will discuss the several pathogenic mechanisms related to deranged Ca2+ homeostasis that leads to significant Purkinje cell degeneration and dysfunction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesca Prestori
- Department of Brain and Behavioral Sciences, University of Pavia, 27100 Pavia, Italy;
- Correspondence:
| | - Francesco Moccia
- Department of Biology and Biotechnology “Lazzaro Spallanzani”, University of Pavia, 27100 Pavia, Italy;
| | - Egidio D’Angelo
- Department of Brain and Behavioral Sciences, University of Pavia, 27100 Pavia, Italy;
- IRCCS Mondino Foundation, 27100 Pavia, Italy
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20
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Da Silva JD, Teixeira-Castro A, Maciel P. From Pathogenesis to Novel Therapeutics for Spinocerebellar Ataxia Type 3: Evading Potholes on the Way to Translation. Neurotherapeutics 2019; 16:1009-1031. [PMID: 31691128 PMCID: PMC6985322 DOI: 10.1007/s13311-019-00798-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Spinocerebellar ataxia type 3 (SCA3), also known as Machado-Joseph disease (MJD), is a neurodegenerative disorder caused by a polyglutamine expansion in the ATXN3 gene. In spite of the identification of a clear monogenic cause 25 years ago, the pathological process still puzzles researchers, impairing prospects for an effective therapy. Here, we propose the disruption of protein homeostasis as the hub of SCA3 pathogenesis, being the molecular mechanisms and cellular pathways that are deregulated in SCA3 downstream consequences of the misfolding and aggregation of ATXN3. Moreover, we attempt to provide a realistic perspective on how the translational/clinical research in SCA3 should evolve. This was based on molecular findings, clinical and epidemiological characteristics, studies of proposed treatments in other conditions, and how that information is essential for their (re-)application in SCA3. This review thus aims i) to critically evaluate the current state of research on SCA3, from fundamental to translational and clinical perspectives; ii) to bring up the current key questions that remain unanswered in this disorder; and iii) to provide a frame on how those answers should be pursued.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jorge Diogo Da Silva
- Life and Health Sciences Research Institute (ICVS), School of Medicine, University of Minho, Braga, Portugal
- ICVS/3B's - PT Government Associate Laboratory, Braga/Guimarães, Portugal
| | - Andreia Teixeira-Castro
- Life and Health Sciences Research Institute (ICVS), School of Medicine, University of Minho, Braga, Portugal
- ICVS/3B's - PT Government Associate Laboratory, Braga/Guimarães, Portugal
| | - Patrícia Maciel
- Life and Health Sciences Research Institute (ICVS), School of Medicine, University of Minho, Braga, Portugal.
- ICVS/3B's - PT Government Associate Laboratory, Braga/Guimarães, Portugal.
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21
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Hsieh M, Hsieh BY, Ma CY, Li YT, Liu CS, Lo CM. Protective roles of carbonic anhydrase 8 in Machado-Joseph Disease. J Neurosci Res 2019; 97:1278-1297. [PMID: 31157458 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.24474] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2018] [Revised: 03/27/2019] [Accepted: 05/14/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Machado-Joseph disease (MJD)/Spinocerebellar ataxia type 3 (SCA3) is an inherited neurodegenerative disease that can lead to a regression of motor coordination and muscle control in the extremities. It is known that expansion of CAG repeats encodes abnormally long polyQ in mutant ataxin-3, the disease protein. It is also noted that mutant ataxin-3 interacts with 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor type 1 (IP3R1) and induces abnormal Ca2+ release. Previously, we have shown a significant increase in the expression of carbonic anhydrase VIII (CA8) in SK-N-SH-MJD78 cells, which are human neuroblastoma cells overexpressing mutant ataxin-3 with 78 glutamine repeats. In the current study, we showed the presence of significantly increased CA8 expression in MJD mouse cerebellum in either early or late disease stage, with a gradual decrease in CA8 expression as the MJD mice naturally aged. By immunofluorescence and immunoprecipitation analysis, we also found that CA8 co-localized and interacted with mutant ataxin-3 in SK-N-SH-MJD78 cells harboring overexpressed CA8 (SK-MJD78-CA8). In addition, we found that SK-MJD78-CA8 cells, as well as cerebellar granule neurons (CGNs) of MJD transgenic (Tg) mouse with overexpressed CA8, were more resistant to reactive oxygen species (ROS) stress than the control cells. Importantly, overexpression of CA8 in SK-MJD78-CA8 cells and in MJD CGNs rescued abnormal Ca2+ release and caused an increase in cell survival. In summary, we demonstrate the protective function of CA8 in MJD disease models and speculate that the declining expression of CA8 following an initial increased expression may be related to the late onset phenomenon of MJD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mingli Hsieh
- Department of Life Science, Tunghai University, Taichung, Taiwan, Republic of China.,Life Science Research Center, Tunghai University, Taichung, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | - Benjamin Y Hsieh
- Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | - Chung-Yung Ma
- Department of Life Science, Tunghai University, Taichung, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | - Yi-Ting Li
- Department of Life Science, Tunghai University, Taichung, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | - Chin-San Liu
- Vascular and Genomic Research Center, Changhua Christian Hospital, Changhua, Taiwan, Republic of China.,Department of Neurology, Changhua Christian Hospital, Changhua, Taiwan, Republic of China.,Graduate Institute of Integrative Chinese and Western Medicine, China Medical University Hospital, Taichung, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | - Che-Min Lo
- Department of Life Science, Tunghai University, Taichung, Taiwan, Republic of China
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Buijsen RAM, Toonen LJA, Gardiner SL, van Roon-Mom WMC. Genetics, Mechanisms, and Therapeutic Progress in Polyglutamine Spinocerebellar Ataxias. Neurotherapeutics 2019; 16:263-286. [PMID: 30607747 PMCID: PMC6554265 DOI: 10.1007/s13311-018-00696-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Autosomal dominant cerebellar ataxias (ADCAs) are a group of neurodegenerative disorders characterized by degeneration of the cerebellum and its connections. All ADCAs have progressive ataxia as their main clinical feature, frequently accompanied by dysarthria and oculomotor deficits. The most common spinocerebellar ataxias (SCAs) are 6 polyglutamine (polyQ) SCAs. These diseases are all caused by a CAG repeat expansion in the coding region of a gene. Currently, no curative treatment is available for any of the polyQ SCAs, but increasing knowledge on the genetics and the pathological mechanisms of these polyQ SCAs has provided promising therapeutic targets to potentially slow disease progression. Potential treatments can be divided into pharmacological and gene therapies that target the toxic downstream effects, gene therapies that target the polyQ SCA genes, and stem cell replacement therapies. Here, we will provide a review on the genetics, mechanisms, and therapeutic progress in polyglutamine spinocerebellar ataxias.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ronald A M Buijsen
- Department of Human Genetics, LUMC, P.O. Box 9600, 2300 RC, Leiden, The Netherlands.
| | - Lodewijk J A Toonen
- Department of Human Genetics, LUMC, P.O. Box 9600, 2300 RC, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Sarah L Gardiner
- Department of Human Genetics, LUMC, P.O. Box 9600, 2300 RC, Leiden, The Netherlands
- Department of Neurology, LUMC, P.O. Box 9600, 2300 RC, Leiden, The Netherlands
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Killing Two Angry Birds with One Stone: Autophagy Activation by Inhibiting Calpains in Neurodegenerative Diseases and Beyond. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2019; 2019:4741252. [PMID: 30895192 PMCID: PMC6393885 DOI: 10.1155/2019/4741252] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2018] [Accepted: 01/27/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Proteolytic machineries execute vital cellular functions and their disturbances are implicated in diverse medical conditions, including neurodegenerative diseases. Interestingly, calpains, a class of Ca2+-dependent regulatory proteases, can modulate the degradational system of autophagy by cleaving proteins involved in this pathway. Moreover, both machineries are common players in many molecular pathomechanisms and have been targeted individually or together, as a therapeutic strategy in experimental setups. In this review, we briefly introduce calpains and autophagy, with their roles in health and disease, and focus on their direct pathologically relevant interplay in neurodegeneration and beyond. The modulation of calpain activity may comprise a promising treatment approach to attenuate the deregulation of these two essential mechanisms.
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24
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Matos CA, de Almeida LP, Nóbrega C. Machado-Joseph disease/spinocerebellar ataxia type 3: lessons from disease pathogenesis and clues into therapy. J Neurochem 2018; 148:8-28. [PMID: 29959858 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.14541] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2018] [Revised: 06/05/2018] [Accepted: 06/27/2018] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Machado-Joseph disease (MJD), also known as spinocerebellar ataxia type 3 (SCA3), is an incurable disorder, widely regarded as the most common form of spinocerebellar ataxia in the world. MJD/SCA3 arises from mutation of the ATXN3 gene, but this simple monogenic cause contrasts with the complexity of the pathogenic mechanisms that are currently admitted to underlie neuronal dysfunction and death. The aberrantly expanded protein product - ataxin-3 - is known to aggregate and generate toxic species that disrupt several cell systems, including autophagy, proteostasis, transcription, mitochondrial function and signalling. Over the years, research into putative therapeutic approaches has often been devoted to the development of strategies that counteract disease at different stages of cellular pathogenesis. Silencing the pathogenic protein, blocking aggregation, inhibiting toxic proteolytic processing and counteracting dysfunctions of the cellular systems affected have yielded promising ameliorating results in studies with cellular and animal models. The current review analyses the available studies dedicated to the investigation of MJD/SCA3 pathogenesis and the exploration of possible therapeutic strategies, focusing primarily on gene therapy and pharmacological approaches rooted on the molecular and cellular mechanisms of disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos A Matos
- Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology (CNC), University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal.,Institute for Interdisciplinary Research, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Luís Pereira de Almeida
- Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology (CNC), University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal.,Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Clévio Nóbrega
- Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology (CNC), University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal.,Department of Biomedical Sciences and Medicine, University of Algarve, Coimbra, Portugal.,Centre for Biomedical Research (CBMR), University of Algarve, Coimbra, Portugal.,Algarve Biomedical Center (ABC), University of Algarve, Faro, Portugal
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Abstract
Polyglutamine diseases are hereditary degenerative disorders of the nervous system that have remained, to this date, untreatable. Promisingly, investigation into their molecular etiology and the development of increasingly perfected tools have contributed to the design of novel strategies with therapeutic potential. Encouraging studies have explored gene therapy as a means to counteract cell demise and loss in this context. The current chapter addresses the two main focuses of research in the area: the characteristics of the systems used to deliver nucleic acids to cells and the molecular and cellular actions of the therapeutic agents. Vectors used in gene therapy have to satisfyingly reach the tissues and cell types of interest, while eliciting the lowest toxicity possible. Both viral and non-viral systems have been developed for the delivery of nucleic acids to the central nervous system, each with its respective advantages and shortcomings. Since each polyglutamine disease is caused by mutation of a single gene, many gene therapy strategies have tried to halt degeneration by silencing the corresponding protein products, usually recurring to RNA interference. The potential of small interfering RNAs, short hairpin RNAs and microRNAs has been investigated. Overexpression of protective genes has also been evaluated as a means of decreasing mutant protein toxicity and operate beneficial alterations. Recent gene editing tools promise yet other ways of interfering with the disease-causing genes, at the most upstream points possible. Results obtained in both cell and animal models encourage further delving into this type of therapeutic strategies and support the future use of gene therapy in the treatment of polyglutamine diseases.
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Egorova PA, Bezprozvanny IB. Inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptors and neurodegenerative disorders. FEBS J 2018; 285:3547-3565. [PMID: 29253316 DOI: 10.1111/febs.14366] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2017] [Revised: 11/27/2017] [Accepted: 12/12/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor (IP3 R) is an intracellular ion channel that mediates the release of calcium ions from the endoplasmic reticulum. It plays a role in basic biological functions, such as cell division, differentiation, fertilization and cell death, and is involved in developmental processes including learning, memory and behavior. Deregulation of neuronal calcium signaling results in disturbance of cell homeostasis, synaptic loss and dysfunction, eventually leading to cell death. Three IP3 R subtypes have been identified in mammalian cells and the predominant isoform in neurons is IP3 R type 1. Dysfunction of IP3 R type 1 may play a role in the pathogenesis of certain neurodegenerative diseases as enhanced activity of the IP3 R was observed in models of Huntington's disease, spinocerebellar ataxias and Alzheimer's disease. These results suggest that IP3 R-mediated signaling is a potential target for treatment of these disorders. In this review we discuss the structure, functions and regulation of the IP3 R in healthy neurons and in conditions of neurodegeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Polina A Egorova
- Laboratory of Molecular Neurodegeneration, Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University, St Petersburg, Russia
| | - Ilya B Bezprozvanny
- Laboratory of Molecular Neurodegeneration, Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University, St Petersburg, Russia.,Department of Physiology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
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27
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Molecular Mechanisms and Cellular Pathways Implicated in Machado-Joseph Disease Pathogenesis. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2018; 1049:349-367. [PMID: 29427113 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-71779-1_18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Machado-Joseph disease (MJD) is a dominantly inherited disorder originally described in people of Portuguese descent, and associated with the expansion of a CAG tract in the coding region of the causative gene MJD1/ATX3. The CAG repeats range from 10 to 51 in the normal population and from 55 to 87 in SCA3/MJD patients. MJD1 encodes ataxin-3, a protein whose physiological function has been linked to ubiquitin-mediated proteolysis. Despite the identification of the causative mutation, the pathogenic process leading to the neurodegeneration observed in the disease is not yet completely understood. In the past years, several studies identified different molecular mechanisms and cellular pathways as being impaired or deregulated in MJD. Autophagy, proteolysis or post-translational modifications, among other processes, were implicated in MJD pathogenesis. From these studies it was possible to identify new targets for therapeutic intervention, which in some cases proved successful in models of disease.
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28
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The CAG-polyglutamine repeat diseases: a clinical, molecular, genetic, and pathophysiologic nosology. HANDBOOK OF CLINICAL NEUROLOGY 2018; 147:143-170. [PMID: 29325609 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-444-63233-3.00011-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Throughout the genome, unstable tandem nucleotide repeats can expand to cause a variety of neurologic disorders. Expansion of a CAG triplet repeat within a coding exon gives rise to an elongated polyglutamine (polyQ) tract in the resultant protein product, and accounts for a unique category of neurodegenerative disorders, known as the CAG-polyglutamine repeat diseases. The nine members of the CAG-polyglutamine disease family include spinal and bulbar muscular atrophy (SBMA), Huntington disease, dentatorubral pallidoluysian atrophy, and six spinocerebellar ataxias (SCA 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, and 17). All CAG-polyglutamine diseases are dominantly inherited, with the exception of SBMA, which is X-linked, and many CAG-polyglutamine diseases display anticipation, which is defined as increasing disease severity in successive generations of an affected kindred. Despite widespread expression of the different polyQ-expanded disease proteins throughout the body, each CAG-polyglutamine disease strikes a particular subset of neurons, although the mechanism for this cell-type selectivity remains poorly understood. While the different genes implicated in these disorders display amino acid homology only in the repeat tract domain, certain pathologic molecular processes have been implicated in almost all of the CAG-polyglutamine repeat diseases, including protein aggregation, proteolytic cleavage, transcription dysregulation, autophagy impairment, and mitochondrial dysfunction. Here we highlight the clinical and molecular genetic features of each distinct disorder, and then discuss common themes in CAG-polyglutamine disease pathogenesis, closing with emerging advances in therapy development.
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Wang Z. Experimental and Clinical Strategies for Treating Spinocerebellar Ataxia Type 3. Neuroscience 2017; 371:138-154. [PMID: 29229556 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2017.11.051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2017] [Revised: 11/28/2017] [Accepted: 11/30/2017] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Spinocerebellar ataxia type 3 (SCA3), or Machado-Joseph disease (MJD), is an autosomal dominant neurodegenerative disorder caused by the expansion of a polyglutamine (polyQ) tract in the ataxin-3 protein. To date, there is no effective therapy available to prevent progression of this disease. However, clinical strategies for alleviating various symptoms are imperative to promote a better quality of life for SCA3/MJD patients. Furthermore, experimental therapeutic strategies, including gene silencing or mutant protein clearance, mutant polyQ protein modification, stabilizing the native protein conformation, rescue of cellular dysfunction and neuromodulation to slow the progression of SCA3/MJD, have been developed. In this study, based on the current knowledge, I detail the clinical and experimental therapeutic strategies for treating SCA3/MJD, paying particular attention to drug discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zijian Wang
- Genetic Engineering Laboratory, College of Biological and Environmental Engineering, Xi'an University, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710065, China.
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30
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Costa MDC, Ashraf NS, Fischer S, Yang Y, Schapka E, Joshi G, McQuade TJ, Dharia RM, Dulchavsky M, Ouyang M, Cook D, Sun D, Larsen MJ, Gestwicki JE, Todi SV, Ivanova MI, Paulson HL. Unbiased screen identifies aripiprazole as a modulator of abundance of the polyglutamine disease protein, ataxin-3. Brain 2017; 139:2891-2908. [PMID: 27645800 DOI: 10.1093/brain/aww228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2016] [Accepted: 07/24/2016] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
No disease-modifying treatment exists for the fatal neurodegenerative polyglutamine disease known both as Machado-Joseph disease and spinocerebellar ataxia type 3. As a potential route to therapy, we identified small molecules that reduce levels of the mutant disease protein, ATXN3. Screens of a small molecule collection, including 1250 Food and Drug Administration-approved drugs, in a novel cell-based assay, followed by secondary screens in brain slice cultures from transgenic mice expressing the human disease gene, identified the atypical antipsychotic aripiprazole as one of the hits. Aripiprazole increased longevity in a Drosophila model of Machado-Joseph disease and effectively reduced aggregated ATXN3 species in flies and in brains of transgenic mice treated for 10 days. The aripiprazole-mediated decrease in ATXN3 abundance may reflect a complex response culminating in the modulation of specific components of cellular protein homeostasis. Aripiprazole represents a potentially promising therapeutic drug for Machado-Joseph disease and possibly other neurological proteinopathies.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Naila S Ashraf
- Department of Neurology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Svetlana Fischer
- Department of Neurology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Yemen Yang
- Department of Neurology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Emily Schapka
- Department of Neurology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Gnanada Joshi
- Department of Pharmacology, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, USA
| | - Thomas J McQuade
- Center for Chemical Genomics, Life Sciences Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Rahil M Dharia
- Department of Neurology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Mark Dulchavsky
- Department of Neurology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Michelle Ouyang
- Department of Neurology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - David Cook
- Department of Neurology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Duxin Sun
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Martha J Larsen
- Center for Chemical Genomics, Life Sciences Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Jason E Gestwicki
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Institute for Neurodegenerative Diseases, University of California at San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Sokol V Todi
- Department of Pharmacology, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, USA.,Department of Neurology, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, USA
| | - Magdalena I Ivanova
- Department of Neurology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA.,Department of Biophysics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Henry L Paulson
- Department of Neurology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
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31
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Calpain Inhibition Is Protective in Machado-Joseph Disease Zebrafish Due to Induction of Autophagy. J Neurosci 2017; 37:7782-7794. [PMID: 28687604 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.1142-17.2017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2017] [Revised: 06/19/2017] [Accepted: 06/20/2017] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
The neurodegenerative disease Machado-Joseph disease (MJD), also known as spinocerebellar ataxin-3, affects neurons of the brain and spinal cord, disrupting control of the movement of muscles. We have successfully established the first transgenic zebrafish (Danio rerio) model of MJD by expressing human ataxin-3 protein containing either 23 glutamines (23Q, wild-type) or 84Q (MJD-causing) within neurons. Phenotypic characterization of the zebrafish (male and female) revealed that the ataxin-3-84Q zebrafish have decreased survival compared with ataxin-3-23Q and develop ataxin-3 neuropathology, ataxin-3 cleavage fragments and motor impairment. Ataxin-3-84Q zebrafish swim shorter distances than ataxin-3-23Q zebrafish as early as 6 days old, even if expression of the human ataxin-3 protein is limited to motor neurons. This swimming phenotype provides a valuable readout for drug treatment studies. Treating the EGFP-ataxin-3-84Q zebrafish with the calpain inhibitor compound calpeptin decreased levels of ataxin-3 cleavage fragments, but also removed all human ataxin-3 protein (confirmed by ELISA) and prevented the early MJD zebrafish motor phenotype. We identified that this clearance of ataxin-3 protein by calpeptin treatment resulted from an increase in autophagic flux (indicated by decreased p62 levels and increased LC3II). Cotreatment with the autophagy inhibitor chloroquine blocked the decrease in human ataxin-3 levels and the improved movement produced by calpeptin treatment. This study demonstrates that this first transgenic zebrafish model of MJD is a valuable tool for testing potential treatments for MJD. Calpeptin treatment is protective in this model of MJD and removal of human ataxin-3 through macro-autophagy plays an important role in this beneficial effect.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT We have established the first transgenic zebrafish model of the neurodegenerative disease MJD, and identified relevant disease phenotypes, including impaired movement from an early age, which can be used in rapid drug testing studies. We have found that treating the MJD zebrafish with the calpain inhibitor compound calpeptin produces complete removal of human ataxin-3 protein, due to induction of the autophagy quality control pathway. This improves the movement of the MJD zebrafish. Artificially blocking the autophagy pathway prevents the removal of human ataxin-3 and improved movement produced by calpeptin treatment. These findings indicate that induction of autophagy, and removal of ataxin-3 protein, plays an important role in the protective effects of calpain inhibition for the treatment of MJD.
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32
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Weber JJ, Golla M, Guaitoli G, Wanichawan P, Hayer SN, Hauser S, Krahl AC, Nagel M, Samer S, Aronica E, Carlson CR, Schöls L, Riess O, Gloeckner CJ, Nguyen HP, Hübener-Schmid J. A combinatorial approach to identify calpain cleavage sites in the Machado-Joseph disease protein ataxin-3. Brain 2017; 140:1280-1299. [DOI: 10.1093/brain/awx039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2016] [Accepted: 01/06/2017] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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Rajamani K, Liu JW, Wu CH, Chiang IT, You DH, Lin SY, Hsieh DK, Lin SZ, Harn HJ, Chiou TW. n-Butylidenephthalide exhibits protection against neurotoxicity through regulation of tryptophan 2, 3 dioxygenase in spinocerebellar ataxia type 3. Neuropharmacology 2017; 117:434-446. [PMID: 28223212 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2017.02.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2016] [Revised: 02/14/2017] [Accepted: 02/15/2017] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Spinocerebellar ataxia type 3 or Machado-Joseph disease (SCA3/MJD) is characterized by the repetition of a CAG codon in the ataxin-3 gene (ATXN3), which leads to the formation of an elongated mutant ATXN3 protein that can neither be denatured nor undergo proteolysis in the normal manner. This abnormal proteolysis leads to the accumulation of cleaved fragments, which have been identified as toxic and further they act as a seed for more aggregate formation, thereby increasing toxicity in neuronal cells. To date, there have been few studies or treatment strategies that have focused on controlling toxic fragment formation. The aim of this study is to develop a potential treatment strategy for addressing the complications of toxic fragment formation and to provide an alternative treatment strategy for SCA3. Our preliminary data on anti-aggregation and toxic fragment formation using an HEK (human embryonic kidney cells) 293T-84Q-eGFP (green fluorescent protein) cell model identified n-butylidenephthalide (n-BP) as a potential drug treatment for SCA3. n-BP decreased toxic fragment formation in both SCA3 cell and animal models. Moreover, results showed that n-BP can improve gait, motor coordination, and activity in SCA3 mice. To comprehend the molecular basis behind the control of toxic fragment formation, we used microarray analysis to identify tryptophan metabolism as a major player in controlling the fate of mutant ATXN3 aggregates. We also demonstrated that n-BP functions by regulating the early part of the kynurenine pathway through the downregulation of tryptophan 2, 3-dioxygenase (TDO2), which decreases the downstream neurotoxic product, quinolinic acid (QA). In addition, through the control of TDO2, n-BP also decreases active calpain levels, an important enzyme involved in the proteolysis of mutant ATXN3, thereby decreasing toxic fragment formation and associated neurotoxicity. Collectively, these findings indicate a correlation between n-BP, TDO2, QA, calpain, and toxic fragment formation. Thus, this study contributes to a better understanding of the molecular interactions involved in SCA3, and provides a novel potential treatment strategy for this neurodegenerative disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karthyayani Rajamani
- Department of Life Science and Graduate Institute of Biotechnology, National Dong Hwa University, Hualien, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Jen-Wei Liu
- Department of Life Science and Graduate Institute of Biotechnology, National Dong Hwa University, Hualien, Taiwan, ROC; Everfront Biotech Inc., New Taipei City, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Cheng-Han Wu
- Department of Life Science and Graduate Institute of Biotechnology, National Dong Hwa University, Hualien, Taiwan, ROC
| | - I-Tsang Chiang
- Department of Life Science and Graduate Institute of Biotechnology, National Dong Hwa University, Hualien, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Deng-Huwei You
- Department of Life Science and Graduate Institute of Biotechnology, National Dong Hwa University, Hualien, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Si-Yin Lin
- Department of Life Science and Graduate Institute of Biotechnology, National Dong Hwa University, Hualien, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Dean-Kuo Hsieh
- Department of Applied Chemistry, Chaoyang University of Technology, Taichung, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Shinn-Zong Lin
- Bioinnovation Center, Tzu Chi Foundation, Buddhist Tzu Chi General Hospital, Tzu Chi University, Hualien, Taiwan, ROC; Department of Neurosurgery, Buddhist Tzu Chi General Hospital, Tzu Chi University, Hualien, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Horng-Jyh Harn
- Bioinnovation Center, Tzu Chi Foundation, Buddhist Tzu Chi General Hospital, Tzu Chi University, Hualien, Taiwan, ROC; Department of Pathology, Buddhist Tzu Chi General Hospital, Tzu Chi University, Hualien, Taiwan, ROC.
| | - Tzyy-Wen Chiou
- Department of Life Science and Graduate Institute of Biotechnology, National Dong Hwa University, Hualien, Taiwan, ROC.
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Esteves S, Duarte-Silva S, Maciel P. Discovery of Therapeutic Approaches for Polyglutamine Diseases: A Summary of Recent Efforts. Med Res Rev 2016; 37:860-906. [PMID: 27870126 DOI: 10.1002/med.21425] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2016] [Revised: 10/01/2016] [Accepted: 10/05/2016] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Polyglutamine (PolyQ) diseases are a group of neurodegenerative disorders caused by the expansion of cytosine-adenine-guanine (CAG) trinucleotide repeats in the coding region of specific genes. This leads to the production of pathogenic proteins containing critically expanded tracts of glutamines. Although polyQ diseases are individually rare, the fact that these nine diseases are irreversibly progressive over 10 to 30 years, severely impairing and ultimately fatal, usually implicating the full-time patient support by a caregiver for long time periods, makes their economic and social impact quite significant. This has led several researchers worldwide to investigate the pathogenic mechanism(s) and therapeutic strategies for polyQ diseases. Although research in the field has grown notably in the last decades, we are still far from having an effective treatment to offer patients, and the decision of which compounds should be translated to the clinics may be very challenging. In this review, we provide a comprehensive and critical overview of the most recent drug discovery efforts in the field of polyQ diseases, including the most relevant findings emerging from two different types of approaches-hypothesis-based candidate molecule testing and hypothesis-free unbiased drug screenings. We hereby summarize and reflect on the preclinical studies as well as all the clinical trials performed to date, aiming to provide a useful framework for increasingly successful future drug discovery and development efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sofia Esteves
- Life and Health Sciences Research Institute (ICVS), School of Medicine, University of Minho, 4710-057, Braga, Portugal.,ICVS/3B's PT Government Associate Laboratory, University of Minho, Guimarães, Braga, Portugal
| | - Sara Duarte-Silva
- Life and Health Sciences Research Institute (ICVS), School of Medicine, University of Minho, 4710-057, Braga, Portugal.,ICVS/3B's PT Government Associate Laboratory, University of Minho, Guimarães, Braga, Portugal
| | - Patrícia Maciel
- Life and Health Sciences Research Institute (ICVS), School of Medicine, University of Minho, 4710-057, Braga, Portugal.,ICVS/3B's PT Government Associate Laboratory, University of Minho, Guimarães, Braga, Portugal
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35
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Antisense oligonucleotide-mediated exon skipping as a strategy to reduce proteolytic cleavage of ataxin-3. Sci Rep 2016; 6:35200. [PMID: 27731380 PMCID: PMC5059676 DOI: 10.1038/srep35200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2016] [Accepted: 09/27/2016] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Spinocerebellar ataxia type-3 (SCA3) is a neurodegenerative disorder caused by a polyglutamine repeat expansion in the ataxin-3 protein. Cleavage of mutant ataxin-3 by proteolytic enzymes yields ataxin-3 fragments containing the polyglutamine stretch. These shorter ataxin-3 fragments are thought to be involved in SCA3 pathogenesis due to their increased cellular toxicity and their involvement in formation of the characteristic neuronal aggregates. As a strategy to prevent formation of toxic cleavage fragments, we investigated an antisense oligonucleotide-mediated modification of the ataxin-3 pre-mRNA through exon skipping of exon 8 and 9, resulting in the removal of a central 88 amino acid region of the ataxin-3 protein. This removed protein region contains several predicted cleavage sites and two ubiquitin-interacting motifs. In contrast to unmodified mutant ataxin-3, the internally truncated ataxin-3 protein did not give rise to potentially toxic cleavage fragments when incubated with caspases. In vitro experiments did not show cellular toxicity of the modified ataxin-3 protein. However, the modified protein was incapable of binding poly-ubiquitin chains, which may interfere with its normal deubiquitinating function. Low exon skipping efficiencies combined with reduction in important ataxin-3 protein functions suggest that skipping of exon 8 and 9 is not a viable therapeutic option for SCA3.
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36
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Mark MD, Schwitalla JC, Groemmke M, Herlitze S. Keeping Our Calcium in Balance to Maintain Our Balance. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2016; 483:1040-1050. [PMID: 27392710 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2016.07.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2016] [Accepted: 07/04/2016] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Calcium is a key signaling molecule and ion involved in a variety of diverse processes in our central nervous system (CNS) which include gene expression, synaptic transmission and plasticity, neuronal excitability and cell maintenance. Proper control of calcium signaling is not only vital for neuronal physiology but also cell survival. Mutations in fundamental channels, transporters and second messenger proteins involved in orchestrating the balance of our calcium homeostasis can lead to severe neurodegenerative disorders, such as Spinocerebellar (SCA) and Episodic (EA) ataxias. Hereditary ataxias make up a remarkably diverse group of neurological disorders clinically characterized by gait ataxia, nystagmus, dysarthria, trunk and limb ataxia and often atrophy of the cerebellum. The largest family of hereditary ataxias is SCAs which consists of a growing family of 42 members. A relatively smaller family of 8 members compose the EAs. The gene mutations responsible for half of the EA members and over 35 of the SCA subtypes have been identified, and several have been found to be responsible for cerebellar atrophy, abnormal intracellular calcium levels, dysregulation of Purkinje cell pacemaking, altered cerebellar synaptic transmission and/or ataxia in mouse models. Although the genetic diversity and affected cellular pathways of hereditary ataxias are broad, one common theme amongst these genes is their effects on maintaining calcium balance in primarily the cerebellum. There is emerging evidence that the pathogenesis of hereditary ataxias may be caused by imbalances in intracellular calcium due to genetic mutations in calcium-mediating proteins. In this review we will discuss the current evidence supporting the role of deranged calcium as the culprit to neurodegenerative diseases with a primary focus on SCAs and EAs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melanie D Mark
- Department of Zoology and Neurobiology, ND7/31, Ruhr University Bochum, Universitätsstr. 150, D-44780 Bochum, Germany.
| | - Jan Claudius Schwitalla
- Department of Zoology and Neurobiology, ND7/31, Ruhr University Bochum, Universitätsstr. 150, D-44780 Bochum, Germany
| | - Michelle Groemmke
- Department of Zoology and Neurobiology, ND7/31, Ruhr University Bochum, Universitätsstr. 150, D-44780 Bochum, Germany
| | - Stefan Herlitze
- Department of Zoology and Neurobiology, ND7/31, Ruhr University Bochum, Universitätsstr. 150, D-44780 Bochum, Germany
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37
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Tada M, Nishizawa M, Onodera O. Roles of inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptors in spinocerebellar ataxias. Neurochem Int 2016; 94:1-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuint.2016.01.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2015] [Revised: 01/05/2016] [Accepted: 01/22/2016] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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38
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Clemens LE, Weber JJ, Wlodkowski TT, Yu-Taeger L, Michaud M, Calaminus C, Eckert SH, Gaca J, Weiss A, Magg JCD, Jansson EKH, Eckert GP, Pichler BJ, Bordet T, Pruss RM, Riess O, Nguyen HP. Olesoxime suppresses calpain activation and mutant huntingtin fragmentation in the BACHD rat. Brain 2015; 138:3632-53. [PMID: 26490331 DOI: 10.1093/brain/awv290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2015] [Accepted: 08/11/2015] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Huntington's disease is a fatal human neurodegenerative disorder caused by a CAG repeat expansion in the HTT gene, which translates into a mutant huntingtin protein. A key event in the molecular pathogenesis of Huntington's disease is the proteolytic cleavage of mutant huntingtin, leading to the accumulation of toxic protein fragments. Mutant huntingtin cleavage has been linked to the overactivation of proteases due to mitochondrial dysfunction and calcium derangements. Here, we investigated the therapeutic potential of olesoxime, a mitochondria-targeting, neuroprotective compound, in the BACHD rat model of Huntington's disease. BACHD rats were treated with olesoxime via the food for 12 months. In vivo analysis covered motor impairments, cognitive deficits, mood disturbances and brain atrophy. Ex vivo analyses addressed olesoxime's effect on mutant huntingtin aggregation and cleavage, as well as brain mitochondria function. Olesoxime improved cognitive and psychiatric phenotypes, and ameliorated cortical thinning in the BACHD rat. The treatment reduced cerebral mutant huntingtin aggregates and nuclear accumulation. Further analysis revealed a cortex-specific overactivation of calpain in untreated BACHD rats. Treated BACHD rats instead showed significantly reduced levels of mutant huntingtin fragments due to the suppression of calpain-mediated cleavage. In addition, olesoxime reduced the amount of mutant huntingtin fragments associated with mitochondria, restored a respiration deficit, and enhanced the expression of fusion and outer-membrane transport proteins. In conclusion, we discovered the calpain proteolytic system, a key player in Huntington's disease and other neurodegenerative disorders, as a target of olesoxime. Our findings suggest that olesoxime exerts its beneficial effects by improving mitochondrial function, which results in reduced calpain activation. The observed alleviation of behavioural and neuropathological phenotypes encourages further investigations on the use of olesoxime as a therapeutic for Huntington's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura E Clemens
- 1 Institute of Medical Genetics and Applied Genomics, University of Tuebingen, Calwerstrasse 7, 72076 Tuebingen, Germany 2 Centre for Rare Diseases, University of Tuebingen, Calwerstrasse 7, 72076 Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Jonasz J Weber
- 1 Institute of Medical Genetics and Applied Genomics, University of Tuebingen, Calwerstrasse 7, 72076 Tuebingen, Germany 2 Centre for Rare Diseases, University of Tuebingen, Calwerstrasse 7, 72076 Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Tanja T Wlodkowski
- 1 Institute of Medical Genetics and Applied Genomics, University of Tuebingen, Calwerstrasse 7, 72076 Tuebingen, Germany 2 Centre for Rare Diseases, University of Tuebingen, Calwerstrasse 7, 72076 Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Libo Yu-Taeger
- 1 Institute of Medical Genetics and Applied Genomics, University of Tuebingen, Calwerstrasse 7, 72076 Tuebingen, Germany 2 Centre for Rare Diseases, University of Tuebingen, Calwerstrasse 7, 72076 Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Magali Michaud
- 3 Trophos SA., Parc Scientifique de Luminy Case 931, 13288 Marseille Cedex 9, France
| | - Carsten Calaminus
- 4 Werner Siemens Imaging Center, Department of Preclinical Imaging and Radiopharmacy, University of Tuebingen, Roentgenweg 13, 72076 Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Schamim H Eckert
- 5 Department of Pharmacology, Goethe University Frankfurt am Main, Max-von-Laue Str. 9, 60438 Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Janett Gaca
- 5 Department of Pharmacology, Goethe University Frankfurt am Main, Max-von-Laue Str. 9, 60438 Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Andreas Weiss
- 6 Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Klybeckstrasse 141, 4057 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Janine C D Magg
- 1 Institute of Medical Genetics and Applied Genomics, University of Tuebingen, Calwerstrasse 7, 72076 Tuebingen, Germany 2 Centre for Rare Diseases, University of Tuebingen, Calwerstrasse 7, 72076 Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Erik K H Jansson
- 1 Institute of Medical Genetics and Applied Genomics, University of Tuebingen, Calwerstrasse 7, 72076 Tuebingen, Germany 2 Centre for Rare Diseases, University of Tuebingen, Calwerstrasse 7, 72076 Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Gunter P Eckert
- 5 Department of Pharmacology, Goethe University Frankfurt am Main, Max-von-Laue Str. 9, 60438 Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Bernd J Pichler
- 4 Werner Siemens Imaging Center, Department of Preclinical Imaging and Radiopharmacy, University of Tuebingen, Roentgenweg 13, 72076 Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Thierry Bordet
- 3 Trophos SA., Parc Scientifique de Luminy Case 931, 13288 Marseille Cedex 9, France
| | - Rebecca M Pruss
- 3 Trophos SA., Parc Scientifique de Luminy Case 931, 13288 Marseille Cedex 9, France
| | - Olaf Riess
- 1 Institute of Medical Genetics and Applied Genomics, University of Tuebingen, Calwerstrasse 7, 72076 Tuebingen, Germany 2 Centre for Rare Diseases, University of Tuebingen, Calwerstrasse 7, 72076 Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Huu P Nguyen
- 1 Institute of Medical Genetics and Applied Genomics, University of Tuebingen, Calwerstrasse 7, 72076 Tuebingen, Germany 2 Centre for Rare Diseases, University of Tuebingen, Calwerstrasse 7, 72076 Tuebingen, Germany
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Li X, Liu H, Fischhaber PL, Tang TS. Toward therapeutic targets for SCA3: Insight into the role of Machado-Joseph disease protein ataxin-3 in misfolded proteins clearance. Prog Neurobiol 2015; 132:34-58. [PMID: 26123252 DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2015.06.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2015] [Revised: 05/30/2015] [Accepted: 06/16/2015] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Machado-Joseph disease (MJD, also known as spinocerebellar ataxia type 3, SCA3), an autosomal dominant neurological disorder, is caused by an abnormal expanded polyglutamine (polyQ) repeat in the ataxin-3 protein. The length of the expanded polyQ stretch correlates positively with the severity of the disease and inversely with the age at onset. To date, we cannot fully explain the mechanism underlying neurobiological abnormalities of this disease. Yet, accumulating reports have demonstrated the functions of ataxin-3 protein in the chaperone system, ubiquitin-proteasome system, and aggregation-autophagy, all of which suggest a role of ataxin-3 in the clearance of misfolded proteins. Notably, the SCA3 pathogenic form of ataxin-3 (ataxin-3(exp)) impairs the misfolded protein clearance via mechanisms that are either dependent or independent of its deubiquitinase (DUB) activity, resulting in the accumulation of misfolded proteins and the progressive loss of neurons in SCA3. Some drugs, which have been used as activators/inducers in the chaperone system, ubiquitin-proteasome system, and aggregation-autophagy, have been demonstrated to be efficacious in the relief of neurodegeneration diseases like Huntington's disease (HD), Parkinson's (PD), Alzheimer's (AD) as well as SCA3 in animal models and clinical trials, putting misfolded protein clearance on the list of potential therapeutic targets. Here, we undertake a comprehensive review of the progress in understanding the physiological functions of ataxin-3 in misfolded protein clearance and how the polyQ expansion impairs misfolded protein clearance. We then detail the preclinical studies targeting the elimination of misfolded proteins for SCA3 treatment. We close with future considerations for translating these pre-clinical results into therapies for SCA3 patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoling Li
- State Key Laboratory of Membrane Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Hongmei Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Membrane Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Paula L Fischhaber
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, California State University Northridge, Northridge, CA 91330-8262, USA.
| | - Tie-Shan Tang
- State Key Laboratory of Membrane Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China.
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40
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Egorova P, Popugaeva E, Bezprozvanny I. Disturbed calcium signaling in spinocerebellar ataxias and Alzheimer's disease. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2015; 40:127-33. [PMID: 25846864 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2015.03.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2015] [Revised: 03/03/2015] [Accepted: 03/10/2015] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Neurodegenerative disorders, such as spinocerebellar ataxias (SCAs) and Alzheimer's disease (AD) represent a huge scientific and medical question, but the molecular mechanisms of these diseases are still not clear. There is increasing evidence that neuronal calcium signaling is abnormal in many neurodegenerative disorders. Abnormal neuronal calcium release from the endoplasmic reticulum may result in disturbances of cell homeostasis, synaptic dysfunction, and eventual cell death. Neuronal loss is observed in most cases of neurodegenerative diseases. Recent experimental evidence supporting the role of neuronal calcium signaling in the pathogenesis of SCAs and AD is discussed in this review.
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Affiliation(s)
- Polina Egorova
- Laboratory of Molecular Neurodegeneration, St. Petersburg State Polytechnical University, St. Petersburg, Russia
| | - Elena Popugaeva
- Laboratory of Molecular Neurodegeneration, St. Petersburg State Polytechnical University, St. Petersburg, Russia
| | - Ilya Bezprozvanny
- Laboratory of Molecular Neurodegeneration, St. Petersburg State Polytechnical University, St. Petersburg, Russia; Department of Physiology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas, Dallas, TX, USA.
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41
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Figiel M, Krzyzosiak WJ, Switonski PM, Szlachcic WJ. Mouse Models of SCA3 and Other Polyglutamine Repeat Ataxias. Mov Disord 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-405195-9.00064-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022] Open
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42
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From pathways to targets: understanding the mechanisms behind polyglutamine disease. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2014; 2014:701758. [PMID: 25309920 PMCID: PMC4189765 DOI: 10.1155/2014/701758] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2014] [Accepted: 09/03/2014] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
The history of polyglutamine diseases dates back approximately 20 years to the discovery of a polyglutamine repeat in the androgen receptor of SBMA followed by the identification of similar expansion mutations in Huntington's disease, SCA1, DRPLA, and the other spinocerebellar ataxias. This common molecular feature of polyglutamine diseases suggests shared mechanisms in disease pathology and neurodegeneration of disease specific brain regions. In this review, we discuss the main pathogenic pathways including proteolytic processing, nuclear shuttling and aggregation, mitochondrial dysfunction, and clearance of misfolded polyglutamine proteins and point out possible targets for treatment.
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43
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Singh R, Brewer MK, Mashburn CB, Lou D, Bondada V, Graham B, Geddes JW. Calpain 5 is highly expressed in the central nervous system (CNS), carries dual nuclear localization signals, and is associated with nuclear promyelocytic leukemia protein bodies. J Biol Chem 2014; 289:19383-94. [PMID: 24838245 PMCID: PMC4094050 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m114.575159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2014] [Revised: 05/14/2014] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Calpain 5 (CAPN5) is a non-classical member of the calpain family. It lacks the EF hand motif characteristic of classical calpains but retains catalytic and Ca(2+) binding domains, and it contains a unique C-terminal domain. TRA-3, an ortholog of CAPN5, has been shown to be involved in necrotic cell death in Caenorhabditis elegans. CAPN5 is expressed throughout the CNS, but its expression relative to other calpains and subcellular distribution has not been investigated previously. Based on relative mRNA levels, Capn5 is the second most highly expressed calpain in the rat CNS, with Capn2 mRNA being the most abundant. Unlike classical calpains, CAPN5 is a non-cytosolic protein localized to the nucleus and extra-nuclear locations. CAPN5 possesses two nuclear localization signals (NLS): an N-terminal monopartite NLS and a unique bipartite NLS closer to the C terminus. The C-terminal NLS contains a SUMO-interacting motif that contributes to nuclear localization, and mutation or deletion of both NLS renders CAPN5 exclusively cytosolic. Dual NLS motifs are common among transcription factors. Interestingly, CAPN5 is found in punctate domains associated with promyelocytic leukemia (PML) protein within the nucleus. PML nuclear bodies are implicated in transcriptional regulation, cell differentiation, cellular response to stress, viral defense, apoptosis, and cell senescence as well as protein sequestration, modification, and degradation. The roles of nuclear CAPN5 remain to be determined.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ranjana Singh
- From the Spinal Cord and Brain Injury Research Center and the Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40536
| | | | | | - Dingyuan Lou
- From the Spinal Cord and Brain Injury Research Center and
| | - Vimala Bondada
- From the Spinal Cord and Brain Injury Research Center and
| | | | - James W Geddes
- From the Spinal Cord and Brain Injury Research Center and the Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40536
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Evers MM, Toonen LJA, van Roon-Mom WMC. Ataxin-3 protein and RNA toxicity in spinocerebellar ataxia type 3: current insights and emerging therapeutic strategies. Mol Neurobiol 2014; 49:1513-31. [PMID: 24293103 PMCID: PMC4012159 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-013-8596-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2013] [Accepted: 11/14/2013] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Ataxin-3 is a ubiquitously expressed deubiqutinating enzyme with important functions in the proteasomal protein degradation pathway and regulation of transcription. The C-terminus of the ataxin-3 protein contains a polyglutamine (PolyQ) region that, when mutationally expanded to over 52 glutamines, causes the neurodegenerative disease spinocerebellar ataxia 3 (SCA3). In spite of extensive research, the molecular mechanisms underlying the cellular toxicity resulting from mutant ataxin-3 remain elusive and no preventive treatment is currently available. It has become clear over the last decade that the hallmark intracellular ataxin-3 aggregates are likely not the main toxic entity in SCA3. Instead, the soluble PolyQ containing fragments arising from proteolytic cleavage of ataxin-3 by caspases and calpains are now regarded to be of greater influence in pathogenesis. In addition, recent evidence suggests potential involvement of a RNA toxicity component in SCA3 and other PolyQ expansion disorders, increasing the pathogenic complexity. Herein, we review the functioning of ataxin-3 and the involvement of known protein and RNA toxicity mechanisms of mutant ataxin-3 that have been discovered, as well as future opportunities for therapeutic intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melvin M. Evers
- Department of Human Genetics, Leiden University Medical Center, Albinusdreef 2, 2333ZA Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Lodewijk J. A. Toonen
- Department of Human Genetics, Leiden University Medical Center, Albinusdreef 2, 2333ZA Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Willeke M. C. van Roon-Mom
- Department of Human Genetics, Leiden University Medical Center, Albinusdreef 2, 2333ZA Leiden, The Netherlands
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45
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Xie W, Song YJ, Li D, Pan LP, Wu QJ, Tian X. The suppression of epileptiform discharges in cultured hippocampal neurons is regulated via alterations in full-length tropomyosin-related kinase type B receptors signalling activity. Eur J Neurosci 2014; 40:2564-75. [PMID: 24830751 DOI: 10.1111/ejn.12620] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2014] [Revised: 04/01/2014] [Accepted: 04/11/2014] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Wei Xie
- School of Biomedical Engineering; Tianjin Medical University; Tianjin China
| | - Yi-Jun Song
- Department of Neurology; Tianjin Medical University General Hospital & Key Laboratory of Neurotrauma; Variation and Regeneration; Ministry of Education and Tianjin Municipal Government; Tianjin China
| | - Dai Li
- Senior Officials Inpatient Ward; Tianjin Medical University General Hospital and Tianjin Neurological Institute; Tianjin China
| | - Li-Ping Pan
- Department of Neurology; Tianjin Medical University General Hospital & Key Laboratory of Neurotrauma; Variation and Regeneration; Ministry of Education and Tianjin Municipal Government; Tianjin China
| | - Qiu-Jing Wu
- Department of Neurology; Tianjin Medical University General Hospital & Key Laboratory of Neurotrauma; Variation and Regeneration; Ministry of Education and Tianjin Municipal Government; Tianjin China
| | - Xin Tian
- School of Biomedical Engineering; Tianjin Medical University; Tianjin China
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46
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Novel polyglutamine model uncouples proteotoxicity from aging. PLoS One 2014; 9:e96835. [PMID: 24817148 PMCID: PMC4016013 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0096835] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2014] [Accepted: 04/11/2014] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Polyglutamine expansions in certain proteins are the genetic determinants for nine distinct progressive neurodegenerative disorders and resultant age-related dementia. In these cases, neurodegeneration is due to the aggregation propensity and resultant toxic properties of the polyglutamine-containing proteins. We are interested in elucidating the underlying mechanisms of toxicity of the protein ataxin-3, in which a polyglutamine expansion is the genetic determinant for Machado-Joseph Disease (MJD), also referred to as spinocerebellar ataxia 3 (SCA3). To this end, we have developed a novel model for ataxin-3 protein aggregation, by expressing a disease-related polyglutamine-containing fragment of ataxin-3 in the genetically tractable body wall muscle cells of the model system C. elegans. Here, we demonstrate that this ataxin-3 fragment aggregates in a polyQ length-dependent manner in C. elegans muscle cells and that this aggregation is associated with cellular dysfunction. However, surprisingly, this aggregation and resultant toxicity was not influenced by aging. This is in contrast to polyglutamine peptides alone whose aggregation/toxicity is highly dependent on age. Thus, the data presented here not only describe a new polyglutamine model, but also suggest that protein context likely influences the cellular interactions of the polyglutamine-containing protein and thereby modulates its toxic properties.
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47
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Simões AT, Gonçalves N, Nobre RJ, Duarte CB, Pereira de Almeida L. Calpain inhibition reduces ataxin-3 cleavage alleviating neuropathology and motor impairments in mouse models of Machado–Joseph disease. Hum Mol Genet 2014; 23:4932-44. [DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddu209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
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48
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Matilla-Dueñas A, Ashizawa T, Brice A, Magri S, McFarland KN, Pandolfo M, Pulst SM, Riess O, Rubinsztein DC, Schmidt J, Schmidt T, Scoles DR, Stevanin G, Taroni F, Underwood BR, Sánchez I. Consensus paper: pathological mechanisms underlying neurodegeneration in spinocerebellar ataxias. CEREBELLUM (LONDON, ENGLAND) 2014; 13:269-302. [PMID: 24307138 PMCID: PMC3943639 DOI: 10.1007/s12311-013-0539-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Intensive scientific research devoted in the recent years to understand the molecular mechanisms or neurodegeneration in spinocerebellar ataxias (SCAs) are identifying new pathways and targets providing new insights and a better understanding of the molecular pathogenesis in these diseases. In this consensus manuscript, the authors discuss their current views on the identified molecular processes causing or modulating the neurodegenerative phenotype in spinocerebellar ataxias with the common opinion of translating the new knowledge acquired into candidate targets for therapy. The following topics are discussed: transcription dysregulation, protein aggregation, autophagy, ion channels, the role of mitochondria, RNA toxicity, modulators of neurodegeneration and current therapeutic approaches. Overall point of consensus includes the common vision of neurodegeneration in SCAs as a multifactorial, progressive and reversible process, at least in early stages. Specific points of consensus include the role of the dysregulation of protein folding, transcription, bioenergetics, calcium handling and eventual cell death with apoptotic features of neurons during SCA disease progression. Unresolved questions include how the dysregulation of these pathways triggers the onset of symptoms and mediates disease progression since this understanding may allow effective treatments of SCAs within the window of reversibility to prevent early neuronal damage. Common opinions also include the need for clinical detection of early neuronal dysfunction, for more basic research to decipher the early neurodegenerative process in SCAs in order to give rise to new concepts for treatment strategies and for the translation of the results to preclinical studies and, thereafter, in clinical practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Matilla-Dueñas
- Health Sciences Research Institute Germans Trias i Pujol (IGTP), Ctra. de Can Ruti, Camí de les Escoles s/n, Badalona, Barcelona, Spain,
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49
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Cushman-Nick M, Bonini NM, Shorter J. Hsp104 suppresses polyglutamine-induced degeneration post onset in a drosophila MJD/SCA3 model. PLoS Genet 2013; 9:e1003781. [PMID: 24039611 PMCID: PMC3764203 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1003781] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2013] [Accepted: 07/25/2013] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
There are no effective therapeutics that antagonize or reverse the protein-misfolding events underpinning polyglutamine (PolyQ) disorders, including Spinocerebellar Ataxia Type-3 (SCA3). Here, we augment the proteostasis network of Drosophila SCA3 models with Hsp104, a powerful protein disaggregase from yeast, which is bafflingly absent from metazoa. Hsp104 suppressed eye degeneration caused by a C-terminal ataxin-3 (MJD) fragment containing the pathogenic expanded PolyQ tract, but unexpectedly enhanced aggregation and toxicity of full-length pathogenic MJD. Hsp104 suppressed toxicity of MJD variants lacking a portion of the N-terminal deubiquitylase domain and full-length MJD variants unable to engage polyubiquitin, indicating that MJD-ubiquitin interactions hinder protective Hsp104 modalities. Importantly, in staging experiments, Hsp104 suppressed toxicity of a C-terminal MJD fragment when expressed after the onset of PolyQ-induced degeneration, whereas Hsp70 was ineffective. Thus, we establish the first disaggregase or chaperone treatment administered after the onset of pathogenic protein-induced degeneration that mitigates disease progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mimi Cushman-Nick
- Department of Biology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
- Neuroscience Graduate Group, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Nancy M. Bonini
- Department of Biology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
- Neuroscience Graduate Group, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - James Shorter
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
- Neuroscience Graduate Group, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
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50
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Evers MM, Tran HD, Zalachoras I, Pepers BA, Meijer OC, den Dunnen JT, van Ommen GJB, Aartsma-Rus A, van Roon-Mom WMC. Ataxin-3 protein modification as a treatment strategy for spinocerebellar ataxia type 3: removal of the CAG containing exon. Neurobiol Dis 2013; 58:49-56. [PMID: 23659897 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2013.04.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2013] [Revised: 04/17/2013] [Accepted: 04/21/2013] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Spinocerebellar ataxia type 3 is caused by a polyglutamine expansion in the ataxin-3 protein, resulting in gain of toxic function of the mutant protein. The expanded glutamine stretch in the protein is the result of a CAG triplet repeat expansion in the penultimate exon of the ATXN3 gene. Several gene silencing approaches to reduce mutant ataxin-3 toxicity in this disease aim to lower ataxin-3 protein levels, but since this protein is involved in deubiquitination and proteasomal protein degradation, its long-term silencing might not be desirable. Here, we propose a novel protein modification approach to reduce mutant ataxin-3 toxicity by removing the toxic polyglutamine repeat from the ataxin-3 protein through antisense oligonucleotide-mediated exon skipping while maintaining important wild type functions of the protein. In vitro studies showed that exon skipping did not negatively impact the ubiquitin binding capacity of ataxin-3. Our in vivo studies showed no toxic properties of the novel truncated ataxin-3 protein. These results suggest that exon skipping may be a novel therapeutic approach to reduce polyglutamine-induced toxicity in spinocerebellar ataxia type 3.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melvin M Evers
- Department of Human Genetics, Leiden University Medical Center, The Netherlands.
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