Relationships among training stress, mood and dehydroepiandrosterone sulphate/cortisol ratio in female cyclists

Circadian rhythm in sportspersons and athletic performance: A mini review

Circadian rhythms in the physiological and behavioral processes of humans play a crucial role in the quality of living and also in the magnitude of success and failure in various endeavors including competitive sports. The rhythmic activities of the body and performance in sportspersons do have a massive impact on their every cutthroat competition. It is essential to schedule sports activities and training of players according to their circadian typology and time of peak performance for improved performance and achievement. In this review, the focus is on circadian rhythms and diurnal variations in peak athletic performance in sportspersons. Accuracy and temporal variability in peak performance in an individual could be attributed to various factors, namely chronotype, time of the day, body temperature, jetlag, hormones, and prior light exposure. Circadian rhythm of mood, alertness, T-core, and ultimately athletic performance is not only affected by sleep but also by circadian variations in hormones, such as cortisol, testosterone, and melatonin. There are, however, a few reports that are not consistent with the conclusions drawn in this review. Nevertheless, circadian rhythm and performance among sportspersons and athletes are important areas of research. This review might be useful to the managers and policymakers associated with competitive sports and athletic events.

High Prevalence of Iron Deficiency Exhibited in Internationally Competitive, Non-Professional Female Endurance Athletes-A Case Study

BACKGROUND

While iron deficiency is commonly discussed in populations of professional female athletes, less is known about highly trained, sub-elite female athletes (e.g., those winning international age-group competitions) who generally have less access to medical and allied health support.

METHODS

Thirteen non-professional highly trained female endurance athletes provided training diaries and completed a blood test, where iron markers of haemoglobin (Hb), haematocrit (Hct), C-reactive protein (Crp), serum iron, serum ferritin, and transferrin were assessed. Resting metabolic rate (RMR) and body composition using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) were also obtained. Participants were classified as iron deficient (ID) if serum ferritin was <30 ug/L serum ferritin.

RESULTS

Six of the 13 females were classified as ID. Serum iron, ferritin, Hb, Hct, and ferrin were greater in the ID group (p < 0.05). Crp resulted in large to very large correlations with serum iron (r = -0.72), serum ferritin (r = -0.66), and transferrin (r = 0.70).

CONCLUSIONS

In this population of highly trained female athletes, 46% were diagnosed with sub-optimal iron levels, which could have lasting health effects and impair athletic performance. The need for more education and support in non-professional athletes regarding iron deficiency is strongly advised.

Training, Wellbeing and Recovery Load Monitoring in Female Youth Athletes

Participation in youth sports is ever-increasing, along with training and competition demands placed upon youth athletes. Young athletes may experience high training loads due to playing several sports, as well as participating in school physical education. Therefore, monitoring youth athlete load is an emerging area of research that may help limit non-functional overreaching, injury, or illness and assist with long-term athlete development. This narrative review highlights that multiple measures have been explored to monitor both internal and external load. However, the validity, reliability and practicality of these measures are often not fully understood in female youth populations. The most commonly used external monitoring methods are GPS tracking and TRIMP whereas common internal monitoring tools are questionnaires, perceived exertion rating and heart rate measures. The reporting of injuries and menstrual cycles is also crucial for providing completeness when monitoring an athlete. It has been suggested that the combination of training load, recovery and wellbeing monitoring variables is the optimal way to monitor an athlete's fatigue levels. Whichever monitoring method is applied, in a youth population it is important that the protocol can be individualised, is inexpensive and can be easily implemented and reported so that the monitoring is sustainable.

Prolonged Extreme Cold Water Diving and the Acute Stress Response During Military Dive Training

Introduction: Cold water exposure poses a unique physiological challenge to the human body. Normally, water submersion increases activation of parasympathetic tone to induce bradycardia in order to compensate for hemodynamic shifts and reduce oxygen consumption by peripheral tissues. However, elevated stress, such as that which may occur due to prolonged cold exposure, may shift the sympatho-vagal balance towards sympathetic activation which may potentially negate the dive reflex and impact thermoregulation.

Objective: To quantify the acute stress response during prolonged extreme cold water diving and to determine the influence of acute stress on thermoregulation.

Materials and Methods: Twenty-one (n = 21) subjects tasked with cold water dive training participated. Divers donned standard diving equipment and fully submerged to a depth of ≈20 feet, in a pool chilled to 4°C, for a 9-h training exercise. Pre- and post-training measures included: core and skin temperature; salivary alpha amylase (AA), cortisol (CORT), osteocalcin (OCN), testosterone (TEST) and dehydroepiandosterone (DHEA); body weight; blood glucose, lactate, and ketones.

Results: Core, skin, and extremity temperature decreased (p < 0.001) over the 9-h dive; however, core temperature was maintained above the clinical threshold for hypothermia and was not correlated to body size (p = 0.595). There was a significant increase in AA (p < 0.001) and OCN (p = 0.021) and a significant decrease in TEST (p = 0.003) over the duration of the dive. An indirect correlation between changes in cortisol concentrations and changes in foot temperature (ρ = -0.5,p = 0.042) were observed. There was a significant positive correlation between baseline OCN and change in hand temperature (ρ = 0.66, p = 0.044) and significant indirect correlation between changes in OCN concentrations and changes in hand temperature (ρ = -0.59, p = 0.043).

Conclusion: These data suggest that long-duration, cold water diving initiates a stress response—as measurable by salivary stress biomarkers—and that peripheral skin temperature decreases over the course of these dives. Cumulatively, these data suggest that there is a relationship between the acute stress response and peripheral thermoregulation.

"The Competitive Season and Off-Season": Preliminary Research concerning the Sport-Specific Performance, Stress, and Sleep in Elite Male Adolescent Basketball Athletes

BACKGROUND

Through scholastic sports programs, adolescent athletes compete to represent their communities. However, few studies investigate the changes in physiological and mental profiles during varied sport periodization among this population. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to compare the changes in sports performance and stress-related biomarkers between the competitive season (CS) and off-season (OS) in elite adolescent basketball players.

METHOD

Nine elite Division I male basketball players (age: 15-18 years. old) participated in this study. Basketball-specific performance, salivary dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEA-S)/cortisol levels, mood state, and sleep quality were all accessed during the CS and OS periods.

RESULTS

The training load during OS was 26.0% lower than CS (p = 0.001). Muscle mass, aerobic capacity, 10 m sprint, and Abalakov jump (AJ) power during OS were greater than that during CS (+2.2-9.8%, p < 0.05), but planned agility was greater during CS (p = 0.003). The salivary DHEA-S/cortisol was greater during CS than during OS (p = 0.039). The overall mood state and sleep quality did not differ between periods, but the POMS-tension was higher during CS (p = 0.005).

CONCLUSION

The present study demonstrates that muscle mass, aerobic capacity, peak AJ power, and 10 m sprint performance, but not planned agility, were greater during OS compared to CS among elite adolescent basketball players. Furthermore, the stress-related responses reflected by the D/C ratio and mood tension were relatively lower during the OS in these athletes. Thus, this study suggests that coaches and sport science professionals should closely monitor athletes' training states across varied training/competition periods to better react to modifying training or recovery plans.

The Effect of an Alternative Swimming Learning Program on Skills, Technique, Performance, and Salivary Cortisol Concentration at Primary School Ages Novice Swimmers

The playful training method shows positive effects on sports learning, thus the aim of the present study was to compare the effect of two different swimming learning programs. In an 8-week intervention with a training frequency of three times per week, 23 healthy primary school-aged novice swimmers (13 boys, 10 girls) aged 9.0 ± 0.9 participated. They were split into control (CG) and alternative (AG) groups and evaluated on skills (Start, Sink), backstroke (BK) and breaststroke (BR) technique, performance (Skills time, Kicks Time), and salivary cortisol concentration. According to the results, "Start" had a greater percentage of success in AG, at the first (CG = 9.1% vs. AG = 58.3%, p = 0.027) and third (CG = 63.6% vs. AG = 100%, p = 0.037) measurement. Additionally, greater scores were found in technique for AG in both BK (p = 0.009, η² = 0.283) and BR (p = 0.020, η² = 0.231). Salivary cortisol concentration was decreased for both groups (p < 0.001) and greater in CG at the second measurement (p < 0.001). The alternative swimming learning program was found to be more efficient or equally effective, compared with the standardized method in-water skills, swimming technique and performance, and in salivary cortisol concentration.

Association Between Hormonal Status, Stress, Recovery, and Motivation of Paralympic Swimmers

Purpose: The present study aimed to investigate associations between hormonal profile (cortisol and testosterone) and the psychobiological aspects of Paralympic athletes during a competitive season. Method: Male Brazilian Paralympic swimmers (n = 11) were evaluated in three Training Camps (TC) during the cycle of training for the Paralympic Games RIO 2016. Questionnaires were used for data collection of stress and recovery, motivation in sport and hormonal status was assessed by salivary samples of cortisol ([Csal]) and testosterone ([Tsal]) concentrations. The Friedman test was used to identify overall significant differences at the three TC for each variable. When the overall p value indicated statistical significance (p < .05), a post hoc Wilcoxon signed-rank test for paired data was used to compare pairs of TC. The Spearman correlation was used to identify associations between the hormonal profile and the psychobiological aspects. Results: There was an association between the [Csal] and the "Conflicts/Pressure" sub-scale (r = 0.60; p = .04) in TC1 and the "Lack of Energy" subscale (r = 0.63; p = .03) in TC2. In the TC3, there were correlations between [Tsal] and "To Know" intrinsic motivation (r = 0.83, p < .01), "Objectives"(r = 0.66, p < .02), "Experiences" (r = 0.65, p < .02) and "Amotivation" (r = -0.70, p = .01). There were also associations between the [Tsal] and the "Social Recovery" (r = 0.77, p < .01), "General Wellness" (r = 0.73, p < .01), "Sleep Quality" (r = 0.63, p = .03) and "Self-efficacy" (r = 0.60, p = .05) subscales. In TC3, there was an association between [Tsal] and the "Success" (r = 0.61, p = .04), "Sleep Quality" (r = 0.62, p = .03), "Personal Accomplish" (r = 0.82, p < .01), "Self-efficacy" (r = 0.82, p < .05), "Self-regulation" (r = 0.85, p < .01) and "Physical Recovery" (r = 0.80, p < .01) subscales. The data demonstrate associations between biomarkers (salivary testosterone and cortisol) and psychobiological domains of Paralympic swimmers.

Biomarkers of Physiological Responses to Periods of Intensified, Non-Resistance-Based Exercise Training in Well-Trained Male Athletes: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

BACKGROUND

Intensified training is important for inducing adaptations to improve athletic performance, but detrimental performance effects can occur if prescribed inappropriately. Monitoring biomarker responses to training may inform changes in training load to optimize performance.

OBJECTIVE

This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to identify biomarkers associated with altered exercise performance following intensified training.

METHODS

Embase, MEDLINE, CINAHL, Scopus and SPORTDiscus were searched up until September 2017. Included articles were peer reviewed and reported on biomarkers collected at rest in well-trained male athletes before and after periods of intensified training.

RESULTS

The full text of 161 articles was reviewed, with 59 included (708 participants) and 42 (550 participants) meta-analysed. In total, 118 biomarkers were evaluated, with most being cellular communication and immunity markers (n = 54). Studies most frequently measured cortisol (n = 34), creatine kinase (n = 25) and testosterone (n = 20). Many studies reported decreased immune cell counts following intensified training, irrespective of performance. Moreover, reduced performance was associated with a decrease in neutrophils (d = - 0.57; 95% confidence interval (CI) - 1.07 to - 0.07) and glutamine (d = - 0.37; 95% CI - 0.43 to - 0.31) and an increase in urea concentration (d = 0.80; 95% CI 0.30 to 1.30). In contrast, increased performance was associated with an increased testosterone:cortisol ratio (d = 0.89; 95% CI 0.54 to 1.24). All remaining biomarkers showed no consistent patterns of change with performance.

CONCLUSIONS

Many biomarkers were altered with intensified training but not in a manner related to changes in exercise performance. Neutrophils, glutamine, urea and the testosterone:cortisol ratio exhibited some evidence of directional changes that corresponded with performance changes therefore indicating potential to track performance. Additional investigations of the potential for these markers to track altered performance are warranted.

Monitoring stress and recovery states: Structural and external stages of the short version of the RESTQ sport in elite swimmers before championships

BACKGROUND

Psychological stress and recovery monitoring is a key issue for increasing athletes' health, well-being, and performance. This multi-study report examined changes and the dose-response relationships between recovery-stress psychological states, training load (TL), heart rate (HR), heart rate recovery (HRR), and heart rate variability (HRV) while providing evidence for the factorial validity of a short French version of the Recovery-Stress Questionnaire for Athletes (RESTQ-36-R-Sport).

METHODS

Four hundred and seventy-three university athletes (Study 1), 72 full expert swimmers (Study 2), and 11 national to international swimmers (Study 3) participated in the study. Data were analyzed through confirmatory factor analyses (Study 1), repeated ANOVAs and correlational analyses (Study 2), t tests and correlational analyses (Study 3).

RESULTS

Multiple-group confirmatory factor analyses showed that the RESTQ-36-R-Sport scores were partially invariant across gender, type of sport, and practice level (Study 1). A dose-response relationship was performed between TL and RESTQ-36-R-Sport scores during an ecological training program (Study 2). Finally, relationships were found between physiological (HRR) and psychological (RESTQ-36-R-Sport) states during an ecological tapering period leading to a national championship (Study 3).

CONCLUSION

As a whole, these findings provided evidence for the usefulness of the short version of the RESTQ-36-R-Sport for regular monitoring to prevent potential maladaptation due to intensive competitive sport practice.

Biomarkers in Sports and Exercise: Tracking Health, Performance, and Recovery in Athletes

Lee, EC, Fragala, MS, Kavouras, SA, Queen, RM, Pryor, JL, and Casa, DJ. Biomarkers in sports and exercise: tracking health, performance, and recovery in athletes. J Strength Cond Res 31(10): 2920–2937, 2017—Biomarker discovery and validation is a critical aim of the medical and scientific community. Research into exercise and diet-related biomarkers aims to improve health, performance, and recovery in military personnel, athletes, and lay persons. Exercise physiology research has identified individual biomarkers for assessing health, performance, and recovery during exercise training. However, there are few recommendations for biomarker panels for tracking changes in individuals participating in physical activity and exercise training programs. Our approach was to review the current literature and recommend a collection of validated biomarkers in key categories of health, performance, and recovery that could be used for this purpose. We determined that a comprehensive performance set of biomarkers should include key markers of (a) nutrition and metabolic health, (b) hydration status, (c) muscle status, (d) endurance performance, (e) injury status and risk, and (f) inflammation. Our review will help coaches, clinical sport professionals, researchers, and athletes better understand how to comprehensively monitor physiologic changes, as they design training cycles that elicit maximal improvements in performance while minimizing overtraining and injury risk.

Urinary Steroid Profile in Ironman Triathletes

The aim of this study was to determine variations in the urinary steroid profile of triathletes following an Ironman event. A total of 10 male participants (age = 36.0 ± 1.27 years; body height = 179.29 ± 10.77 cm; body mass = 74.50 ± 1.04 kg) completed an Ironman Championship. Urine samples were collected before, immediately after, and 24 hours following the race. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC/MS) was used to detect and quantify catabolic and anabolic hormones: Androsterone, Dehydroepiandrosteone (DHEA), Androstenedione and Testosterone (T), Betaestradiol, Estrone, Progesterone, Cortisol (C), Cortisone, Tetrahydrocortisol (THE) and Tetrahydrocortisone (THF). These were measured in their glucuroconjugated and free forms. Androsterone (3297.80 ± 756.83 vs. 2154.26 ± 1375.38), DHEA (47.80 ± 19.21 vs. 32.62 ± 15.96) and Beta-estradiol (59.36 ± 11.7 vs. 41.67 ± 10.59) levels decreased after the event. The significant decrease of DHEA (47.80 ± 19.21 vs. 32.11 ± 14.03) remained at 24 hours. Cortisol (200.38 ± 56.60 vs. 257.10 ± 74.00) and THE (238.65 ± 81.55 vs. 289.62 ± 77.13) increased after exercise and remained elevated 24 hours later (200.38 ± 56.60 vs. 252.48 ± 62.09; 238.65 ± 81.55 vs. 284.20 ± 66.66). The following anabolic/catabolic ratios fell after exercise: T/C (0.85 ± 0.54 vs. 0.54 ± 0.29), T/THE (0.66 ± 0.29 vs. 0.40 ± 0.08), T/THE+THF (0.38 ± 0.17 vs. 0.24 ± 0.06), DHEA/THE (0.22 ± 0.05 vs. 0.12 ± 0.05), DHEA/THF (0.34 ± 0.02 vs. 0.21 ± 0.01) and DHEA/THE+THF (0.12 ± 0.02 vs. 0.08 ± 0.03). The steroid profile showed that athletes were fatigued after finishing the competition and a catabolic state remained 24 hours later.

Cortisol and DHEA in development and psychopathology

Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) and cortisol are the most abundant hormones of the human fetal and adult adrenals released as end products of a tightly coordinated endocrine response to stress. Together, they mediate short- and long-term stress responses and enable physiological and behavioral adjustments necessary for maintaining homeostasis. Detrimental effects of chronic or repeated elevations in cortisol on behavioral and emotional health are well documented. Evidence for actions of DHEA that offset or oppose those of cortisol has stimulated interest in examining their levels as a ratio, as an alternate index of adrenocortical activity and the net effects of cortisol. Such research necessitates a thorough understanding of the co-actions of these hormones on physiological functioning and in association with developmental outcomes. This review addresses the state of the science in understanding the role of DHEA, cortisol, and their ratio in typical development and developmental psychopathology. A rationale for studying DHEA and cortisol in concert is supported by physiological data on the coordinated synthesis and release of these hormones in the adrenal and by their opposing physiological actions. We then present evidence that researching cortisol and DHEA necessitates a developmental perspective. Age-related changes in DHEA and cortisol are described from the perinatal period through adolescence, along with observed associations of these hormones with developmental psychopathology. Along the way, we identify several major knowledge gaps in the role of DHEA in modulating cortisol in typical development and developmental psychopathology with implications for future research.

Measuring recovery: An adapted Brief Assessment of Mood (BAM+) compared to biochemical and power output alterations

OBJECTIVES

Biochemical (e.g. creatine kinase (CK)) and neuromuscular (e.g. peak power output (PPO)) markers of recovery are expensive and require specialist equipment. Perceptual measures are an effective alternative, yet most validated scales are too long for daily use.

DESIGN

This study utilises a longitudinal multi-level design to test an adapted Brief Assessment of Mood (BAM+), with four extra items and a 100mm visual analogue scale to measure recovery.

METHODS

Elite under-21 academy soccer players (N=11) were monitored across five games with data (BAM+, CK and PPO) collected for each game at 24h pre, 24h and 48h post-match. Match activity data for each participant was also collected using GPS monitors on players.

RESULTS

BAM+, CK and PPO had significant (p<.05) linear and quadratic growth curves across time and games that matched the known time reports of fatigue and recovery. Multi-level linear modelling (MLM) with random intercepts for 'participant' and 'game' indicated only CK significantly contributed to the variance of BAM+ scores (p<.05). Significant correlations (p<.01) were found between changes in BAM+ scores from baseline at 24 and 48h post-match for total distance covered per minute, high intensity distance covered per minute, and total number of sprints per minute.

CONCLUSIONS

Visual and inferential results indicate that the BAM+ appears effective for monitoring longitudinal recovery cycles in elite level athletes. Future research is needed to confirm both the scales reliability and validity.

Measuring Recovery in Elite Rugby Players: The Brief Assessment of Mood, Endocrine Changes, and Power

PURPOSE

There is demand in applied sport settings to measure recovery briefly and accurately. Research indicates mood disturbance as the strongest psychological predictor of mental and physical recovery. The Brief Assessment of Mood (BAM) is a shortened version of the Profile of Mood States that can be completed in less than 30 s. The purpose of this study was to examine the BAM as a quick measure of mood in relation to recovery status in elite rugby players alongside established physiological markers of recovery.

METHOD

Using elite rugby union players (N = 12), this study examined the utility of BAM as an indicator of mental and physical recovery in elite athletes by exploring pattern change in mood disturbance, energy index, power output, cortisol, and testosterone 36 hr before and 12 hr, 36 hr, and 60 hr after a competitive rugby match.

RESULTS

Repeated-measures multivariate analysis of variance indicated significant changes in all variables across the 4 time points (p < .05, η(2) range = .20-.48), concurrent with previous study findings. Although visual inspection of the graphs indicated that the pattern of change for mood disturbance and energy index mapped changes in all physiological variables, only a low correlation was observed for power output (r = - .34).

CONCLUSIONS

Although BAM scores changed significantly over time in accordance with the hypotheses, further testing is required to confirm the utility of the BAM as a measure of recovery. The results indicate that the BAM could be used as 1 indicator of recovery status alongside other measures.

Airway inflammation, cough and athlete quality of life in elite female cross-country skiers: A longitudinal study

The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of a season of cross-country training and racing on airway inflammation, cough symptoms, and athlete quality of life in female skiers. Eighteen elite female skiers performed sputum induction and completed the Leicester Cough Questionnaire (LCQ) and the Recovery-Stress Questionnaire (REST-Q) at three time points (T1 - May/Jun, T2 - Oct/Nov, T3 - Jan-Mar) during the year. No changes were observed between T1 and T2. However, an increase in sputum eosinophils and lymphocytes (P < 0.05) and a significant change in all three domains of the LCQ were observed between T1 and T3 (P < 0.05). A significant association was found between the total yearly hours of training and the change in the total cell count (r(2)  = 0.74; P = 0.006), and a number of other sputum cell counts between T1 and T3. No changes were observed for any domain of the REST-Q. The results of this study demonstrate that airway inflammation and cough symptoms are significantly increased in elite female cross-country skiers across a year of training and racing. The increase in airway inflammation is related to the total amount of training and is worse during the winter months when athletes are training and racing in cold, dry air.

Acute effects of physical exercise and phosphodiesterase's type 5 inhibition on serum 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases related glucocorticoids metabolites: a pilot study

Endogenous glucocorticoids (GC) rapidly increase after acute exercise, and the phosphodiesterase's type 5 inhibitor (PDE5i) tadalafil influences this physiological adaptation. No data exist on acute effects of both acute exercise and PDE5i administration on 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases (11β-HSDs)-related GC metabolites. We aimed to investigate the rapid effects of exercise on serum GC metabolites, with and without tadalafil administration. A double blind crossover study was performed in eleven healthy male volunteers. After the volunteers randomly received a short-term administration of placebo or tadalafil (20 mg/die for 2 days), a maximal exercise test to exhaustion on cycle ergometer was performed. Then, after a 2-week washout period, the volunteers were crossed over. Blood samples were collected before starting exercise and at 5 and 30 min of recovery (+5-Rec, +30-Rec). Serum ACTH, corticosterone (Cn), cortisol (F), cortisone (E), tetrahydrocortisol (THF), tetrahydrocortisone (THE), cortols, cortolones and respective ratios were evaluated. Pre-Ex THF was higher after tadalafil. Exercise increased ACTH, Cn, F, E, THE, cortols and cortolones after both placebo and tadalafil, and THF after placebo. The F/E ratio increased at +5-Rec and decreased at +30-Rec after placebo. Compared to placebo, after tadalafil lower ACTH, F and Cn, higher THF/F and THE/E, and not E (at +5-Rec) and F/E modifications were observed. Acute exercise rapidly influences serum GC metabolites concentrations. Tadalafil influences both GC adaptation and 11β-HSDs activity during acute exercise. Additional researches on the effects of both exercise and PDE5i on tissue-specific 11β-HSDs activity at rest and during physiological adaptation are warranted.

Neuromuscular function, hormonal, and mood responses to a professional rugby union match

We examined the recovery time-course of neuromuscular function (NMF), the testosterone and cortisol hormonal milieu, and mood for 60 hours after a competitive match in professional rugby union players (n = 14). Thirty-six hours prematch (19:30 hours kick-off), baseline saliva samples (testosterone, cortisol, and testosterone to cortisol [T/C] ratio), countermovement jump performances (peak power output [PPO]), and mood disruption (Brief Assessment of Mood Questionnaire) were collected and was repeated at 12, 36, and 60 hours postmatch. Peak power output decreased below baseline at 12 hours (baseline 6,100 ± 565 W vs. 12 h 5,680 ± 589 W; p = 0.004) and 36 hours (5,761 ± 639 W; p < 0.001) but had recovered at 60 hours (5,950 ± 505 W; p = 0.151). Cortisol concentrations increased from baseline at 12 hours (baseline 0.40 ± 0.09 µg·dl-1 vs. 12 h 0.60 ± 0.20 µg·dl-1; p = 0.004) and 36 hours (0.60 ± 0.20 µg·dl-1; p = 0.027) but were similar at 60 hours postmatch. Testosterone concentrations decreased from baseline at 12 hours (baseline 214 ± 84 pg·ml-1 vs. 12 h 151 ± 56 pg·ml-1; p = 0.023) and 36 hours (173 ± 71 pg·ml-1; p = 0.016) but were similar at 60 hours postmatch. The T/C ratio decreased from baseline at 12 hours (baseline 551 ± 219 vs. 12 h 266 ± 123; p = 0.001) and 36 hours (310 ± 148; p = 0.027) before returning to baseline at 60 hours postmatch. Mood disturbance increased at 12 hours (p = 0.031) before returning to baseline at 36 and 60 hours postmatch. There were no relationships between changes in PPO, testosterone, cortisol, T/C ratio, and mood. In conclusion, postmatch changes in NMF, salivary hormones, and mood disturbance were identified in professional rugby union players. Players and coaches can expect reduced NMF and hormonal disruption for 36 hours before recovering at 60 hours postmatch, with mood recovered by 36 hours postmatch. Knowledge of these recovery time-courses may prove useful for player training program design and postmatch recovery strategies.

Diurnal patterns of salivary alpha-amylase and cortisol secretion in female adolescent tennis players after 16 weeks of training

We examined the effects of 16 weeks of training on diurnal pattern of salivary alpha-amylase (sAA), cortisol, and the ratio of sAA over cortisol (AOC) in 12 national adolescent female tennis players. Stress and recovery were also evaluated using the Recovery-Stress-Questionnaire for Athletes-RESTQ-Sport. Data were collected after a 2-week rest (January, W0), and 4 months after W0 (W16). Subjects collected five saliva samples throughout a day. While all participants displayed the previously shown decrease after awakening in adolescents at W0, they showed a rise in the alpha-amylase awakening response and a higher alpha-amylase activity output (p<0.01) at W16 compared to W0. For the daily rhythm of cortisol we found subjects having a low overall output of salivary cortisol (p<0.01) and a blunted response to awakening at W16. Furthermore, an increase in the ratio AOC at W16, and a negative correlation between this ratio and Sport-specific recovery score. Our findings offer support for the hypothesis that increase of training load during the study period induced asymmetry activation between the two stress systems, in relation to psychological alterations and performance decrease. These results provide encouragement to continue exploring the impact of training program using a psychobiological approach among young athletes in order to prevent fatigue and preserve the health of these athletes.

The Relationship between Cortisol and Bone Mineral Density in Competitive Male Cyclists

Objective. The purpose of this study was to determine whether race day cortisol was related to bone mineral density (BMD) in competitive male cyclists. A secondary purpose was to determine additional factors associated with BMD in competitive male cyclists. Methods. Measurements of lumbar spine and hip BMD were performed in 35 male competitors in a state championship cycling time trial event. Salivary cortisol was measured 10 minutes prior to the start of the race and 5 minutes after race finished. Participants reported daily calcium intake, age, years of bike training, races per season, and average weekly minutes spent riding a bike, weight training, and running on a survey. Results. Cortisol level increased significantly from pre- to postcompetition but was not significantly associated with BMD. Increased weekly minutes of weight training was associated with higher BMD of the lumbar spine and the hip. The increased number of years of cycling experience was associated with lower BMD of the femoral neck. Increased daily calcium intake was associated with higher BMD of the lumbar spine and femoral neck. Conclusions. Findings indicate that cyclists should participate in weight training and increase calcium intake in order to increase or maintain BMD of the lumbar spine and hip.

The phosphodiesterases type 5 inhibitor tadalafil reduces the activation of the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis in men during cycle ergometric exercise

Phosphodiesterase type 5 inhibitors may influence human physiology, health, and performance by also modulating endocrine pathways. We evaluated the effects of a 2-day tadalafil administration on adenohypophyseal and adrenal hormone adaptation to exercise in humans. Fourteen healthy males were included in a double-blind crossover trial. Each volunteer randomly received two tablets of placebo or tadalafil (20 mg/day with a 36-h interval) before a maximal exercise was performed. After a 2-wk washout, the volunteers were crossed over. Blood samples were collected at -30 and -15 min and immediately before exercise, immediately after, and during recovery (+15, +30, +60, and +90 min) for adrenocorticotropin (ACTH), β-endorphin, growth hormone (GH), prolactin, cortisol (C), corticosterone, dehydroepiandrosterone-sulfate (DHEAS), and cortisol binding globulin (CBG) assays. C-to-CBG (free cortisol index, FCI) and DHEAS-to-C ratios were calculated. Exercise intensity, perceived exertion rate, O₂ consumption, and CO₂ and blood lactate concentration were evaluated. ACTH, GH, C, corticosterone, and CBG absolute concentrations and/or areas under the curve (AUC) increased after exercise after both placebo and tadalafil. Exercise increased DHEAS only after placebo. Compared with placebo, tadalafil administration reduced the ACTH, C, corticosterone, and FCI responses to exercise and was associated with higher β-endorphin AUC and DHEAS-to-C ratio during recovery, without influencing cardiorespiratory and performance parameters. Tadalafil reduced the activation of the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis during exercise by probably influencing the brain's nitric oxide- and cGMP-mediated pathways. Further studies are necessary to confirm our results and to identify the involved mechanisms, possible health risks, and potential clinical uses.

Correlation of Occupational Stress Index with 24-hour Urine Cortisol and Serum DHEA Sulfate among City Bus Drivers: A Cross-sectional Study

Objectives

The questionnaire of occupational stress index (OSI) has been popular in the workplace, and it has been tailored for bus drivers in Taiwan. Nevertheless, its outcomes for participants are based on self-evaluations, thus validation by their physiological stress biomarker is warranted and this is the main goal of this study.

Methods

A cross-sectional study of sixty-three city bus drivers and fifty-four supporting staffs for comparison was conducted. Questionnaire surveys, 24-hour urine cortisol testing, and blood draws for dehydroepiandrosterone-sulfate (DHEA-S) testing were performed. The measured concentrations of these biological measures were logarithmically transformed before the statistical analysis where various scores of stressor factors, moderators, and stress effects of each OSI domain were analyzed by applying multiple linear regression models.

Results

For drivers, the elevated 24-hour urine cortisol level was associated with a worker's relationship with their supervisor and any life change events in the most recent 3 months. The DHEA-S level was higher in drivers of younger age as well as drivers with more concerns relating to their salary and bonuses. Non-drivers showed no association between any stressor or satisfaction and urine cortisol and blood DHEA-S levels.

Conclusion

Measurements of biomarkers may offer additional stress evaluations with OSI questionnaires for bus drivers. Increased DHEA-S and cortisol levels may result from stressors like income security. Prevention efforts towards occupational stress and life events and health promotional efforts for aged driver were important anti-stress remedies.

Short highly intense exercise causes changes in salivary concentrations of hydrocortisone and secretory IgA

The dynamics of salivary hydrocortisone during exercise depends on the professional status of the athlete. Hydrocortisone concentrations increase and those of secretory IgA decrease significantly during short-term highly intense exercise. Presumably, basal serum hydrocortisone level is the key factor in restoration of the secretory IgA concentration after exercise by inhibition of lymphocyte, macrophage, and monocyte functions through an increase in glucocorticoid level under the effect of physiological stressors.

An update: salivary hormones and physical exercise

Saliva contains cells and compounds, of local and non-local oral origin, namely inorganic, organic non-protein, protein/polypeptide, and lipid molecules. Moreover, some hormones, commonly assayed in plasma, such as steroids, are detectable in oral fluid and peptide/protein, and non-steroid hormones have been investigated. The sports practice environment and athletes' availability, together with hormone molecule characteristics in saliva and physical exercise behavior effects, confirm this body fluid as an alternative to serum. This review focuses on the relation between salivary steroids and psycho-physiological stress and underlines how the measurement of salivary cortisol provides an approach of self-report psychological indicator and anxiety change in relation to exercise performance. The correlation between salivary and plasma steroid hormone (cortisol, testosterone, and dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA)) levels, observed during exercise, has been considered, underlining how the type, duration, and intensity of the exercise influence the salivary steroid concentrations in the same way as serum-level variations. Training conditions have been considered in relation to the salivary hormonal response. This review focuses on studies related to salivary hormone measurements, mainly steroids, in physical exercise. Saliva use in physical disciplines, as a real alternative to serum, could be a future perspective.

Fibromyalgia syndrome is associated with hypocortisolism

BACKGROUND

Fibromyalgia syndrome (FMS) is a disease of unknown pathogenesis characterized by chronic musculoskeletal pain. FMS has been also associated with altered endocrinological responses, but findings are inconsistent.

PURPOSE

The aim of the present study was to investigate free salivary cortisol levels in FMS patients compared with healthy controls with a particular focus on the cortisol awakening response (CAR). The saliva samples were collected in a controlled hospital-hotel setting, in which the participants' compliance was high and a number of potential confounders were analyzed.

METHOD

Twenty-nine chronic female FMS patients and 29 age-matched healthy female controls were recruited. Salivary cortisol samples were investigated eight times: in the afternoon when participants arrived at the hospital, after stress provocation (to be reported separately), in the evening, before they went to sleep, upon awakening, 30 and 60 min later, and during the afternoon of the second day. Questionnaires measuring pain levels, sleeping problems, perceived stress, and personality were administered to the participants. Other psychophysiological measurements were used to assess sleep quality and heart rate.

RESULTS

Patients with FMS had significantly lower cortisol levels during the day, most pronounced in the morning (CAR). The potential confounders analyzed did not influence the results. As expected, FMS patients reported more pain, stress, sleeping problems, anxiety, and depression.

CONCLUSION

The results lend support to the hypothesis of a dysfunction in the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis in FMS patients, with generally lower cortisol values, most pronounced upon awakening (CAR).

The effects of training on performance and performance-related states in individual elite athletes: a dynamic approach

There are difficulties undertaking controlled training studies with elite athletes. Thus, data from non-elite performers are often presented in scientific journals and subsequently used to guide general training principles. This information may not be transferable or specific enough to inform training practices in an individual elite athlete. However, the nature of athletic participation at elite levels provides the opportunity to collect training data, performance-related variables, and performance data of elite athletes over long periods. In this paper, we describe how dynamic linear models provide an opportunity to use these data to inform training. Data from an elite female triathlete collected over a 111-day training period were used to model the relationship between training and self-reported fatigue. The dynamic linear model analysis showed the independent effects of the three modes of triathlon training on fatigue, how these can change across time, and the possible influence of other unmeasured variables. This paper shows the potential for the use of dynamic linear models as an aid to planning training in elite athletes.

Determination of urine steroid profile in untrained men to evaluate recovery after a strength training session

Intense physical exercise is an important modifier of hormone metabolism. The aim of this study was to evaluate the variations in the urine profile of glucuroconjugated steroids (androgens, estrogens, and corticosteroids) as a consequence of a session of strength exercises. The subjects were a group (N = 20) of untrained male university students. They performed 3 sets of 10 repetitions, with a 3-minute recovery time between sets, at 70-75% of 1 repetition maximum (1RM). Four urine samples were collected per subject: before the session, immediately after, 3 hours after, and 48 hours after the session. They were assayed using a gas chromatograph coupled with a mass spectrometer. The concentrations of the different hormones were determined according to the urine creatinine level (ng steroid per mg creatinine). The substances assayed were testosterone, epitestosterone (Epit), androstenedione, dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), androsterone, etiocholanolone, beta-estradiol, estrone, tetrahydrocortisone (THE), and tetrahydrocortisol (THF). The results showed a significant decline after exercise with respect to the rested state in the urinary excretion of testosterone, Epit, DHEA, androsterone, and etiocholanolone. At 48 hours, there was a significant increase in the urinary excretion of Epit, androstenedione, androsterone, etiocholanolone, estrone, and THE. The androsterone + etiocholanolone/THE + THF ratio decreased after exercise, increased significantly (p < 0.05) at 3 hours, and returned to near resting levels at 48 hours. The data suggest that the performing a strength session at 70-75% of maximum strength provoked a state of fatigue in the subjects, from which they recovered 48 hours after the exercise.