Video-based training to improve perceptual-cognitive decision-making performance of Australian football umpires

Gaze Behaviors, Estimated Quiet Eye Characteristics, and Decision Making of Nonexpert Assistant Referees Judging Offside Events in Soccer

The study analyzed the gaze behavior and decision-making performance of 20 soccer assistant referees while judging offside events. Specifically, gaze behaviors, gaze entropy, and estimated quiet eye (eQE; defined as the last fixation prior to the attacker's ball pass) characteristics (i.e., location, onset, offset, and duration) were analyzed in relation to decision-making accuracy. Although a significant number of fixations were observed on the offside line, the highest viewing time corresponded to the ball carrier. The gaze behavior indicated a high distribution of fixations, as evidenced by high stationary gaze entropy (>90%). The assistant referees also distinguished offside from onside positions above chance. However, they displayed nonprolonged eQE on the offside line. As a result, no significant relationships were found between the eQE characteristics and decision-making accuracy. The study concludes that the absence of more functional gaze behaviors, specifically with longer eQE focused on the offside line, impaired the decision-making accuracy of nonexpert assistant referees in soccer.

The role of perspective in refereeing: Insights from a video-based decision-making experiment

Decision accuracy is a crucial factor in the evaluation of refereeing performance. In sports research, officials' decision-making is frequently assessed outside real games through video-based decision experiments, where they evaluate recorded game situations from a third-person perspective. This study examines whether the inclusion of the first-person perspective influences decision accuracy and certainty. Twenty-four professional officials from the first and second German basketball leagues participated in the study. The officials assessed 50 game situations from both first-person and third-person perspectives, indicating their decisions and certainty levels. The statistical analysis utilises signal detection theory to evaluate the efficacy of the first-person perspective compared to the third-person perspective in identifying rule violations and no-calls in video recordings. The findings indicate that the first-person perspective does not yield superior accuracy in identifying foul calls. However, scenes from the first-person perspective exhibit a significant 9% increase in correctly identifying no-calls. Furthermore, officials report significantly higher levels of decision certainty and comfort when using the first-person perspective. The study suggests that sports officials may benefit from incorporating additional scenes from the first-person perspective into video-based decision training. Future studies should explore whether this additional perspective improves the training effect and translates into enhanced in-game performance.

The Effectiveness of Above Real Time Training for Developing Decision-Making Accuracy in Australian Football Umpires

Purpose: The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of an above real-time video-based training intervention on Australian football umpire decision-making skill. Methods: Three groups completed two testing sessions, either side of a five-week, video-based training intervention either in real time (100% speed), above real time (150% speed) or control (no training) condition. Testing included two parts: resting included 25 video clips 10 of Australian football match footage, presented in real time with participants resting; exercise included a separate 25 clips also presented at real time, during a 10 × 300 m run test. Tests were repeated within two weeks following training. Results: Decision-making accuracy significantly improved (p = .043) for the real time training group in the exercise test. There were no improvements in control or above real-time training groups in the exercise test. No significant differences were observed for decision-making accuracy in the 15 resting test for all groups. Conclusion: Above real-time video may not develop decision-making skills more effectively than real-time video for amateur Australian football umpires. For this cohort, the faster presentation of video may result in the umpires missing important perceptual cues. Real-time video-based training appears to be more beneficial for amateur officials than 150% above real-time speed.

The Effects of Stress Mindset, Manipulated Through Serious Game Intervention, on Performance and Situation Awareness of Elite Female Football Players in the Context of a Match: An Experimental Study

Background: Performance levels in football are ever more important and no longer are just physical, technical, and tactical skills, the ones that make an athlete stand out. Cognitive variables, such as stress-coping, become more important and seem to be explaining differences in performance, for example, through reaching an optimal level of arousal. In addition, it is suggested that stress-coping skills also affect situation awareness (SA), important for decision-making in the complex and dynamic situations in football. Objective: This study was conducted to examine how stress-coping skills, such as stress mindset, affect performance and SA in the context of a football match. Methods: Twenty elite female football players participated in the study. The final sample size consisted of 15 players for the Stress Mindset Measure (SMM) analysis and 8 players for the multilevel model analyses. Two types of intervention were used to manipulate stress mindset and control over heart rate variability (HRV); a serious game called "Stressjam," and a reflection tool called "Brainjam." Questionnaires for stress mindset and SA and video analysis for performance were used. A total of three matches were assessed. Results: The "Stressjam" intervention resulted in significant differences in stress mindset throughout the intervention [F(1,5) = 7.357, P = 0.008]. Subsequently, multilevel analysis showed a positive, strong, and significant correlation between stress mindset, manipulated through "Stressjam" and SA [r(14) = 0.69, P = 0.014]. A correlation of practical interest, given the confidence intervals, was found between stress mindset, manipulated through "Stressjam," and performance. Conclusion: Cognitive variables, such as stress-coping, correlate significantly with SA in football. A correlation of practical interest was found between stress-coping and performance. Further research is needed to study the relationship between stress-coping and performance in football.

Effects of psychological interventions on high sports performance: A systematic review

Introduction

Intervention programs in sports psychology aid to modify the thoughts and behaviors of athletes in order to improve their performance in sports settings. For high-performance athletes, these interventions are very relevant, given that they constantly face pressure towards obtaining sporting achievements.

Methods

This systematic review aims to analyze the scientific articles between 2010 and 2020 that evaluated the effect of psychological interventions on high-performance athletes. In the search procedure, nine studies were selected, the most studied variables were psychological skills, psychological flexibility, and stress.

Results

The 44% of the interventions were designed by the research authors themselves, while the remaining 56% were replicated programs, which already had scientific evidence.

Discussion

Psychological interventions have a positive impact on sports performance. This review allows sports institutions and professionals to have more knowledge and resources at their disposal to implement these types of programs in their sports planning.

The Influence of a Specific Cognitive-Motor Training Protocol on Planning Abilities and Visual Search in Young Soccer Players

The benefits of sport activity on cognition and especially on executive function development are well-known, and in recent years, several kinds of cognitive-motor training (CMT) have been proven effective in adults and older people. Less is known about possible CMT benefits in children. This study aims to confirm the positive influence played by CMTs on specific executive functions (planning abilities and visual search) in young soccer players. Twenty-four 10-year-old athletes were recruited and randomly assigned to the experimental (Exp) and control (Con) groups of 12 players. Both groups were trained for 10 weeks, twice a week (90 min per training), following standard soccer training (technical-tactical exercises). The Exp group, during the first training session of the week, in the last 22 min, performed the experimental treatment, which consisted of a psychokinetic CMT. Both groups were examined before and after the ten-week training using the Tower of London and WISC-IV cancellation tests. Results revealed that the Exp group, following treatment, reported significantly better scores than the Con group in all the cognitive measures. We concluded that the proposed CMT is more effective than motor training alone at improving planning abilities and visual search abilities, even in children.

Effects of a Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy Intervention on the Rowers of the Junior Spain National Team

Cognitive-behavioral therapy has been implemented in the training plans of many athletes and sports teams, obtaining very good results for the improvement of mental skills. These effects are achieved through improvements in cognitive skills such as motivation, mental concentration, and self-confidence, all within an appropriate context of specific physical, technical, and tactical training. However, there are few studies that consider the analysis of performance from a psychological point of view from a gender perspective. The objective of this study was to evaluate a mental training intervention (cognitive-behavioral therapy) in youth rowers in preparation for their participation in the Junior European Championship. A quasi-experimental study was carried out with the complete team of the Spanish youth rowing team (n = 16). The setting where the intervention took place was during the team's stay prior to the European Rowing Junior Championships. Psychological variables were assessed using the Psychological Characteristics Related to Sport Performance Questionnaire. The final assessment was carried out the week before the championship (after finishing the 10th week of intervention). After the intervention, improvements were identified in the Stress Control and Influence of Performance Evaluation subscales in the total sample. However, in the analysis separated by sex, only women improved on the Influence of Performance Evaluation subscale. Lastly, the linear regression analysis adjusted for the sex variable was only significant with the age variable (with a negative effect). This intervention was found to be effective in improving only some of the psychological components related to athletic performance (Stress Control and Influence of Performance Evaluation). These improvements were not related to better results in the European Rowing Junior Championship. These results should be taken into account because they provide evidence for the efficacy of psychological interventions in the field of grassroots sport.

Trainability of novel person recognition based on brief exposure to form and motion cues

Fast and accurate recognition of teammates is crucial in contexts as varied as fast-moving sports, the military, and law enforcement engagements; misrecognition can result in lost scoring opportunities in sport or friendly fire in combat contexts. Initial studies on teammate recognition in sport suggests that athletes are adept at this perceptual ability but still susceptible to errors. The purpose of the current proof-of-concept study was to explore the trainability of teammate recognition from very brief exposure to vision of the whole-body form and motion of a previously unknown individual. Participants were divided into three groups: a 4-week training group who were also the actors for the test and training footage, a 2-week training group, and a no-training group. Findings revealed significant differences between the training groups and their improvement from the pre-to post-test on Response Accuracy and Movement Time. The current study found the best performance in the 4-week Training group. The biggest improvement was found in the 2-week training group, whilst no significant improvement was made in the Control group. These results suggest that training was effective, but also indicate that having initially performed the movements as actors may have led to improvements in baseline testing and ultimately the best results, thus physical performance of skills combined with video-based training may reduce the amount of time needed to improve teammate identification.

Attentional Span Is Determined by Sport Discipline

Many studies have highlighted the impact of sport on cognitive functioning. However, more evidence is needed to explain which type of sport is more relevant. The main purpose of this study was to determine the level of attention span based on the type of sport practiced (open vs. closed). In addition, this problem was also analyzed based on gender and training hours. The study sample consisted of 547 participants (27.20% male; 72.80% female), aged between 19 and 35 years old (M = 24.19; SD = 3.74). The “Modrian Images” computerized test, hosted in MenPas Cell software(MenPas 1.0), was used to assess the attention span. The results showed that athletes playing open sports have a better attentional span than others playing closed sports. Moreover, this was also replicated when assessing by gender. Likewise, a greater number of hours in a week participating in sports is related to a better level of attentional span, being less determinant than the type of sport practiced. Data obtained suggest that playing open sports would be more related to the greater development of attention span than playing more closed sports.

Training and development in sport officials: A systematic review

Sport officials make significant contributions to organized sport, yet scientific evidence to inform their specialized training and education at various levels has lagged. While psychological and performance demands of expert sport officials have been well documented, the extent of research about talent and expertise development, training efficacy, and broader developmental trajectories is unclear. This systematic review summarizes 30 years of published findings on the study of training and development of sport officials, including areas of research interest, study designs, and sport official characteristics. A PRISMA systematic review was conducted, utilizing three scientific databases (Web of Science, SportsDiscus, PsycInfo) to identify relevant studies (N = 27). Female participants were generally underrepresented in studies (17%), while football officials were most often represented (79%). Training intervention (59%), retrospective (37%), and cross-sectional comparison (22%) were the main study designs. Expert and near-expert sport officials' training histories and responses to empirically driven isolated-skills training represented the predominant areas of study. Sport-specific, video-based infraction detection tasks were the most frequently used training methods to improve perceptual-cognitive skills for on-field decision-making, however, studies lacked retention measures to on-field performance. Psychological skills training programs were found to have mixed effects and used varied criteria for measuring training efficacy. Physical training showed mainly significant effects on physiological measures and aging influences for on-field performance. More rigorous sport-specific evidence, assessments of training transfer, program efficacy, and macro-developmental trajectory and milestone data are needed to inform training programs and developmental plans.

The Effect of a Brief, Web-Based Animated Video for Improving Comprehension and Implementation Feasibility for Reducing Anterior Cruciate Ligament Injury: A Three-Arm Randomized Controlled Trial

Neuromuscular injury prevention training (IPT) has been shown to reduce anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injury risk by approximately 50%, but the implementation rate is low. One of the most important modifiable barriers for implementation is coaches' comprehension of risk and intervention strategies. This study aimed to evaluate the effect of a brief, web-based, animated video on ACL injury prevention comprehension and IPT implementation feasibility. Coaches in landing and cutting sports were recruited and randomized into three groups. (1) Intervention: brief multimedia animated video about ACL injury and prevention. (2) Active control: commonly accessed, text-based web resource about ACL injury and prevention. (3) Placebo control: brief multimedia video about concussions. Overall ACL comprehension-composed of basic ACL knowledge, risk knowledge, prevention knowledge, and severity knowledge-as well as implementation feasibility were all measured prior to and immediately following the interventions. Overall ACL comprehension improved the most in the animated video group (Cohen's d = 0.86) and, to a lesser degree, in the active control web-based article group (Cohen's d = 0.39). Both video and web-based article groups had greater implementation feasibility compared to the control group (p = 0.01). Overall, these initial results suggest that a brief, web-based, animated video has the potential to be a superior method for informing stakeholders in order to reduce traumatic injuries in sport.

Assessing decision making using 2D animations in elite academy footballers

Having investigated the effects of videos in the preceding chapter, this chapter assesses 2D animation, a form of presentation used in many coaching situations. The aim of this experiment was to investigate decision-making skills in different age groups (Under 16, 18 and 23) of elite academy footballers using a 2D animation simulation task of real game football scenarios. The work also explored the relationship between individual performance on the task and the actual performance on the pitch, as rated by three independent expert football coaches. This allowed us to examine whether this task is useful in predicting real-world decision-making skills. The results suggested that there was a significant difference between age groups on accuracy, by gaining more experience footballers perform better on the task. Also, the results showed a significant difference between all age groups on the response time. The under 23 age group were fastest, then the under 18 age group and finally the under 16 footballers were the slowest on the task. The correlation between performance on the task and the assessments provided by the coaches showed that 2D animation task is a sensitive measure in assessment of decision-making skills of elite academy players.

On-Field Perceptual-Cognitive Training Improves Peripheral Reaction in Soccer: A Controlled Trial

Abilities such as peripheral reaction are of special importance in soccer. Whether these abilities can be improved by sport-specific on-field interventions remains unclear. The aim of the present controlled trial was to investigate the effect of a soccer-specific perceptual-cognitive on-field training on peripheral reaction of highly talented soccer players aged 12–13 years. N = 38 male elite athletes from young talent centers were allocated to an intervention (n = 19) and a control group (CG) (n = 19). Computer-based peripheral perception tests were conducted before and after intervention. Combining a sport-specific and a juggling task, the intervention was performed once a week (8 weeks, 20 min per week) in addition to team training. The CG exclusively underwent usual team training. Analyses show significant differences between the two groups for peripheral reaction time (PRT), with significant improvements for the intervention group and none for the CG. Furthermore, results indicate that improvements in peripheral reaction might be due to changes in the reaction time of right-footed players. Future studies should be conducted to clarify the effect of sport-specific on-field training approaches on PRT. These analyses should consider the influence of lateralization on effectivity of perceptual-cognitive on-field training approaches.

Psychological Intervention Program to Control Stress in Youth Soccer Players

The influence on the psychological well-being of the players and their sports performance seems to be one of the keys to the current sports practice. The purpose of this study was to determine the effectiveness of a psychological intervention program for stress control in youth soccer players. A total sample of 19 male youth soccer players (age: 16.3 ± 0.99 years; years playing soccer: 10.89 ± 1.56 years) completed the current research. The Psychological Characteristics Questionnaire related to Sports Performance (CPRD) was used to assess stress factors related to sports competition. A program based on Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy was implemented during eight sessions of approximately 50 min each. A pre-post design was used and statistical differences between pre- and post-measures were checked through dependent sample t-tests. The results indicated that the post-test scores were higher than the pre-tests in "Influence of the Evaluation of Performance" and "Mental Skills" factors, which supposes a significant improvement of the stress management related to performance evaluation, as well as the use of psychological resources and techniques. In addition, the post-test scores were also higher in the "Stress Control" factor, although in this case the differences were not statistically significant. Practical indications deriving from the findings of this study can help youth soccer players to manage the stress of competition using a psychological training program.

Developing sport expertise in youth sport: a decision training program in basketball

Background

This study has analyzed the impact of applying a decision training program, in which video-feedback and questioning were used, on the development of decision-making, skill execution and procedural knowledge in basketball players.

Methods

Participants were eleven male players aged between 12 and 13 years old (M_age = 12.75, SD_age = .65), who were assigned to an experimental or control group within a pre-test/intervention test/retention test quasi-experimental design. The decision training program was applied over 11 weeks. Throughout this intervention, players had to analyze the causes and reasons for the decision made, using video feedback and questioning to this end. Decision-making and skill execution variables were analyzed using the French & Thomas (1987) observation instrument, while a validated questionnaire was used to assess procedural knowledge in basketball.

Results

The results reported that sport expertise improved in players from the experimental group, who had significantly higher intervention test scores for successful decisions and skill executions when compared to players in the control group. In the intra-group analysis, the experimental group significantly improved in the intervention test compared to the pre-test, in terms of some of the variables of decision-making, skill execution and procedural knowledge.

Discussion

These results reinforce the idea of including cognitive tools in training, such as video-feedback and questioning, to improve sport expertise in players’ formative stages, and presumably to improve their performance whilst maintaining decision training throughout time.

The role of viewing distance and viewing angle on referees' decision-making performance during the FIFA World Cup 2014

The present study aims to reveal the effects of positioning on decision-making performance in top-level refereeing in association football. To this end, for all 64 matches of the FIFA World Cup 2014, potential foul-play situations were videometrically analysed in terms of the referee's position relative to the infringement. Contrary to earlier studies, viewing angles were analysed in addition to viewing distances and error rates were considered for not only falsely whistled but also falsely non-whistled events. Moreover, direct logistic regression analysis was applied to detect position-dependent differences. For the total of 1,527 potential foul play situations, an overall low error rate of 6.9% was found. The similar numbers of total whistle (n = 52) and non-whistle errors (n = 54) reflect referees' ability to balance both types of errors. Regarding the overall viewing-distance effect, referees were 2.58 times (95% CI 1.47-4.54) more likely to commit a whistle error at 10-15 m and 5.51 times (95% CI 1.35-22.47) more likely to commit a non-whistle error at 0-5 m, corresponding to the position ranges occurring with the highest (10-15 m: 30.3%) and lowest (0-5 m: 5.8%) frequencies. In contrast, no significant effects of viewing-angle on decision-making accuracy could be revealed.

Incorporating perceptual decision-making training into high-intensity interval training for Australian football umpires

Existing methods for developing decision-making skill for Australian football umpires separate the physical and perceptual aspects of their performance. This study aimed to determine the efficacy of incorporating video-based decision-making training during high-intensity interval training sessions, specific for Australian football umpires. 20 amateur Australian football umpires volunteered to participate in a randomised control trial. Participants completed an 8-week training intervention in a conditioning only (CON; n=7), combined video-based training and conditioning (COM; n=7), or separated conditioning and video-based training (SEP; n=6) group. Preliminary and post-testing involved a Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Test (Yo-YoIR1), and 10x300m run test with an Australian football specific video-based decision-making task. Overall, changes in decision-making accuracy following the intervention were unclear between groups. SEP was possibly beneficial compared to COM in Yo-YoIR1 performance, whereas CON was likely beneficial compared to COM in 10x300m sprint performance. There was no additional benefit to completing video-based training, whether combined with, or separate to physical training, suggesting that this was not an optimal training method. For video-based training to be an effective decision-making tool, detailed feedback should be incorporated into training. It is recommended that longer conditioning and video-based training interventions be implemented to determine training effectiveness.