The role of pet dogs in casual conversations of elderly adults

User behaviors in a community-based multifunctional urban park with dog friendly area

Urban parks are essential for community revitalization; for example, they are places to walk dogs and interact with other dog keepers. This study focused on an urban park with a dog-friendly area to be used by both dog keepers and other users as an alternative to off-leash dog parks that completely separate them and clarified aspects of park use through behavioral observation. The behaviors of 7122 visitors in 14 areas in the park and 294 pairs of dogs and their keepers in the dog-friendly area were observed. The results showed that the visitors' age groups and use behaviors differed by area. The dog-friendly area was in constant demand among dog keepers as a place where they could stay and interact with others and as a destination or relay point when walking their dogs. Visitors used the park in accordance with rules and morals, and the park was well managed. As it can be comfortably used by everyone (with or without dogs), this park can serve as a model for the development and maintenance of community-based multifunctional parks in urban areas.

Ownership of dogs and cats leads to higher levels of well-being and general trust through family involvement in late adolescence

Introduction

Late adolescence is a crucial period during which individuals connect with new communities. Furthermore, their mental health has lasting effects on their overall well-being. Involvement with family and the local community plays a significant role in shaping adolescents' personalities and well-being. Additionally, pets, such as dogs and cats, function as social catalysts and increase interactions with family and the local community. We hypothesized that pet ownership would increase involvement with family and the local community and thereby impact adolescents' personalities and well-being.

Methods

Therefore, this study investigated whether owning dogs or cats was related to well-being through increased involvement with family and local community members in late adolescence. Data were collected via a questionnaire administered to high school and university students. The questionnaire included questions on basic information about adolescents and their families, pet ownership experience, family and local community involvement, well-being, cultural estrangement inventory, and general trust.

Results

Structural equation modeling revealed that adolescent women who owned dogs or cats had higher well-being and general trust through their involvement with their families. Although previous research reported that men who had experienced pet ownership in childhood were more sociable in old age, the effect of pet ownership on men was not observed in this study.

Discussion

During late adolescence, when individuals experience many connections with new communities, the effects of pets may temporarily decrease. Therefore, future cohort studies should examine the effects of pets on each age group.

Animal welfare deserts: human and nonhuman animal inequities

Residents of distressed areas of inner cities have less access to many of life's necessities and amenities than their more well-off counterparts. Geographic proximity has been identified as a primary barrier to accessing care for pets potentially creating animal welfare deserts. This project addresses three questions: Are there visible animal welfare deserts in distressed urban centers?; What human inequities are most strongly related to animal welfare deserts?; and What might be done to address these inequities? Using business location and census data in the city of Detroit, this research identifies distinct animal welfare deserts finding that more prosperous areas have more pet support resources and that the need for services is not related to the location of pet stores and veterinary offices. The study concludes that the overlap between human economic distress and pet resource deserts presents a threat to the goals of One Health. Potential policy solutions are proposed to address inequities in the distribution of animal welfare resources.

Daily Mobility and Social Interactions Among Community-Dwelling Older Adults With Pet Dogs: A Scoping Review

Dogs are part of many people's lives and are involved in interventions to improve the well-being of older adults in institutional settings. However, the literature on the impact of pet dogs on community-dwelling older adults is still relatively limited. This study mapped the impact of having a companion dog on the daily mobility and social interactions of community-dwelling older adults using a scoping review. Electronic databases were searched, and studies written in English, Portuguese, and Spanish that were published in a peer-reviewed journal were identified. After a careful review, 26 eligible studies were identified, and relevant findings were extracted. The main findings indicated that having a dog may promote or hinder daily mobility and social interactions and that having a dog is about routines and sharing affection. More research is needed to clarify what makes having a companion dog key to promoting active and healthy aging.

How's my kitty? Acoustic parameters of cat-directed speech in human-cat interactions

In Western cultures, humans tend to use a specific kind of speech when talking to their pets, characterised, from an acoustical point of view, by elevated pitch and greater pitch modulation. Pet-directed speech (PDS), which has been mainly studied in dogs, shares some acoustic features with infant-directed speech (IDS), used when talking to young children. The purpose of this study was to test the hypothesis that adult humans also modify characteristics of their voice when talking to a cat. We compared acoustic parameters of speech directed to cats (CDS) and speech directed to adult humans (ADS). In a first experiment, we compared ADS and CDS utterances of male and female participants, addressing cats through video recordings, under controlled laboratory conditions. Both men and women used a higher pitch (mean fundamental frequency, or mean F0) in CDS vs. ADS. The second experiment was conducted under conditions allowing direct cat-human interactions, in a cohort of women. Once again, mean F0 was significantly higher in CDS vs. ADS. Overall, these data confirm our hypothesis that humans change the way they speak when addressing a cat, mainly by increasing the pitch of their voice. Further research is needed to fully investigate specificities of this speech.

Pet Ownership Patterns and Successful Aging Outcomes in Community Dwelling Older Adults

Introduction: Diminishing cognitive and physical functions, worsening psychological symptoms, and increased mortality risk and morbidity typically accompany aging. The aging population's health needs will continue to increase as the proportion of the population aged > 50 years increases. Pet ownership (PO) has been linked to better health outcomes in older adults, particularly those with chronic conditions. Much of the evidence is weak. Little is known about PO patterns as people age or the contribution of PO to successful aging in community-dwelling older adults. This study examines PO patterns among healthy community-dwelling older adults and the relationship of PO to cognitive and physical functions and psychological status. Methods: Participants in the Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging (> 50 years old, N = 378) completed a battery of cognitive, physical function, and psychological tests, as well as a PO questionnaire. Descriptive and non-parametric or general/generalized linear model analyses were conducted for separate outcomes. Results: Most participants (82%) had kept pets and 24% have pets: 14% dogs, 12% cats, 3% other pets. The most frequent reasons for having pets included enjoyment (80%) and companionship (66%). Most owners had kept the pet they had the longest for over 10 years (70%). PO was lower in older decades (p < 0.001). Pet owners were more likely to live in single-family homes and reside with others (p = 0.001) than non-owners. Controlling for age, PO was associated independently with better cognitive function (verbal leaning/memory p = 0.041), dog ownership predicted better physical function (daily energy expenditure, p = 0.018), and cat ownership predicted better cognitive functioning (verbal learning/memory, p = 0.035). Many older adults who did not own pets (37%) had regular contact with pets, which was also related to health outcomes. Conclusion: PO is lower at older ages, which mirrors the general pattern of poorer cognitive and physical function, and psychological status at older ages. PO and regular contact with pets (including PO) are associated with better cognitive status compared with those who did not own pets or had no regular contact with pets independent of age. Dog ownership was related to better physical function. Longitudinal analysis is required to evaluate the association of PO and/or regular contact with maintenance of health status over time.

A Systematic Literature Review of Animal-Assisted Interventions in Oncology (Part II): Theoretical Mechanisms and Frameworks

Animal-assisted interventions (AAIs) can improve patients' quality of life as complementary medical treatments. Part I of this 2-paper systematic review focused on the methods and results of cancer-related AAIs; Part II discusses the theories of the field's investigators. Researchers cite animal personality, physical touch, physical movement, distraction, and increased human interaction as sources of observed positive outcomes. These mechanisms then group under theoretical frameworks such as the social support hypothesis or the human-animal bond concept to fully explain AAI in oncology. The cognitive activation theory of stress, the science of unitary human beings, and the self-object hypothesis are additional frameworks mentioned by some researchers. We also discuss concepts of neurobiological transduction connecting mechanisms to AAI benefits. Future researchers should base study design on theories with testable hypotheses and use consistent terminology to report results. This review aids progress toward a unified theoretical framework and toward more holistic cancer treatments.

Disruptive Solidarity or Solidarity Disrupted? A Dialogical Narrative Analysis of Economically Vulnerable Older Adults' Efforts to Age in Place with Pets

Over one-third of older adults in many countries have a companion animal, and pets may harbor health-promoting potential. Few studies have considered pet-ownership in relation to economic vulnerability, and pet-ownership has not been often considered within policy efforts to promote ageing-in-place. We conducted a mixed methods case study to understand perspectives of both community agencies that support ageing-in-place and older adults themselves. A shortage of affordable, appropriate pet-friendly housing emerged as a challenge, even when framed as a legitimate choice and preference for many older adults. In this manuscript, we share the trajectories of three economically vulnerable older adults whose affordable housing needs became entangled with commitments to pets. Guided by dialogical narrative methodology, we offer each narrative as a short vignette to (i) illustrate the extent to which older adults will practice 'more-than-human solidarity' for a pet, even when their own well-being is compromised as a result; and (ii) highlight incongruence between the underlying moral values that shape solidaristic practices of individuals versus solidaristic arrangements that shape affordable housing opportunities. We suggest that housing rules and legislation that disrupt, rather than confirm, more-than-human solidarity may render older adults susceptible to, rather than protected from, deteriorating physical, mental and social well-being. We propose that collective solidaristic practices must reflect and subsume the moral complexity of solidarity practiced by individuals, to enable fair and equitable ageing-in-place.

Dog Walking, the Human-Animal Bond and Older Adults' Physical Health

Purpose of the Study

This study explored the associations between dog ownership and pet bonding with walking behavior and health outcomes in older adults.

Design and Methods

We used data from the 12th wave (2012) of the Health and Retirement Study which included an experimental human-animal interaction module. Ordinary least squares regression and binary logistic regression models controlling for demographic variables were used to answer the research questions.

Results

Dog walking was associated with lower body mass index, fewer activities of daily living limitations, fewer doctor visits, and more frequent moderate and vigorous exercise. People with higher degrees of pet bonding were more likely to walk their dog and to spend more time walking their dog each time, but they reported walking a shorter distance with their dog than those with weaker pet bonds. Dog ownership was not associated with better physical health or health behaviors.

Implications

This study provides evidence for the association between dog walking and physical health using a large, nationally representative sample. The relationship with one's dog may be a positive influence on physical activity for older adults.

Pets, Social Participation, and Aging-in-Place: Findings from the Canadian Longitudinal Study on Aging

Des données de référence nationales et représentatives de l’Étude longitudinale canadienne sur le vieillissement (ÉLCV) ont été utilisées pour évaluer si la possession d’un animal de compagnie était associée à la participation sociale et à la satisfaction de vivre des personnes âgées (≥65 ans, n= 7,474). Des statistiques descriptives ont permis de distinguer les modalités de la possession d’animaux dans la population canadienne plus âgée, et des modèles de régression logistique ont été utilisés pour estimer les associations entre la participation sociale et la satisfaction de vivre de personnes âgées possédant ou non des animaux. Un tiers des personnes âgées de l’échantillon ont rapporté posséder des animaux. En moyenne, les personnes possédant des animaux avaient une satisfaction de vivre inférieure (OR=0,73, p<0,001) et participaient à moins d’activités sociales, récréatives et culturelles sur une base régulière (OR=0,73, p<0,001) que les personnes sans animaux; cependant, les personnes avec animaux n’étaient pas moins satisfaites de leur niveau actuel de participation sociale que celles sans animaux. Pour les propriétaires d’animaux dont la participation sociale était compromise, les animaux semblaient constituer un facteur de protection dans certaines circonstances. Des caractéristiques individuelles et des facteurs structurels liés au cadre conceptuel des Collectivités amies des aînés de l’Organisation mondiale de la Santé ont permis de mieux comprendre ces résultats.

A survey of the impact of owning a service dog on quality of life for individuals with physical and hearing disability: a pilot study

Background

Quality of life refers to a person’s experienced standard of health, comfort and happiness and is typically measured using subjective self-report scales. Despite increasing scientific interest in the value of dogs to human health and the growing demand for trained service dogs, to date no research has reported how service dogs may affect client perceptions of quality of life.

Method

We compared quality of life scores on the 16 item Flanagan quality of life scale from individuals who owned a trained service dog with those who were eligible to receive a dog, but did not yet have one (waiting list control). Data were analysed separately from two groups; those with a service dog trained for individuals with physical disabilities (with physical service dog: n = 72; waiting for a service dog: n = 24; recruited from Dogs for Good database) and those with a hearing service dog (with hearing service dog = 111; waiting for a service dog = 30; recruited from Hearing Dogs for Deaf People database).

Results

When controlling for age and gender individuals scored higher on total quality of life scores if they owned a service dog or a hearing service dog, but this was only statistically significant for those with a service dog. Both groups (physical service dog and hearing service dog) scored significantly higher on items relating to health, working, learning and independence if they owned a service dog, in comparison to those on the waiting list. Those with a physical service dog also scored significantly higher on items relating to recreational activities (including items relating to reading/listening to music, socialising, creative expression), and those involving social interactions (including items relating to participating in organisations, socialising, relationship with relatives). Additionally, those with a physical service dog scored higher on understanding yourself and material comforts than those on the waiting list control. In contrast, those with a hearing service dog appeared to receive fewer benefits on items relating to social activities.

Conclusions

Owning a service dog can bring significant specific and potentially general benefits to the quality of life of individuals with physical disabilities and hearing impairments. These benefits may have considerable implications for individuals with disabilities, society and the economy by promoting independence, learning and working abilities.

Effect of interaction type on the characteristics of pet-directed speech in female dog owners

Recent studies focusing on the interspecific communicative interactions between humans and dogs show that owners use a special speech register when addressing their dog. This register, called pet-directed speech (PDS), has prosodic and syntactic features similar to that of infant-directed speech (IDS). While IDS prosody is known to vary according to the context of the communication with babies, we still know little about the way owners adjust acoustic and verbal PDS features according to the type of interaction with their dog. The aim of the study was therefore to explore whether the characteristics of women's speech depend on the nature of interaction with their dog. We recorded 34 adult women interacting with their dog in four conditions: before a brief separation, after reuniting, during play and while giving commands. Our results show that before separation women used a low pitch, few modulations, high intensity variations and very few affective sentences. In contrast, the reunion interactions were characterized by a very high pitch, few imperatives and a high frequency of affectionate nicknames. During play, women used mainly questions and attention-getting devices. Finally when commanding, women mainly used imperatives as well as attention-getting devices. Thus, like mothers using IDS, female owners adapt the verbal as well as the non-verbal characteristics of their PDS to the nature of the interaction with their dog, suggesting that the intended function of these vocal utterances remains to provide dogs with information about their intentions and emotions.

Are Pets a Source of Support or Added Burden for Married Couples Facing Dementia?

In studies that have explored pet ownership in families affected by dementia, reported benefits have ranged from improvements in patient behavior to reduction in caregiver blood pressure. In this exploratory study, the impact of dementia on relationships among pets, caregivers, and care recipients was examined using content analysis of open-ended questions included in a telephone survey. Female spouse caregivers who owned pets were asked how their (and their husband's) relationship with their pets changed since they started caring for their husband. Most caregivers reported that they felt closer and more attached to their pets than previously. However, some caregivers reported that their pets created an additional burden and that they and their spouse had less time to care for the pets since the onset of illness. Findings highlight the need for further research to explore the unique benefits and burdens of owning a pet for families affected by dementia.

The pet factor--companion animals as a conduit for getting to know people, friendship formation and social support

BACKGROUND

While companion animals have been previously identified as a direct source of companionship and support to their owners, their role as a catalyst for friendship formation or social support networks among humans has received little attention. This study investigated the indirect role of pets as facilitators for three dimensions of social relatedness; getting to know people, friendship formation and social support networks.

METHODS

A telephone survey of randomly selected residents in four cities, one in Australia (Perth; n = 704) and three in the U.S. (San Diego, n = 690; Portland, n = 634; Nashville, n = 664) was conducted. All participants were asked about getting to know people within their neighborhood. Pet owners were asked additional questions about the type/s of pet/s they owned, whether they had formed friendships as a result of their pet, and if they had received any of four different types of social support from the people they met through their pet.

RESULTS

Pet owners were significantly more likely to get to know people in their neighborhood than non-pet owners (OR 1.61; 95%CI: 1.30, 1.99). When analyzed by site, this relationship was significant for Perth, San Diego and Nashville. Among pet owners, dog owners in the three U.S. cities (but not Perth) were significantly more likely than owners of other types of pets to regard people whom they met through their pet as a friend (OR 2.59; 95%CI: 1.94, 3.46). Around 40% of pet owners reported receiving one or more types of social support (i.e. emotional, informational, appraisal, instrumental) via people they met through their pet.

CONCLUSION

This research suggests companion animals can be a catalyst for several dimensions of human social relationships in neighborhood settings, ranging from incidental social interaction and getting to know people, through to formation of new friendships. For many pet owners, their pets also facilitated relationships from which they derived tangible forms of social support, both of a practical and emotionally supportive nature. Given growing evidence for social isolation as a risk factor for mental health, and, conversely, friendships and social support as protective factors for individual and community well-being, pets may be an important factor in developing healthy neighborhoods.

Relationships between dog ownership and physical activity in postmenopausal women

BACKGROUND

Positive associations between dog ownership and physical activity in older adults have been previously reported.

PURPOSE

The objective of this study was to examine cross-sectional associations between dog ownership and physical activity measures in a well-characterized, diverse sample of postmenopausal women.

METHODS

Analyses included 36,984 dog owners (mean age: 61.5years), and 115,645 non-dog owners (mean age: 63.9years) enrolled in a clinical trial or the observational study of the Women's Health Initiative between 1993 and 1998. Logistic regression models were used to test for associations between dog ownership and physical activity, adjusted for potential confounders.

RESULTS

Owning a dog was associated with a higher likelihood of walking ≥150min/wk (Odds Ratio, 1.14; 95% Confidence Interval, 1.10-1.17) and a lower likelihood of being sedentary ≥8h/day (Odds Ratio, 0.86; 95% Confidence Interval, 0.83-0.89) as compared to not owning a dog. However, dog owners were less likely to meet ≥7.5MET-h/wk of total physical activity as compared to non-dog owners (Odds Ratio, 1.03; 95% Confidence Interval, 1.00-1.07).

CONCLUSIONS

Dog ownership is associated with increased physical activity in older women, particularly among women living alone. Health promotion efforts aimed at older adults should highlight the benefits of regular dog walking for both dog owners and non-dog owners.

How might we increase physical activity through dog walking?: A comprehensive review of dog walking correlates

BACKGROUND

Physical inactivity and sedentary behaviour are major threats to population health. A considerable proportion of people own dogs, and there is good evidence that dog ownership is associated with higher levels of physical activity. However not all owners walk their dogs regularly. This paper comprehensively reviews the evidence for correlates of dog walking so that effective interventions may be designed to increase the physical activity of dog owners.

METHODS

Published findings from 1990-2012 in both the human and veterinary literature were collated and reviewed for evidence of factors associated with objective and self-reported measures of dog walking behaviour, or reported perceptions about dog walking. Study designs included cross-sectional observational, trials and qualitative interviews.

RESULTS

There is good evidence that the strength of the dog-owner relationship, through a sense of obligation to walk the dog, and the perceived support and motivation a dog provides for walking, is strongly associated with increased walking. The perceived exercise requirements of the dog may also be a modifiable point for intervention. In addition, access to suitable walking areas with dog supportive features that fulfil dog needs such as off-leash exercise, and that also encourage human social interaction, may be incentivising.

CONCLUSION

Current evidence suggests that dog walking may be most effectively encouraged through targeting the dog-owner relationship and by providing dog-supportive physical environments. More research is required to investigate the influence of individual owner and dog factors on 'intention' to walk the dog as well as the influence of human social interaction whilst walking a dog. The effects of policy and cultural practices relating to dog ownership and walking should also be investigated. Future studies must be of a higher quality methodological design, including accounting for the effects of confounding between variables, and longitudinal designs and testing of interventions in a controlled design in order to infer causality.

Grief and bereavement of Israeli dog owners: exploring short-term phases pre- and post-euthanization

Several studies have investigated the grief that owners experience after they euthanized their pets. However, research has not explored the cognitive and emotional processes those dog owners experience. The authors chose an exploratory approach and conducted a content analysis of 29 semistructured interviews of owners in the 2-week period after the death of their dogs. They found 5 main phases in the initial parting process: the decision to euthanize; anticipation and mental preparation; burial; mourning; and thinking about a new pet. All participants experienced these 5 common behavioral and emotional phases. There were only small individual differences among owners' reactions.

Dog-walking and sense of community in neighborhoods: implications for promoting regular physical activity in adults 50 years and older

This study investigates whether dog-ownership and neighborhood characteristics are associated with sense of community (SC) and neighborhood-based recreational walking (NRW) for older adults. A random sample of adults ≥50 years of age (n=884) provided information on SC, dog-related factors, neighborhood walking, and socio-demographics in telephone and postal surveys. Associations between dog-ownership, neighborhood characteristics, and NRW were estimated using logistic regression (i.e., odds ratios (OR)). Frequent dog-walkers (≥4 times/wk) were more likely than those not owning a dog to report a heightened SC (OR=1.94, p<.05) and to achieve ≥150min/wk of NRW (OR=10.68, p<.05). SC was also tested but not found to mediate associations between neighborhood characteristics, dog-ownership and NRW. Older adults who walk dogs often in their neighborhoods may benefit from both increased physical activity and heightened sense of community to an extent that supports healthy aging. Longitudinal studies are needed to explore directions of associations among these factors.

Psychological effects of dog ownership: role strain, role enhancement, and depression

The purpose of this study is to examine the link between multiple roles and depression and to attempt to provide a clearer answer to the question of what effect, if any, the role of dog ownership plays. Role strain and role enhancement theories are drawn upon to study this relationship. Ordinary least squares regression is used to examine a national sample of 201 adults in the United States. Findings revealed sex and marital status differences in the relationship between dog ownership and well-being, with women and single adults more likely to benefit from dog ownership. The findings presented here suggest that inattention to variations in marital status and sex may have been one factor in the inconsistency in the literature on pets and well-being.

The human-companion animal bond: how humans benefit

The human-animal bond is extremely important to most clients of small animal veterinary practices. Pet ownership, or just being in the presence of a companion animal, is associated with health benefits, including improvements in mental, social, and physiologic health status. This article provides the research data regarding the human health benefits of companion animals, animal-assisted therapy, animal-assisted activities, and assistance animals; reviews measures that can be taken to enable safe pet ownership for the immunocompromised, and discusses the veterinarian's role in supporting immune-compromised clients and clients who have assistance animals. Client education and enhanced veterinary care can reduce the risk from zoonotic diseases, even for the immunocompromised.

In the company of wolves: the physical, social, and psychological benefits of dog ownership

OBJECTIVE

The increase in aging populations has implications for the provision of health and social services. A preventative approach is taken to address this problem by examining a mechanism that can enhance physical health and reduce minor ailments.

METHODS

Participants in 10 focus groups discussed physical, psychological, and social benefits associated with human-dog interactions.

METHOD

RESULTS

Interaction between humans and dogs is a mechanism that can enhance the physical and psychological health of elderly citizens and promote a social support network between dog owners. In turn, dependence and impact on health and social services are alleviated.

DISCUSSION

The social and community consequences of promoting dog ownership in the elderly are addressed, and it is concluded that the benefits of dog ownership should be promoted among the elderly and acknowledged by relevant agencies.

Reasons Given by Elderly Men and Women for Not Owning a Pet, and the Implications for Clinical Practice and Research

There is inadequate understanding about why people might not own pets. This qualitative study asked eight elderly women and men to discuss why they do not have a pet, whether pets were deemed beneficial to health, and whether they had plans for future pet ownership. Reasons for not owning a pet were Emotional or Pragmatic. Pragmatic reasons were categorized as relating to Convenience, Negative aspects of companion animals and Competing demands on time or energy. Participants expressed mixed feelings in their plans for future pet ownership. Clinical and research implications of these findings are discussed.

Does getting a dog increase recreational walking?

BACKGROUND

This study examines changes in socio-demographic, environmental and intrapersonal factors associated with dog acquisition in non-dog owners at baseline to 12-months follow-up and the effect of dog acquisition on minutes per week of recreational walking.

METHODS

RESIDE study participants completed self-administered questionnaires (baseline and 12-months follow-up) measuring physical activity, dog ownership, dog walking behavior as well as environmental, intrapersonal and socio-demographic factors. Analysis was restricted to 'Continuing non-owners' (i.e., non-owners at both baseline and follow-up; n = 681) and 'New dog owners' (i.e., non-owners who acquired a dog by follow-up; n = 92).

RESULTS

Overall, 12% of baseline non-owners had acquired a dog at follow-up. Dog acquisition was associated with working and having children at home. Those who changed from single to couple marital status were also more likely to acquire a dog. The increase in minutes of walking for recreation within the neighborhood from baseline to follow-up was 48 minutes/week for new dog owners compared with 12 minutes/week for continuing non-owners (p < 0.05). After adjusting for baseline variables the effect of dog acquisition on the increase in minutes of recreational walking within the neighborhood was 31 minutes (95% CI: 7.39, 54.22; p < 0.01). However, this reduced to 22 minutes (95% CI: -1.53, 45.42; p > 0.05) after further adjustment for change in baseline to follow-up variables. Increase in intention to walk was the main factor contributing to attenuation of the effect of dog acquisition on recreational walking.

CONCLUSION

This study used a large representative sample of non-owners to examine the relationship between dog acquisition and recreational walking and provides evidence to suggest that dog acquisition leads to an increase in walking. The most likely mechanism through which dog acquisition facilitates increased physical activity is through behavioral intention via the dog's positive effect on owner's cognitive beliefs about walking, and through the provision of motivation and social support for walking. The results suggest that behavioral intention mediates the relationship between dog acquisition and walking and that dogs may have a significant role in the maintenance of owner walking behavior.

The benefits of human-companion animal interaction: a review

This article provides a review of research published since 1980 on the benefits of human-companion animal interaction. Studies focusing on the benefits of pet ownership are presented first, followed by research on the benefits of interacting with companion animals that are not owned by the subject (animal-assisted activities). While most of the published studies are descriptive and have been conducted with convenience samples, a promising number of controlled studies support the health benefits of interacting with companion animals. Future research employing more rigorous designs and systematically building upon a clearly defined line of inquiry is needed to advance our knowledge of the benefits of human-companion animal interaction.

Dog ownership, health and physical activity: a critical review of the literature

This review examines the association between dog ownership and adult physical activity levels. While there is evidence to suggest that dog ownership produces considerable health benefit and provides an important form of social support that encourages dog owners to walk, there is limited evidence on the physical environmental and policy-related factors that affect dog owners walking with their dog. With the high level of dog ownership in many industrialized countries, further exploration of the relationship between dog ownership and physical activity levels may be important for preventing declining levels of physical activity and the associated detrimental health effects.

The pet connection: Pets as a conduit for social capital?

There is growing interest across a range of disciplines in the relationship between pets and health, with a range of therapeutic, physiological, psychological and psychosocial benefits now documented. While much of the literature has focused on the individual benefits of pet ownership, this study considered the potential health benefits that might accrue to the broader community, as encapsulated in the construct of social capital. A random survey of 339 adult residents from Perth, Western Australia were selected from three suburbs and interviewed by telephone. Pet ownership was found to be positively associated with some forms of social contact and interaction, and with perceptions of neighbourhood friendliness. After adjustment for demographic variables, pet owners scored higher on social capital and civic engagement scales. The results suggest that pet ownership provides potential opportunities for interactions between neighbours and that further research in this area is warranted. Social capital is another potential mechanism by which pets exert an influence on human health.

Pet ownership and health in older adults: findings from a survey of 2,551 community-based Australians aged 60-64

BACKGROUND

It is commonly assumed that owning a pet provides older residents in the community with health benefits including improved physical health and psychological well-being. It has also been reported that pet owners are lower on neuroticism and higher on extraversion compared with those without pets. However, findings of research on this topic have been mixed with a number of researchers reporting that, for older people, there is little or no health benefit associated with pet ownership.

OBJECTIVE

To identify health benefits associated with pet ownership and pet caring responsibilities in a large sample of older community-based residents.

METHODS

Using survey information provided by 2,551 individuals aged between 60 and 64 years, we compared the sociodemographic attributes, mental and physical health measures, and personality traits of pet owners and non-owners. For 78.8% of these participants, we were also able to compare the health services used, based on information obtained from the national insurer on the number of general practitioner (GP) visits they made over a 12-month period.

RESULTS

Compared with non-owners, those with pets reported more depressive symptoms while female pet owners who were married also had poorer physical health. We found that caring for a pet was associated with negative health outcomes including more symptoms of depression, poorer physical health and higher rates of use of pain relief medication. No relationship was found between pet ownership and use of GP services. When we examined the personality traits of pet owners and carers, we found that men who cared for pets had higher extraversion scores. Our principal and unexpected finding, however, was that pet owners and carers reported higher levels of psychoticism as measured by the Revised Eysenck Personality Questionnaire.

CONCLUSIONS

We conclude that pet ownership confers no health benefits for this age group. Instead, those with pets have poorer mental and physical health and use more pain relief medication. Further, our study suggests that those with pets are less conforming to social norms as indicated by their higher levels of psychoticism.

Companion animals in palliative care: stories from the bedside

Research has shown that a companion animal or pet can help a person better cope with stressful life events, prevent loneliness, decrease depression, improve activities of daily living (ADLs), and increase social interactions. Pets in nursing homes have been associated with decreased psychotropic medication usage and a greater than 50 percent reduction in healthcare costs. Despite research in other areas of healthcare, there is limited data concerning the use of companion animals in palliative care. This article presents an overview of companion-animal-associated medical research as well as patient stories that illustrate the roles of companion animals in end-of-life care.

Pets as therapy: effects on social interaction in long-stay psychiatry

Many studies have suggested that health and social benefits may be derived from pet ownership or visitation upon interaction levels within severely mentally ill populations. The study featured in this article aimed to examine further this relationship while attempting to control for the effects of an extraneous variable (the human dog handler) using an A-B-C-A reversal design. The article concludes that the presence of a pet does, indeed, promote social interactions within a long-stay psychiatric population.

The role of police dogs as companions and working partners

Written responses to a questionnaire by 255 officers who used canines in police work were assessed. Almost all officers frequently played with, talked to, petted, and brushed their dogs and believed the dogs benefitted their health and well-being. Officers whose dogs slept indoors, often in the same bedroom, generally said they loved their dogs and they described their dogs as calm rather than active, as indicated by a multiple correspondence analysis. These 96 officers more than the 154 officers whose dogs slept outdoors or in kennels also planned to remain in canine work. Although departments often assumed responsibility for purchasing the dogs, the more experienced officers usually were involved in the final selection of dogs (logistic regression: p < .0001). Compared with 94 officers not involved in selecting their dogs, 106 officers with a specific role in selecting their dogs planned to stay in canine work, as shown by a multiple correspondence analysis. They believed the dogs had saved their lives (p < .01). Over-all, officers reported spending 4.1 hr. on-duty and 2.9 hr. off-duty per week training their dogs, and also played with them for 6.5 hr. per week, assuring a regular pattern of exercise for the officers. Virtually all officers valued canine service and believed the dogs enhanced the department's effectiveness. This study showed that both close companionship with the dog and involvement in selecting the dog were associated both with satisfaction with the dog and with working as a canine officer.

Pets and health

Beneficial and adverse effects of pets for individuals in a wide range of circumstances have been reported. Nevertheless, well-designed unbiased experiments and long-term follow-up studies are needed. Pets appear to be therapeutic for some individuals and deleterious for others. The controversies concerning the effects of pets on health merit objective assessment by unbiased researchers.

Companion animals and the psychological health of Alzheimer patients' caregivers

A sample of 244 persons in northern California who provided care for individuals with possible or probable Alzheimer's disease was studied to examine the effect of association with companion animals on three indices of psychological health. 124 caregivers had regular contact with pets; 120 caregivers did not. Men who were attached to dogs scored better on some measures of psychological health than did men who had no pets. Women less than 40 years old who were attached to cats scored better on some measures of psychological health than did the same-age women who had no pets. Women aged 40 to 59 years who were attached to dogs scored worse on measures of life satisfaction and depression than did the same-age women who had no pets. The data suggested a positive indirect effect on caregivers' mental health through interaction between the pet and the patient, but small strata numbers precluded definitive conclusions. Association with pets appeared to temper some of the psychological stress associated with caring for a cognitively impaired adult among young female and male caregivers but not among middle-aged female caregivers.