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Enhanced Expression of Plasminogen Activators and Inhibitor in the Healing of Tympanic Membrane Perforation in Rats. J Assoc Res Otolaryngol 2023; 24:159-170. [PMID: 36810718 PMCID: PMC10121974 DOI: 10.1007/s10162-023-00891-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2022] [Accepted: 01/25/2023] [Indexed: 02/23/2023] Open
Abstract
The significance of plasminogen activation during the tympanic membrane (TM) healing is known mainly from studies performed on knock-out mice. In the previous study, we reported activation of genes coding proteins of plasminogen activation and inhibition system in rat's TM perforation healing. The aim of the present study was the evaluation of protein products expressed by these genes and their tissue distribution using Western blotting and immunofluorescent method, respectively, during 10-day observation period after injury. Otomicroscopical and histological evaluation were employed to assess the healing process. The expression of urokinase plasminogen activator (uPA) and its receptor (uPAR) were significantly upregulated in the proliferation phase, with subsequent gradual attenuation during remodeling phase of healing process, when keratinocyte migration was weakening. The expression of plasminogen activator inhibitor type 1 (PAI-1) also showed the highest levels during the proliferation phase. The increase of tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) expression was observed during the whole observation period, with the highest activity during the remodeling phase. Immunofluorescence of these proteins was present mainly in migrating epithelium. Our study found that plasminogen activation (uPA, uPAR, tPA) and inhibitory (PAI-1) molecules form a well-structured regulatory system of the epithelial migration that is critical to the healing of TM after its perforation.
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Bootpetch TC, Hafrén L, Elling CL, Baschal EE, Manichaikul AW, Pine HS, Szeremeta W, Scholes MA, Cass SP, Larson ED, Chan KH, Ishaq R, Prager JD, Shaikh RS, Gubbels SP, Yousaf A, Wine TM, Bamshad MJ, Yoon PJ, Jenkins HA, Nickerson DA, Streubel SO, Friedman NR, Frank DN, Einarsdottir E, Kere J, Riazuddin S, Daly KA, Leal SM, Ryan AF, Mattila PS, Ahmed ZM, Sale MM, Chonmaitree T, Santos-Cortez RLP. Multi-omic studies on missense PLG variants in families with otitis media. Sci Rep 2020; 10:15035. [PMID: 32929111 PMCID: PMC7490366 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-70498-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2019] [Accepted: 07/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Otitis media (OM), a very common disease in young children, can result in hearing loss. In order to potentially replicate previously reported associations between OM and PLG, exome and Sanger sequencing, RNA-sequencing of saliva and middle ear samples, 16S rRNA sequencing, molecular modeling, and statistical analyses including transmission disequilibrium tests (TDT) were performed in a multi-ethnic cohort of 718 families and simplex cases with OM. We identified four rare PLG variants c.112A > G (p.Lys38Glu), c.782G > A (p.Arg261His), c.1481C > T (p.Ala494Val) and c.2045 T > A (p.Ile682Asn), and one common variant c.1414G > A (p.Asp472Asn). However TDT analyses for these PLG variants did not demonstrate association with OM in 314 families. Additionally PLG expression is very low or absent in normal or diseased middle ear in mouse and human, and salivary expression and microbial α-diversity were non-significant in c.1414G > A (p.Asp472Asn) carriers. Based on molecular modeling, the novel rare variants particularly c.782G > A (p.Arg261His) and c.2045 T > A (p.Ile682Asn) were predicted to affect protein structure. Exploration of other potential disease mechanisms will help elucidate how PLG contributes to OM susceptibility in humans. Our results underline the importance of following up findings from genome-wide association through replication studies, preferably using multi-omic datasets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tori C Bootpetch
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, School of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, USA
| | - Lena Hafrén
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Hospital, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Christina L Elling
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, School of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, USA
- Human Medical Genetics and Genomics Program, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, USA
| | - Erin E Baschal
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, School of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, USA
| | - Ani W Manichaikul
- Center for Public Health Genomics, School of Medicine, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, USA
| | - Harold S Pine
- Department of Otolaryngology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX, USA
| | - Wasyl Szeremeta
- Department of Otolaryngology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX, USA
| | - Melissa A Scholes
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, School of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, USA
- Department of Pediatric Otolaryngology, Children's Hospital Colorado, Aurora, CO, USA
| | - Stephen P Cass
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, School of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, USA
| | - Eric D Larson
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, School of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, USA
| | - Kenny H Chan
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, School of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, USA
- Department of Pediatric Otolaryngology, Children's Hospital Colorado, Aurora, CO, USA
| | - Rafaqat Ishaq
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, School of Medicine, University of Maryland, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Jeremy D Prager
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, School of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, USA
- Department of Pediatric Otolaryngology, Children's Hospital Colorado, Aurora, CO, USA
| | - Rehan S Shaikh
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, School of Medicine, University of Maryland, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Samuel P Gubbels
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, School of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, USA
| | - Ayesha Yousaf
- Institute of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Punjab, Pakistan
| | - Todd M Wine
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, School of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, USA
- Department of Pediatric Otolaryngology, Children's Hospital Colorado, Aurora, CO, USA
| | - Michael J Bamshad
- Department of Genome Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Patricia J Yoon
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, School of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, USA
- Department of Pediatric Otolaryngology, Children's Hospital Colorado, Aurora, CO, USA
| | - Herman A Jenkins
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, School of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, USA
| | | | - Sven-Olrik Streubel
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, School of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, USA
- Department of Pediatric Otolaryngology, Children's Hospital Colorado, Aurora, CO, USA
| | - Norman R Friedman
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, School of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, USA
- Department of Pediatric Otolaryngology, Children's Hospital Colorado, Aurora, CO, USA
| | - Daniel N Frank
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, USA
| | - Elisabet Einarsdottir
- Folkhälsan Institute of Genetics and Molecular Neurology Research Program, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
- Department of Biosciences and Nutrition, Karolinska Institutet, Huddinge, Sweden
| | - Juha Kere
- Folkhälsan Institute of Genetics and Molecular Neurology Research Program, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
- Department of Biosciences and Nutrition, Karolinska Institutet, Huddinge, Sweden
- Department of Medical and Molecular Genetics, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Saima Riazuddin
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, School of Medicine, University of Maryland, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Kathleen A Daly
- Department of Otolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - Suzanne M Leal
- Department of Neurology, Center for Statistical Genetics, Gertrude H. Sergievsky Center, Taub Institute for Alzheimer's Disease and the Aging Brain, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Allen F Ryan
- Division of Otolaryngology, Department of Surgery, UCSD School of Medicine and VA Medical Center, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Petri S Mattila
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Hospital, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Zubair M Ahmed
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, School of Medicine, University of Maryland, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Michele M Sale
- Center for Public Health Genomics, School of Medicine, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, USA
- Department of Public Health Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, USA
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, School of Medicine, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, USA
| | - Tasnee Chonmaitree
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Pediatrics, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX, USA
| | - Regie Lyn P Santos-Cortez
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, School of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, USA.
- Center for Children's Surgery, Children's Hospital Colorado, Aurora, CO, USA.
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Makuszewska M, Sokołowska M, Hassmann-Poznańska E, Bialuk I, Skotnicka B, Bonda T, Reszeć J, Winnicka MM. Enhanced expression of hepatocyte growth factor in the healing of experimental acute tympanic membrane perforation. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol 2015; 79:987-92. [PMID: 25920966 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijporl.2015.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2015] [Revised: 04/02/2015] [Accepted: 04/04/2015] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES The present study was performed to investigate the expression of hepatocyte (HGF), epidermal (EGF) and vascular endothelial (VEGF) growth factors in the course of healing of experimental tympanic membrane (TM) perforations in rats. The goal was to explain the role of these growth factors in the healing process of TM and to assess the possibility of their future application as healing promoters. METHODS Seventy rats were used, of which 10 served as controls and the others had their TM perforated. The experimental animals were divided into six subgroups on the basis of time points (01, 03, 05, 07, 09, 15 day after injury). Videootoscopy and histology were employed to assess the morphology of the healing process. The expressions of HGF, EGF and VEGF were evaluated using Western blot analysis. Tissue localization of HGF was determined by the immunofluorescence method. RESULTS HGF was hardly detectable in normal TM; however, a significant increase was noted in its expression starting from the third day after injury throughout the follow-up period, with the highest level on day 05. The analysis of HGF tissue localization with immunofluorescence revealed diffuse staining in the cytoplasm of proliferating epithelial cells. The expression of EGF was elevated on the first day after injury, not reaching statistical significance, and then returned to the level observed in the control TM. No significant differences were noted in the expression of VEGF. CONCLUSION High expression of HGF during the healing process of acute TM perforations makes it a promising candidate for further studies oriented towards its possible use in augmentation of TM healing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Makuszewska
- Department of Otolaryngology, J. Śniadecki District Hospital, M. Skłodowskiej-Curie 26, 15-950 Białystok, Poland
| | - Magdalena Sokołowska
- Department of General and Experimental Pathology, Medical University of Białystok, Mickiewicza 2c, 15-222 Białystok, Poland
| | - Elżbieta Hassmann-Poznańska
- Department of Pediatric Otolaryngology, Medical University of Białystok, Waszyngtona 17, 15-274 Białystok, Poland.
| | - Izabela Bialuk
- Department of General and Experimental Pathology, Medical University of Białystok, Mickiewicza 2c, 15-222 Białystok, Poland
| | - Bożena Skotnicka
- Department of Pediatric Otolaryngology, Medical University of Białystok, Waszyngtona 17, 15-274 Białystok, Poland
| | - Tomasz Bonda
- Department of General and Experimental Pathology, Medical University of Białystok, Mickiewicza 2c, 15-222 Białystok, Poland
| | - Joanna Reszeć
- Department of Medical Pathomorphology, Medical University of Białystok, Waszyngtona 13, 15-269 Białystok, Poland
| | - Maria Małgorzata Winnicka
- Department of General and Experimental Pathology, Medical University of Białystok, Mickiewicza 2c, 15-222 Białystok, Poland
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Hellström S, Shen Y, Ny T. A reply to the commentary on "Animal models of chronic tympanic membrane perforation: in response to plasminogen initiates and potentiates the healing of acute and chronic tympanic membrane perforations in mice" by Wang AY, Shen Y, Wang JT, Eikelboom RH and Dilley RJ; Clin Translat Med, 2014; 3:5. Clin Transl Med 2015; 4:8. [PMID: 25852824 PMCID: PMC4385040 DOI: 10.1186/s40169-014-0044-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2014] [Accepted: 12/11/2014] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Sten Hellström
- Department of CLINTEC/Otorhinolaryngology, Karolinska Medical University, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Yue Shen
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia Canada ; Centre for Heart Lung Innovation, St. Paul's Hospital, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia Canada
| | - Tor Ny
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
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Wang AY, Shen Y, Wang JT, Friedland PL, Atlas MD, Dilley RJ. Animal models of chronic tympanic membrane perforation: a 'time-out' to review evidence and standardize design. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol 2014; 78:2048-55. [PMID: 25455522 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijporl.2014.10.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2014] [Revised: 10/01/2014] [Accepted: 10/04/2014] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To review the literature on techniques for creation of chronic tympanic membrane perforations (TMP) in animal models. Establishing such models in a laboratory setting will have value if they replicate many of the properties of the human clinical condition and can thus be used for investigation of novel grafting materials or other interventions. METHODS A literature search of the PubMed database (1950-August 2014) was performed. The search included all English-language literature published attempts on chronic or delayed TMP in animal models. Studies of non English-language or acute TMP were excluded. RESULTS Thirty-seven studies were identified. Various methods to create TMP in animals have been used including infolding technique, thermal injury, re-myringotomy, and topical agents including chemicals and growth factor receptor inhibitors. The most common type of animal utilized was chinchilla, followed by rat and guinea pig. Twenty three of the 37 studies reported success in achieving chronic TMP animal model while 14 studies solely delayed the healing of TMP. Numerous experimental limitations were identified including TMP patency duration of <8 weeks, lack of documentation of total number of animals attempted and absence of proof for chronicity with otoscopic and histologic evidence. CONCLUSION The existing literature demonstrates the need for an ideal chronic TMP animal model to allow the development of new treatments and evaluate the risk of their clinical application. Various identified techniques seem promising, however, a need was identified for standardization of experimental design and evidence to address multiple limitations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Allen Y Wang
- Ear Sciences Centre, School of Surgery, the University of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia, Australia; Ear Science Institute Australia, Perth, Western Australia, Australia; Department of Otolaryngology, Head and Neck, Skull Base Surgery, Sir Charles Gairdner Hospital, Perth, Western Australia, Australia.
| | - Yi Shen
- Ear Sciences Centre, School of Surgery, the University of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia, Australia; Ear Science Institute Australia, Perth, Western Australia, Australia; Department of Otolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, Ningbo Lihuili Hospital (Ningbo Medical Centre) , Ningbo, Zhejiang, China
| | - Jeffrey T Wang
- Ear Sciences Centre, School of Surgery, the University of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Peter L Friedland
- Ear Sciences Centre, School of Surgery, the University of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia, Australia; Ear Science Institute Australia, Perth, Western Australia, Australia; Department of Otolaryngology, Head and Neck, Skull Base Surgery, Sir Charles Gairdner Hospital, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Marcus D Atlas
- Ear Sciences Centre, School of Surgery, the University of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia, Australia; Ear Science Institute Australia, Perth, Western Australia, Australia; Department of Otolaryngology, Head and Neck, Skull Base Surgery, Sir Charles Gairdner Hospital, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Rodney J Dilley
- Ear Sciences Centre, School of Surgery, the University of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia, Australia; Ear Science Institute Australia, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
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Proces gojenia perforacji błon bębenkowych u szczurów. Otolaryngol Pol 2014; 68:244-51. [DOI: 10.1016/j.otpol.2014.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2013] [Accepted: 01/07/2014] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Wang AY, Shen Y, Wang JT, Eikelboom RH, Dilley RJ. Animal models of chronic tympanic membrane perforation: in response to plasminogen initiates and potentiates the healing of acute and chronic tympanic membrane perforations in mice. Clin Transl Med 2014; 3:5. [PMID: 24669846 PMCID: PMC3987050 DOI: 10.1186/2001-1326-3-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2014] [Accepted: 03/10/2014] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Tympanic membrane perforations (TMP) are relatively common but are typically not treated in their acute stage, as most will heal spontaneously in 7–10 days. Those cases which fail to heal within 3 months are called chronic TMP which attract surgical intervention (e.g. myringoplasty), typically with a temporalis fascia autograft. New materials for the repair of chronic TMP are being developed to address deficiencies in the performance of autografts by undergoing evaluation in animal models prior to clinical study. However, there is currently a lack of ideal chronic TMP animal models available, hindering the development of new treatments. Various techniques and animal species have been investigated for the creation of chronic TMP with varied success. In the present commentary, we bring to the attention of readers the recent report by Shen et al. in Journal of Translational Medicine. The study reported the creation of a chronic TMP animal model in plasminogen gene deficient mice. However, the short observation time (9, 19 days), lack of success rate and the scarcity of solid evidence (e.g. otoscopic & histologic images) to confirm the chronicity of TMP warrant a more thorough discussion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Allen Y Wang
- Ear Sciences Centre, School of Surgery, The University of Western Australia, 35 Stirling Highway, Nedlands, WA 6009, Australia.
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Hassmann-Poznańska E, Taranta A, Bialuk I, Poznańska M, Zajączkiewicz H, Winnicka MM. Analysis of gene expression profiles in tympanic membrane following perforation using PCR Array in rats--preliminary investigation. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol 2013; 77:1753-9. [PMID: 24012216 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijporl.2013.08.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2013] [Revised: 08/06/2013] [Accepted: 08/09/2013] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES The goal of this work was to identify genes, known to be involved in the skin wound healing, that express differentially in the healthy and injured tympanic membrane (TM), and designate the molecules potentially beneficial for treatment of TM perforation. The molecular mechanisms controlling the course of TM regeneration are far from being elucidated. METHODS Twenty rats had their tympanic membranes perforated, while four served as a control. Animals were sacrificed on either days 1, 2, 3, 5 and 10 post injury, and TMs were immediately dissected and frozen in liquid nitrogen. Total TM RNA was isolated and reversely transcribed. qPCR was performed using Rat Wound Healing RT(2) Profiler PCR Array (QIAGEN) containing primers for 84 genes. RESULTS Statistically significant changes in the expression of 42 genes were found in various stages of TM healing. The increased expression of genes taking part in the inflammatory reaction (interleukin 6, granulocyte and macrophage chemotactic proteins) was observed from day 2. The expression of several genes of extracellular matrix components and their remodeling enzymes was also changed. Among growth factor genes: Vegfa, Igf1 and Hbegf showed increased expression at the beginning of the healing process, while Hgf expression was highest on day 3. CONCLUSIONS Several changes in the expression of genes involved in remodeling of extracellular matrix point to important role of connective tissue in TM healing. The molecules accelerating this process, like HbEGF and HGF, seem to be good candidates for further evaluation of their possible use in clinical treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elżbieta Hassmann-Poznańska
- Department of Pediatric Otolaryngology, Medical University of Białystok, Waszyngtona 17, 15-274 Białystok, Poland.
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Cayé-Thomasen P, Hermansson A, Bakaletz L, Hellstrøm S, Kanzaki S, Kerschner J, Lim D, Lin J, Mason K, Spratley J. Panel 3: Recent advances in anatomy, pathology, and cell biology in relation to otitis media pathogenesis. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 2013; 148:E37-51. [PMID: 23536531 DOI: 10.1177/0194599813476257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2012] [Accepted: 01/08/2012] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES The pathogenesis of otitis media (OM) involves a number of factors related to the anatomy, pathology, and cell biology of the middle ear, the mastoid, the Eustachian tube, and the nasopharynx. Although some issues of pathogenesis are fairly well established, others are only marginally indicated by current knowledge, and yet others remain undisclosed. The objective of this article is to provide a state-of-the-art review on recent scientific achievements in the pathogenesis of OM, as related to anatomy, pathology, and cell biology. DATA SOURCES PubMed, Ovid Medline, and Cochrane Library. REVIEW METHODS Articles published on the pathogenesis of OM and the anatomy, pathology, and cell biology of the middle ear, the mastoid, the Eustachian tube, and the nasopharynx between January 2007 and June 2011 were identified. Among almost 1900 abstracts, the authors selected 130 articles for full article review and inclusion in this report. RESULTS New knowledge on a number of issues emerged, including cell-specific expression and function of fluid transportation and innate immune system molecules, mucous cell metaplasia, mucin expression, bacterial adherence, and epithelial internalization, as well as the occurrence, composition, dynamics, and potential role of bacterial biofilm. In addition, the potential role of gastroesophageal reflux disease and cigarette smoke exposure has been explored further. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE Over the past 4 years, considerable scientific progress has been made on the pathogenesis of OM, as related to issues of anatomy, pathology, and cell biology. Based on these new achievements and a sustained lack of essential knowledge, suggestions for future research are outlined.
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Affiliation(s)
- Per Cayé-Thomasen
- Department of Oto-rhino-laryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, University Hospital of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark.
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Pai S, Danne KJ, Qin J, Cavanagh LL, Smith A, Hickey MJ, Weninger W. Visualizing leukocyte trafficking in the living brain with 2-photon intravital microscopy. Front Cell Neurosci 2013; 6:67. [PMID: 23316136 PMCID: PMC3539661 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2012.00067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2012] [Accepted: 12/18/2012] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Intravital imaging of the superficial brain tissue in mice represents a powerful tool for the dissection of the cellular and molecular cues underlying inflammatory and infectious central nervous system (CNS) diseases. We present here a step-by-step protocol that will enable a non-specialist to set up a two-photon brain-imaging model. The protocol offers a two-part approach that is specifically optimized for imaging leukocytes but can be easily adapted to answer varied CNS-related biological questions. The protocol enables simultaneous visualization of fluorescently labeled immune cells, the pial microvasculature and extracellular structures such as collagen fibers at high spatial and temporal resolution. Intracranial structures are exposed through a cranial window, and physiologic conditions are maintained during extended imaging sessions via continuous superfusion of the brain surface with artificial cerebrospinal fluid (aCSF). Experiments typically require 1-2 h of preparation, which is followed by variable periods of immune cell tracking. Our methodology converges the experience of two laboratories over the past 10 years in diseased animal models such as cerebral ischemia, lupus, cerebral malaria, and toxoplasmosis. We exemplify the utility of this protocol by tracking leukocytes in transgenic mice in the pial vessels under steady-state conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saparna Pai
- Immune Imaging Program, The Centenary Institute Newtown, NSW, Australia ; Sydney Medical School, University of Sydney Sydney, NSW, Australia
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Shen Y, Guo Y, Du C, Wilczynska M, Hellström S, Ny T. Mice deficient in urokinase-type plasminogen activator have delayed healing of tympanic membrane perforations. PLoS One 2012; 7:e51303. [PMID: 23236466 PMCID: PMC3517469 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0051303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2012] [Accepted: 10/31/2012] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Mice deficient in plasminogen, the precursor of plasmin, show completely arrested healing of tympanic membrane (TM) perforations, indicating that plasmin plays an essential role in TM healing. The activation of plasminogen to plasmin is performed by two plasminogen activators (PAs), urokinase-type PA (uPA) and tissue-type PA (tPA). To elucidate the functional roles of PAs in the healing of TM perforations, we investigated the phenotypes of single gene-deficient mice lacking uPA (uPA(-/-)) or tPA (tPA(-/-)) after TM perforation. Delayed healing of TM perforations was observed in uPA(-/-) mice but not tPA(-/-) mice. The migration of keratinocytes was clearly delayed and seemed to be misoriented in uPA(-/-) mice. Furthermore, fibrin deposition and the inflammatory response were persistent in these mice. Our findings demonstrate that uPA plays a role in the healing of TM perforations. The observed phenotypes in uPA(-/-) mice are most likely due to the reduced generation of plasmin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yue Shen
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Yongzhi Guo
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Chun Du
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
| | | | - Sten Hellström
- Department of Audiology and Neurotology, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Tor Ny
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
- * E-mail:
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