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Neuloh JE, Venhorst A, Skorski S, Meyer T. The effect of forced even pacing and an opponent on end-spurt behaviour in freestyle pool swimming. Eur J Sport Sci 2024; 24:713-720. [PMID: 38874951 PMCID: PMC11235755 DOI: 10.1002/ejsc.12102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2023] [Revised: 03/06/2024] [Accepted: 03/10/2024] [Indexed: 06/15/2024]
Abstract
To investigate the effect of forced even pacing through virtual pacing assistance and an opponent in a competitive setting on end-spurt behaviour in freestyle swimmers, including related physiological underpinnings. Twenty-seven competitive swimmers and triathletes were recruited. There were four 1500 m freestyle trials: (i) familiarisation time trial, (ii) self-paced time trial (STT), (iii) head-to-head competition time trial (CTT) and (iv) forced even pacing through virtual pacing assistance time trial (FET). Eventually, 12 swimmers met the criteria for the CTT and FET to be included in the analysis. Changes in end-spurt behaviour, finishing time and physiological parameters (lactate, cortisol, noradrenaline and heart rate) were analysed using a linear mixed model with fixed effects for trials and a random effect for swimmer identity. A separate linear model was computed for competition outcome. The end-spurt for each race was determined by means of an end-spurt indicator (ESI; ESI > 0 greater end-spurt). Swimmers demonstrated a significantly greater ESI in FET (+2.6; p < 0.001) and CTT (+1.4; p = 0.022) compared to STT. Blood lactate concentration in FET (+1.0 mmol L-1; p < 0.001) and CTT (+1.6 mmol L-1; p < 0.001) was significantly higher than in STT. Winners had a significantly greater ESI than losers in CTT (+1.6 and p = 0.005). Swimmers utilised a greater end-spurt through metabolically optimal forced even pacing by virtual pacing assistance and in a head-to-head competition due a larger mobilisation of anaerobic reserves as indicated by greater blood lactate concentrations. Winners had a significantly greater end-spurt than losers despite similar metabolic disturbances.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua E. Neuloh
- Institute of Sports and Preventive MedicineSaarland UniversitySaarbrückenGermany
| | - Andreas Venhorst
- Institute of Sports and Preventive MedicineSaarland UniversitySaarbrückenGermany
| | - Sabrina Skorski
- Institute of Sports and Preventive MedicineSaarland UniversitySaarbrückenGermany
| | - Tim Meyer
- Institute of Sports and Preventive MedicineSaarland UniversitySaarbrückenGermany
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Sakalidis KE, Menting SGP, Hettinga FJ. Influence of intellectual disability on exercise regulation: exploring verbal, auditory and visual guidance to contribute to promote inclusive exercise environments. BMJ Open Sport Exerc Med 2024; 10:e001765. [PMID: 38196941 PMCID: PMC10773414 DOI: 10.1136/bmjsem-2023-001765] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/04/2023] [Indexed: 01/11/2024] Open
Abstract
Objective The role of intellectual disability (ID) in exercise regulation has remained largely unexplored, yet recent studies have indicated cognitive-related impaired pacing skills in people with ID. In a well-controlled laboratory environment, this study aims to (1) establish the role of ID in pacing and explore the ability of people with and without ID to maintain a steady pace; (2) to investigate if verbal feedback and/or (3) the presence of a pacer can improve the ability of people with ID to maintain a preplanned submaximal velocity. Methods Participants with (n=10) and without ID (n=10) were recruited and performed 7 min submaximal trials on a cycle ergometer (Velotron). Participants with ID also performed a cycling trial with a pacer (virtual avatar). Results The non-parametric tests for repeated measures data (p≤0.05) showed that (1) people with ID deviated more from the targeted pace compared with people without ID, (2) the verbal feedback did not influence their ability to keep a steady pace and (3) they deviated less from the targeted pace when a visual pacer was introduced. Conclusion The results revealed the difficulties of people with ID in planning and monitoring their exercise and the difficulties in appropriately responding to auditory and verbal feedback. Coaches and stakeholders who want to offer inclusive exercise pathways should consider that people with ID perform and pace themselves better when supported by intuitive, visual and personally meaningful stimuli such as other cyclists (avatars).
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Morais JE, Barbosa TM, Forte P, Bragada JA, Castro FADS, Marinho DA. Stability analysis and prediction of pacing in elite 1500 m freestyle male swimmers. Sports Biomech 2023; 22:1496-1513. [PMID: 33026294 DOI: 10.1080/14763141.2020.1810749] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2020] [Accepted: 08/12/2020] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
This study aimed to analyse the stability of elite male long-distance swimmers (1500 m), and to identify the main predictors related to the pace. The performance of 16 elite male swimmers (22.59 ± 2.10 years-old) participating in the 1500 m event at the 2016 (London) and 2018 (Glasgow) LEN European Aquatic Championships were analysed. The lap performance, clean swim performance, turn performance, and a set of stroke mechanics variables were assessed. The lap performance presented a significant and moderate variation with all laps included (p < 0.001) and deleting the first and last lap (p = 0.002). Swimmers were significantly faster in the first half in comparison of the second. The total turn also presented a significant and moderate variation. The hierarchical linear modelling retained the time (estimate = 0.0019, p = 0.007), stroke frequency (estimate = -27.49, p < 0.001) and stroke length (estimate = -6.55, p < 0.001) as the main predictors of the clean swim performance. By contrast to the analysis based on the lap performance, clean swim performance presented a non-significant variation. Coaches should be aware that stroke length maintenance could negatively affect the clean swim performance, whereas a small increase of stroke frequency may present a meaningful enhancement of the total race time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jorge E Morais
- Department of Sport Sciences, Polytechnic Institute of Bragança, Bragança, Portugal
- Research Centre in Sports, Health and Human Development (CIDESD), University of Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal
| | - Tiago M Barbosa
- Department of Sport Sciences, Polytechnic Institute of Bragança, Bragança, Portugal
- Research Centre in Sports, Health and Human Development (CIDESD), University of Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal
| | - Pedro Forte
- Department of Sport Sciences, Polytechnic Institute of Bragança, Bragança, Portugal
- Research Centre in Sports, Health and Human Development (CIDESD), University of Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal
- Department of Sport Sciences and Physical Education, Higher Institute of Educational Sciences of the Douro, Penafiel, Portugal
| | - José A Bragada
- Department of Sport Sciences, Polytechnic Institute of Bragança, Bragança, Portugal
- Research Centre in Sports, Health and Human Development (CIDESD), University of Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal
| | - Flávio A de Souza Castro
- School of Physical Education, Aquatic Sports Research Group, Federal University of Rio Grande Do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Daniel A Marinho
- Research Centre in Sports, Health and Human Development (CIDESD), University of Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal
- Department of Sport Sciences, University of Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal
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Menting SGP, Post AK, Nijenhuis SB, Koning RH, Visscher C, Hettinga FJ, Elferink-Gemser MT. Pacing Behavior Development in Adolescent Swimmers: A Large-Scale Longitudinal Data Analysis. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2023; 55:700-709. [PMID: 36399999 DOI: 10.1249/mss.0000000000003086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE This study aimed to use a large-scale longitudinal design to investigate the development of the distribution of effort (e.g., pacing) in adolescent swimmers, specifically disentangling the effects of age and experience and differentiating between performance levels in adulthood. METHODS Season best times and 50-m split times of 100- and 200-m freestyle swimmers from five continents were gathered between 2000 and 2021. Included swimmers competed in a minimum of three seasons between 12 and 24 yr old (5.3 ± 1.9 seasons) and were categorized by performance level in adulthood (elite, sub-elite, high-competitive; 100-m: n = 3498 (47% female); 200-m: n = 2230 (56% female)). Multilevel models in which repeated measures (level 1) were nested within individual swimmers (level 2) were estimated to test the effects of age, race experience, and adult performance level on the percentage of total race time spent in each 50-m section ( P < 0.05). RESULTS In the 100-m, male swimmers develop a relatively faster first 50-m when becoming older. This behavior also distinguishes elite from high-competitive swimmers. No such effects were found for female swimmers. Conversely, more experienced male and female swimmers exhibit a slower initial 50-m. With age and race experience, swimmers develop a more even velocity distribution in the 200-m. Adolescent swimmers reaching the elite level adopt a more even behavior compared with high-competitive. This differentiation occurs at a younger age in female (>13 yr) compared with male (>16 yr) swimmers. CONCLUSIONS Pacing behavior development throughout adolescence is driven by age-related factors besides race experience. Swimmers attaining a higher performance level during adulthood exhibit a pacing behavior that better fits the task demands during adolescence. Monitoring and individually optimizing the pacing behavior of young swimmers is an important step toward elite performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stein Gerrit Paul Menting
- Center for Human Movement Sciences, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, the NETHERLANDS
| | - Aylin Kim Post
- Center for Human Movement Sciences, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, the NETHERLANDS
| | - Sebastiaan Benjamin Nijenhuis
- Center for Human Movement Sciences, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, the NETHERLANDS
| | - Ruud Hans Koning
- Department Economics, Econometrics and Finance, Faculty of Economics and Business, University of Groningen, the NETHERLANDS
| | - Chris Visscher
- Center for Human Movement Sciences, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, the NETHERLANDS
| | - Florentina Johanna Hettinga
- Department of Sport, Exercise & Rehabilitation, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Northumbria University, Newcastle, UNITED KINGDOM
| | - Marije Titia Elferink-Gemser
- Center for Human Movement Sciences, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, the NETHERLANDS
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Cuenca-Fernández F, Ruiz-Navarro JJ, Polach M, Arellano R, Born DP. Short-course performance variation across all race sections: How 100 and 200 m elite male swimmers progress between rounds. Front Sports Act Living 2023; 5:1146711. [PMID: 37057072 PMCID: PMC10086268 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2023.1146711] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2023] [Accepted: 03/13/2023] [Indexed: 03/30/2023] Open
Abstract
IntroductionTo investigate performance variation in all race sections, i.e., start, clean swimming, and turns, of elite short-course races for all swimming strokes and to determine the effect of performance variation on race results.MethodsComparing finalists and non-qualified swimmers, a total of 256 races of male swimmers (n = 128, age: 23.3 ± 3.1, FINA points: 876 ± 38) competing in the European short-course swimming championships were analyzed. The coefficient of variation (CV) and relative change in performance (Δ%) were used to compare intra-individual performance progression between rounds and inter-individual differences between performance levels using a linear mixed model.ResultsWhile most performance variables declined during the races (P < 0.005), performance was better maintained in 200 m compared to 100 m races, as well as in finalists compared to non-qualified swimmers. In 100 m races, Start Times improved between heats, semi-finals, and finals (P < 0.005) and contributed to the improved Split Times of Lap 1 in freestyle (P = 0.001, Δ = −1.09%), breaststroke (P < 0.001; Δ = −2.48%), and backstroke (P < 0.001; Δ = −1.72%). Swimmers increased stroke rate from heats/semi-finals to finals in freestyle (P = 0.015, Δ = 3.29%), breaststroke (P = 0.001, Δ = 6.91%), and backstroke (P = 0.005; Δ = 3.65%). Increases in stroke length and clean-swimming speed were only significant between rounds for breaststroke and backstroke (P < 0.005). In 200 m races, Total Time remained unchanged between rounds (P > 0.05), except for breaststroke (P = 0.008; CV = 0.7%; Δ = −0.59%). Start (P = 0.004; Δ = −1.72%) and Split Times (P = 0.009; Δ = −0.61%) only improved in butterfly. From the turn variables, OUT_5 m times improved towards the finals in breaststroke (P = 0.006; Δ = −1.51%) and butterfly (P = 0.016; Δ = −2.19%). No differences were observed for SR and SL, while clean-swimming speed improved between rounds in breaststroke only (P = 0.034; Δ = 0.96%).DiscussionPerformance of finalists progressed between rounds in 100 m but not 200 m races, most probably due to the absence of semi-finals. Progression in 100 m races was mainly attributed to improved Start and Split Times in Lap 1, while turn performances remained unchanged. Within round comparison showed higher performance maintenance in 200 m compared to 100 m events, which showed more pronounced positive pacing. Success of finalists was attributed to their overall higher performance level and superior progression between rounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francisco Cuenca-Fernández
- Aquatics Lab, Department of Physical Education and Sports, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - Jesús J. Ruiz-Navarro
- Aquatics Lab, Department of Physical Education and Sports, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - Marek Polach
- Department of Social Sciences in Kinanthropology, Palacký University Olomouc, Olomouc, Czechia
- Umimplavat.cz, Analysis and Consultation for Swimming Technique and Race Performance, Prague, Czechia
| | - Raúl Arellano
- Aquatics Lab, Department of Physical Education and Sports, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - Dennis-Peter Born
- Section for High-Performance Sports, Swiss Swimming Federation, Bern, Switzerland
- Department for Elite Sport, Swiss Federal Institute of Sport Magglingen, Magglingen, Switzerland
- Correspondence: Dennis-Peter Born
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Born DP, Romann M, Stöggl T. Start Fast, Swim Faster, Turn Fastest: Section Analyses and Normative Data for Individual Medley. J Sports Sci Med 2022; 21:233-244. [PMID: 35719225 PMCID: PMC9157519 DOI: 10.52082/jssm.2022.233] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2021] [Accepted: 04/15/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The aims of the study were to provide benchmarks and normative data for 100 m, 200 m, and 400 m short-course individual medley (IM) races, investigate differences between the various swimming strokes and turns involved in IM, and quantify the effect and contribution of various race sections on swimming performance. All IM races (n = 320) at the 2019 European Short-Course Swimming Championships were video monitored and digitized with interrater reliability described by a mean intra-class correlation coefficient of 0.968. Normative data were provided for the eight finalists of each event (FINA points = 886 ± 37) and the eight slowest swimmers from each event (FINA points = 688 ± 53). Contribution and effects of race sections on swimming performance were investigated using stepwise regression analysis based on all races of each event. Regression analysis explained 97-100% of total variance in race time and revealed turn time (β ≥ 0.53) as distinguishing factor in short-course IM races in addition to swim velocity (β ≥ -0.28). Start time only affected 100 m (β ≥ 0.14) and 200 m (β ≥ 0.04) events. Fastest turn times were found for the butterfly/backstroke turn. Breaststroke showed slowest swim velocities and no difference between fastest and slowest 100 m IM swimmers. Therefore, breaststroke may provide largest potential for future development in IM race times. Correlation analyses revealed that distance per stroke (r ≥ -0.39, P < 0.05) rather than stroke rate (r ≤ -0.18, P > 0.05) is a performance indicator and may be used by coaches and performance analysts to evaluate stroke mechanics in male IM swimmers despite its more complex assessment. Performance analysts, coaches, and swimmers may use the present normative data to establish minimal and maximal requirements for European Championship participation and to create specific drills in practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dennis-Peter Born
- Swiss Swimming Federation, Section for High-Performance Sports, Bern, Switzerland
- Swiss Federal Institute of Sport Magglingen, Department for Elite Sport, Magglingen, Switzerland
| | - Michael Romann
- Swiss Federal Institute of Sport Magglingen, Department for Elite Sport, Magglingen, Switzerland
| | - Thomas Stöggl
- University of Salzburg, Department of Sport and Exercise Science, Salzburg, Austria
- Red Bull Athlete Performance Center, Salzburg, Austria
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Cuenca-Fernández F, Ruiz-Navarro JJ, Polach M, Arellano R, Born DP. Turn Performance Variation in European Elite Short-Course Swimmers. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:5033. [PMID: 35564428 PMCID: PMC9102928 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph19095033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2022] [Revised: 04/13/2022] [Accepted: 04/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Turn performances are important success factors for short-course races, and more consistent turn times may distinguish between higher and lower-ranked swimmers. Therefore, this study aimed to determine coefficients of variation (CV) and performance progressions (∆%) of turn performances. The eight finalists and eight fastest swimmers from the heats that did not qualify for the semi-finals, i.e., from 17th to 24th place, of the 100, 200, 400, and 800 (females only)/1500 m (males only) freestyle events at the 2019 European Short Course Championships were included, resulting in a total of 64 male (finalists: age: 22.3 ± 2.6, FINA points: 914 ± 31 vs. heats: age: 21.5 ± 3.1, FINA points: 838 ± 74.9) and 64 female swimmers (finalists: age: 22.9 ± 4.8, FINA points: 904 ± 24.5 vs. heats: age: 20.1 ± 3.6, FINA points: 800 ± 48). A linear mixed model was used to compare inter- and intra-individual performance variation. Interactions between CVs, ∆%, and mean values were analyzed using a two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). The results showed impaired turn performances as the races progressed. Finalists showed faster turn section times than the eight fastest non-qualified swimmers from the heats (p < 0.001). Additionally, turn section times were faster for short-, i.e., 100 and 200 m, than middle- and long-distance races, i.e., 400 to 1500 m races (p < 0.001). Regarding variation in turn performance, finalists showed lower CVs and ∆% for all turn section times (0.74% and 1.49%) compared to non-qualified swimmers (0.91% and 1.90%, respectively). Similarly, long-distance events, i.e., 800/1500 m, showed lower mean CVs and higher mean ∆% (0.69% and 1.93%) than short-distance, i.e., 100 m events (0.93% and 1.39%, respectively). Regarding turn sections, the largest CV and ∆% were found 5 m before wall contact (0.70% and 1.45%) with lower CV and more consistent turn section times 5 m after wall contact (0.42% and 0.54%). Non-qualified swimmers should aim to match the superior turn performances and faster times of finalists in all turn sections. Both finalists and non-qualified swimmers should pay particular attention to maintaining high velocities when approaching the wall as the race progresses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francisco Cuenca-Fernández
- Aquatics Lab, Department of Physical Education and Sports, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Granada, 18011 Granada, Spain; (F.C.-F.); (J.J.R.-N.); (R.A.)
| | - Jesús J. Ruiz-Navarro
- Aquatics Lab, Department of Physical Education and Sports, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Granada, 18011 Granada, Spain; (F.C.-F.); (J.J.R.-N.); (R.A.)
| | - Marek Polach
- Department of Social Sciences in Kinanthropology, Palacký University Olomouc, 77147 Olomouc, Czech Republic;
- Department for Competitive Swimming, Czech Swimming Federation, 16017 Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Raúl Arellano
- Aquatics Lab, Department of Physical Education and Sports, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Granada, 18011 Granada, Spain; (F.C.-F.); (J.J.R.-N.); (R.A.)
| | - Dennis-Peter Born
- Section for High-Performance Sports, Swiss Swimming Federation, 3063 Bern, Switzerland
- Department for Elite Sport, Swiss Federal Institute of Sport Magglingen, 2532 Magglingen, Switzerland
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Guo W, Soh KG, Zakaria NS, Hidayat Baharuldin MT, Gao Y. Effect of Resistance Training Methods and Intensity on the Adolescent Swimmer's Performance: A Systematic Review. Front Public Health 2022; 10:840490. [PMID: 35444975 PMCID: PMC9013834 DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2022.840490] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2021] [Accepted: 02/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Resistance training has been widely used in various sports and improves competition performance, especially in swimming. Swimming performance is highly dependent on muscle strength, especially short distances. For adolescent athletes, the existing literature has bound to prove that resistance training is undoubtedly bound to improve swimmers' performance. Objectives This study adopts a systematic literature review to (1) examine the effects of resistance training on the performance of adolescent swimmers, and (2) summarize their training methods and intensity. Methods The literature search was undertaken in five international databases: the SCOUPS, PubMed, EBSCOhost (SPORTDiscus), CNKL, Web of Science. The searches covered documents in English and Chinese published until 30th December 2020. Electronic databases using various keywords related to "strength training" and "adolescent swimmers" were searched. Sixteen studies met the inclusion and exclusion criteria where the data was then systematically reviewed using the PRISMA guideline. Furthermore, the physical therapy evidence database (PEDro) scale was used to measure each study's scientific rigor. Results This review found that to improve the swimming performance of adolescents, two types of resistance training were used, specifically in water and on land, where both types of training can improve swimming performance. In addition, training with two types of resistance machines were better in the water than with one equipment. Resistance training can improve the swimming performance of adolescent swimmers at 50 m, 100 m, 200 m and 400 m distances. However, most studies only focused on the swimming performance at 50 m and 100 m lengths. A low-intensity, high-speed resistance training programme is recommended for adolescent swimmers to obtain the best training results. Conclusion Water or land resistance training can improve the swimming performance. Given that both types of exercises have their strengths and weaknesses, combining these methods may enhance the swimmers' performance. In addition, despite the starting and turning phases consuming up to one-third of the total swimming time for short distances, literature in this area is limited. Systematic Review Registration https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero, identifier: CRD42021231510.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Guo
- Department of Sports Studies, Faculty of Educational Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Seri Kembanga, Malaysia
- Department of Sports Studies, Faculty of Physical Educations, Ningxia Normal University, Guyuan, China
| | - Kim Geok Soh
- Department of Sports Studies, Faculty of Educational Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Seri Kembanga, Malaysia
| | - Noor Syamilah Zakaria
- Department of Counselor Education and Counseling Psychology, Faculty of Educational Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Seri Kembanga, Malaysia
| | | | - Yongqi Gao
- Department of Sports Studies, Faculty of Educational Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Seri Kembanga, Malaysia
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Neuloh JE, Venhorst A, Forster S, Mauger AR, Meyer T. The association of end-spurt behaviour with seasonal best time in long-distance freestyle pool swimming. Eur J Sport Sci 2022; 23:469-477. [PMID: 35175179 DOI: 10.1080/17461391.2022.2043943] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
AbstractPurpose: To analyse the association of seasonal best time, distance and different performance levels with end-spurt behaviour in one swimming season. METHODS Race results in 800 m and 1500 m pool freestyle swimming in the season 2018/2019 including 14,930 races and 2,650 swimmers were obtained. The end-spurt for each race was determined by means of an End-Spurt Indicator (ESI). Subsequently, ESI was used as a dependent variable and influences were analysed using a linear mixed model with fixed effects for seasonal best time, distance, and performance level amongst others. RESULTS In the 800 m and 1500 m races swimmers showed a mean ESI of 2.08 (95% CI: 2.02 to 2.13) and 3.68 (95% CI: 3.59 to 3.76), respectively. There was a significant association between seasonal best time and ESI, with a better seasonal best time showing a greater ESI (F = 70.5, P < .001, f2 = 0.04). A significant effect on greater ESI was also observed for longer distance (F = 1067.5, P < .001, f2 = 0.06) and higher performance level (F = 91.1, P < .001, f2 = 0.02). Elite swimmers had a mean ESI of 5.47 (95% CI: 4.91 to 6.03), sub-elite swimmers of 3.74 (95% CI: 3.53 to 3.95) and competitive swimmers of 2.41 (95% CI: 2.37 to 2.46). CONCLUSION A more pronounced end-spurt is associated with seasonal best time in long-distance pool swimming, higher performance level of the swimmer and longer race distance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua E Neuloh
- Institute of Sports and Preventive Medicine, Saarland University, Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Andreas Venhorst
- Institute of Sports and Preventive Medicine, Saarland University, Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Sabrina Forster
- Institute of Sports and Preventive Medicine, Saarland University, Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Alexis R Mauger
- School of Sport and Exercise Sciences, University of Kent, Chatham, Kent, England, United Kingdom
| | - Tim Meyer
- Institute of Sports and Preventive Medicine, Saarland University, Saarbrücken, Germany
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Mentzoni F, Losnegard T. World and European Rowing Medallists Pace With Smaller Variation Than Their Competitors. Front Sports Act Living 2021; 3:790198. [PMID: 35005621 PMCID: PMC8728896 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2021.790198] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2021] [Accepted: 11/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose: To establish the relation between pacing pattern and performance, within sex, and number of crew members, at the very highest performance level in World class rowing.Methods: Pacing profiles based on official 500 m split times in 106 A-finals with six contesting boat crews (n = 636 crews), in recent World (2017–2019) and European (2017–2021) championships, were analyzed. The coefficient of variation (CV) and sum of relative differences (SRD) of the split times, and normalized velocities in the four segments of the race, were compared between performance levels, that is, placement (1st–6th), and subgroups based on sex (female or male) and number of crew members (one, two, or four). Statistical tests and resulting p-values and effect sizes (Cohen's d) were used to assess differences between groups.Results: The pacing profiles of the medallists had smaller variation than those of the non-podium finishers (CV = 1.72% vs. CV = 2.00%; p = 4 × 10−7, d = 0.41). Compared to the non-podium finishers, the medallists had lower normalized velocities in the first and second segments of the race, slightly higher in the third segment and higher in the fourth segment. Female crews paced somewhat more evenly than male crews. No significant differences were found in the evenness of pacing profiles between singles, doubles/pairs and quads/fours. Analyses of SRD were overall consistent with analyses of CV.Conclusion: Medal winners in major rowing championships use a more even pacing strategy than their final competitors, which could imply that such a strategy is advantageous in rowing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fredrik Mentzoni
- The Norwegian Olympic Sports Center (Olympiatoppen), The Norwegian Olympic and Paralympic Committee and Confederation of Sports, Oslo, Norway
| | - Thomas Losnegard
- The Norwegian Olympic Sports Center (Olympiatoppen), The Norwegian Olympic and Paralympic Committee and Confederation of Sports, Oslo, Norway
- Department of Physical Performance, Norwegian School of Sports Sciences, Oslo, Norway
- *Correspondence: Thomas Losnegard
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Rodríguez-Adalia L, Veiga S, del Cerro JS, González-Ravé JM. Older or Wiser? Age and Experience Trends in 20 Years of Olympic and World Swimming Championships Open Water 10-km Races. J Funct Morphol Kinesiol 2021; 6:jfmk6040089. [PMID: 34842749 PMCID: PMC8628946 DOI: 10.3390/jfmk6040089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2021] [Revised: 10/26/2021] [Accepted: 10/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The aims of the present research were to estimate the age of peak performance (APP) and to examine the role of previous experience at the world-level open water race performances. Finishing positions and age of swimmers (639 females and 738 males) in the 10-km events of World Championship (WCH) and Olympic Games (OG) from 2000 to 2019 were obtained from the official results websites. Years of previous experience were computed using the number of previous participations in WCH or OG. APP was estimated using quadratic models of the 10th percentile top race positions and resulted in 28.94 years old for males (R2 = 0.551) and 27.40 years old for females (R2 = 0.613). Regression analysis revealed an improvement of 1.36 or 8.19 finishing positions for each additional year of age or experience, respectively (R2 = 0.157). However, significant differences (p < 0.001) between age and experience showed that the swimmer's age became less relevant for performance as years of experience increased. These results, in terms of age, are in line with other mass-start disciplines of similar duration (≈2 h) and, in terms of experience, confirm the importance of previous participation in improving tactical decision making during open water races.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luis Rodríguez-Adalia
- Catalonian Swimming Federation, Diputació St., 237, 08007 Barcelona, Spain;
- Faculty of Sports Sciences, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Carlos III Avenue, 45008 Toledo, Spain
| | - Santiago Veiga
- Health and Human Performance Department, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Martin Fierro St., 28024 Madrid, Spain
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +34-616001963
| | | | - José M. González-Ravé
- Sports Training Laboratory, Faculty of Sports Sciences, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Carlos III Avenue, 45008 Toledo, Spain;
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12
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Pacing Strategies of 1500 m Freestyle Swimmers in the World Championships According to Their Final Position. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:ijerph18147559. [PMID: 34300007 PMCID: PMC8304102 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph18147559] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2021] [Revised: 07/13/2021] [Accepted: 07/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
In 1500 m freestyle swimming races, pacing is generally represented by a parabolic or U-shaped curve indicating that swimming velocity is greatest at the start and the last laps of the race while swimmers maintain an even pace through the middle section of the race. However, there is no information to determine if 1500 m race winners select pacing different to other, less successful swimmers within the same competition. Therefore, this investigation aimed to describe the pacing strategies adopted by 1500 m freestyle competitive swimmers in World Championships (long course), from 2003 to 2019 to determine the most effective pacing to obtain victory or a medal. The official overall and split times for 1500 m freestyle races of the Fédération Internationale de Natation (FINA) were obtained from the website of this organization. In total, data of 143 swimming performances (71 male and 72 female) were extracted. With the split times, lap times, and position were calculated across the race. To determine differences in the pacing between best- and worst-ranked finalist, swimmers in each race were divided into four groups based on the final position (1st vs. 2nd vs. 3rd vs. 4–8th). All the lap times of the winners of the race were faster than those of participants classified as 4–8th position for men and women races (p < 0.05). However, there were no differences in lap velocity among the different positions achieved at the end of the race when it was normalized by average race velocity. Additionally, there were no differences in the lap-to-lap variability among swimmers with different positions at the end of the race. In summary, both men and women elite swimmers selected parabolic pacing consisting of a fast start in the first lap, an even pace close to their average race velocity in the mid-section of the race (from 50 to 1400 m), followed by an end spurt in the final lap(s). This pattern was very similar in all finalists irrespective of the final position in the race. Hence, the obtaining of a medal in the World Championships was associated to possessing a faster average race velocity rather than a specific pacing profile through the race.
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13
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Goreham JA, Miller KB, Frayne RJ, Ladouceur M. Pacing strategies and relationships between speed and stroke parameters for elite sprint kayakers in single boats. J Sports Sci 2021; 39:2211-2218. [PMID: 34013844 DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2021.1927314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
The study aimed to determine the pacing strategies of elite single-boat sprint kayakers, as well as the relationships between stroke parameters (stroke rate (SR) and stroke length (SL)) and kayak speed throughout the race. High-resolution split speed and stroke parameter data from men's (MK1) and women's (WK1) single-boat A- and B-finals in 2016-2017 international sprint kayak competitions were analysed. Correlation coefficients were calculated between SR-speed and SL-speed during each split for each race group. Athletes followed all-out, positive and seahorse-shaped pacing strategies for the 200 m, 500 m and 1000 m races, respectively. SL-speed had greater correlations during the first half of the MK1 200 m race, whereas SR-speed had greater correlations during the second half. SR-speed correlations were greater than SL-speed correlations throughout the final 150 m of WK1 200 m races. There were large and very large correlations between SR-speed at the end of both the WK1 500 m and MK1 1000 m race distances, respectively, despite following different pacing strategies. Single-boat pacing strategies change due to race distance during major international sprint kayak competitions, whereas the relationships between stroke parameters and speed change depending on athlete sex and the race distance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua A Goreham
- School of Health and Human Performance, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
| | - Kayla Bugeya Miller
- School of Health and Human Performance, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
| | - Ryan J Frayne
- School of Health and Human Performance, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
| | - Michel Ladouceur
- School of Health and Human Performance, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
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Menting SGP, Hanley B, Elferink-Gemser MT, Hettinga FJ. Pacing behaviour of middle-long distance running & race-walking athletes at the IAAF U18 and U20 World Championship finals. Eur J Sport Sci 2021; 22:780-789. [PMID: 33634744 DOI: 10.1080/17461391.2021.1893828] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
ABSTRACTThe current study analysed the pacing behaviour of athletes competing in the middle-long track event finals of the IAAF Under 18 and Under 20 World Championships between 2015 and 2018. Official finishing times, 1000-m split times and positioning data of 116 female and 153 male athletes, competing in the middle-long distance running (3000 m, 5000 m and 10,000 m) and race walking (5000 m and 10,000 m) events, were gathered. Repeated measures analysis of variance, with 1000-m speed as within-subjects factor and final ranking (medallist, Top 8 or Top 12, rest of the field) as between-subjects factor, was performed to compare the pacing behaviour between athletes. Positioning of the athletes was analysed by Kendall tau-b (Tb) correlation between the intermediate position and final position. Overall, medallists increased their speed throughout a race, with the exception of the 5000 m running event, in which a parabolic pacing behaviour was exhibited. The 1000-m segment in which a significant (P > 0.05) difference in speed was exhibited between differently ranked athletes coincided with a strong (Tb > 0.7) correlation between intermediate and final positioning. These combined results point towards a separation between the athletes during the race, as the Top 8 or Top 12 and the rest of the field are unable to match the speed of the medallists. The distance, discipline, sex, age category and behaviour of competitors all influence the pacing behaviour of young track athletes during international level competition, emphasising the importance and complexity of developing adequate pacing behaviour in track athletes. HighlightsThe distribution of effort over an exercise task (i.e. pacing) is an important factor in endurance exercise competition. The pacing behaviour of athletes is determined by many aspects, such as the biomechanical characteristics of the task, the exercise environment and the age of the athleteSport specific competition data from youth athlete sports events can provide insight into the pacing behaviour of developing athletes. These insights could assist in the optimalisation of the development of pacing behaviour of young athletes in the future.The current study analysed the 1000-m split times and positioning data of athletes competing in the running (3000 m, 5000 m and 10,000) and racewalking (5000 m and 10,000m) finals of the U18 and U20 IAAF world-championship.The difference in final ranking impacted the pacing behaviour of the athletes, with the medallists increasing their speed throughout the race and the other athletes separating from the medallists either early (rest of field) or later in the race (Top 8 or Top 12 athletes).
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Affiliation(s)
- Stein Gerrit Paul Menting
- Center for Human Movement Sciences, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
| | - Brian Hanley
- Carnegie School of Sport, Leeds Beckett University, Leeds, UK
| | - Marije Titia Elferink-Gemser
- Center for Human Movement Sciences, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
| | - Florentina Johanna Hettinga
- Department of Sport, Exercise & Rehabilitation, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Northumbria University, Newcastle, UK
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Veiga S, Del Cerro JS, Rodriguez L, Trinidad A, González-Ravé JM. How Mixed Relay Teams in Swimming Should Be Organized for International Championship Success. Front Psychol 2021; 12:573285. [PMID: 33716847 PMCID: PMC7943605 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.573285] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2020] [Accepted: 02/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The primary goal of the present research was to determine the order of swimmers on a mixed relay team that would ensure the best performance in the Fédération Internationale de Natation (FINA) World Championships held in Kazan (Russia, 2015), Budapest (Hungary, 2017), and Gwangju (South Korea, 2019). The data were obtained from database websites for the 4 × 100 m freestyle and 4 × 100 m medley official results,1 including 660 records from 188 entries of finals and 472 preliminary events. The results showed that the fastest swimmers (according to their best season times) were located primarily in the first or second positions of the freestyle relay. The most successful gender strategy for the 4 × 100 m freestyle (57 out of 82 observations) and for the 4 × 100 m medley (29 out of 83) relays was the order male-male-female-female, although no statistical differences were found (p = 0.79) for the medley relays. In the 4 × 100 m freestyle, the second (p = 0.002; β = 1.62) and third (p =0.003; β = 1.41) relay legs had a statistical effect on the total relay time, whereas in the 4 × 100 m medley, all four relay legs had a statistical effect (p < 0.001) on the final performance, the weight of the four strokes being different in heats with respect to the final round. Also, a later position of the first female swimmer or the consecutive position of two female swimmers in the team order significantly affected the relay performance in specific events. Mixed relay events appeared to present specific strategies in comparison to traditional male- or female-only relay lineups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Santiago Veiga
- Health and Human Performance Department, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain.,Royal Spanish Swimming Federation, Madrid, Spain
| | | | | | - Alfonso Trinidad
- Faculty of Education and Humanities, Universidad Francisco de Vitoria, Madrid, Spain
| | - José María González-Ravé
- Sports Training Laboratory, Faculty of Sports Sciences, University of Castilla La Mancha, Toledo, Spain
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Race Analysis in Competitive Swimming: A Narrative Review. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2020; 18:ijerph18010069. [PMID: 33374118 PMCID: PMC7795652 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph18010069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2020] [Revised: 12/21/2020] [Accepted: 12/22/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Researchers have quantified swimming races for several decades to provide objective information on race strategy and characteristics. The purpose of the present review was to summarize knowledge established in the literature and current issues in swimming race analysis. A systematic search of the literature for the current narrative review was conducted in September 2020 using Web of Science, SPORTDiscus (via EBSCO), and PubMed. After examining 321 studies, 22 articles were included in the current review. Most studies divided the race into the start, clean swimming, turn, and/or finish segments; however, the definition of each segment varied, especially for the turn. Ideal definitions for the start and turn-out seemed to differ depending on the stroke styles and swimmers’ level. Many studies have focused on either 100 m or 200 m events with the four strokes (butterfly, backstroke, breaststroke, and freestyle). Contrastingly, there were few or no studies for 50 m, long-distance, individual medley, and relay events. The number of studies examining races for short course, junior and Paralympic swimmers were also very limited. Future studies should focus on those with limited evidence as well as race analysis outside competitions in which detailed kinematic and physiological analyses are possible.
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Menting SGP, Huijgen BC, Konings MJ, Hettinga FJ, Elferink-Gemser MT. Pacing Behavior Development of Youth Short-Track Speed Skaters: A Longitudinal Study. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2019; 52:1099-1108. [PMID: 31815834 DOI: 10.1249/mss.0000000000002239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE This study aimed to analyze the development of pacing behavior of athletes during adolescence using a longitudinal design. METHODS Lap times of male short-track speed skaters (140 skaters, 573 race performances) over two or more 1500-m races during Junior World Championships between 2010 and 2018 were analyzed. Races were divided into four sections (laps 1-3, 4-7, 8-11, and 12-14). Using MLwiN (P < 0.05), multilevel prediction models in which repeated measures (level 1) were nested within individual athletes (level 2) were used to analyze the effect of age (15-20 yr), race type (fast, slow), and stage of competition (final, nonfinal) on absolute section times and relative section times (percentage of total time spent in a section). RESULTS Between the ages of 15 and 20 yr, total race time decreased (-6.99 s) and skaters reached lower absolute section time in laps 8-11 (-2.33 s) and 12-14 (-3.28 s). The relative section times of laps 1-3 (1.42%) and 4-7 (0.66%) increased and of laps 8-11 (-0.53%) and 12-14 (-1.54%) decreased with age. Fast races were more evenly paced compared with slow races, with slow races having a predominantly slow first half and fast finish. Athletes in finals were faster (2.29 s), specifically in laps 4-7 (0.85 s) and laps 8-11 (0.84 s). CONCLUSION Throughout adolescence, short-track speed skaters develop more conservative pacing behavior, reserving energy during the start of the race in order to achieve a higher velocity in the final section of the race and a decrease in total race time. Coaches should take into consideration that the pacing behavior of young athletes develops during adolescence, prepare athletes for the differences in velocity distribution between race types, and inform them on how to best distribute their efforts over the different stages of competition.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Marco Johannes Konings
- Faculty of Movement and Rehabilitation Sciences, KU Leuven Campus Brugge, Brugge, BELGIUM
| | - Florentina Johanna Hettinga
- Department of Sport, Exercise and Rehabilitation, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Northumbria University, Newcastle, UNITED KINGDOM
| | - Marije Titia Elferink-Gemser
- Center for Human Movement Sciences, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, THE NETHERLANDS
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Menting SGP, Hendry DT, Schiphof-Godart L, Elferink-Gemser MT, Hettinga FJ. Optimal Development of Youth Athletes Toward Elite Athletic Performance: How to Coach Their Motivation, Plan Exercise Training, and Pace the Race. Front Sports Act Living 2019; 1:14. [PMID: 33344938 PMCID: PMC7739757 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2019.00014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2019] [Accepted: 08/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Elite athletes have invested many years in training and competition to reach the elite level. One very important factor on the road to elite performance is the decision-making process regarding the regulation of effort over time, termed as pacing behavior. The regulation of effort is vital for optimal athletic performance during a single race and over a longer period of time (e.g., a competitive season) as an inadequate regulation could result in a higher risk of injuries, overtraining, and drop-out. Despite this, there is limited knowledge on how young athletes learn and develop the abilities related to pacing. Pacing behavior of athletes develops from childhood throughout adolescence and is thought to be closely connected to physical maturation, the development of pre-frontal cortical related (meta-) cognitive functions, as well as the gathering of experience with exercise tasks. The motivation of an athlete can critically influence how an athlete paces a single race, but also how they distribute their effort over a longer period of time. Coaches are advised to closely monitor the development of pacing behavior during adolescence (e.g., by gathering split times, and related physiological measurement, during training and competition), as well as the underlying factors including physical maturation (meta-) cognitive development and the motivation of young athletes. Furthermore, pacing behavior development could be aided by providing training in which the task, individual, and environment are manipulated. Hereby, presenting athletes with the opportunity to gain experience in situations which closely resemble the perceptual-motor conditions of upcoming competitions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stein G. P. Menting
- Department of Sport, Exercise and Rehabilitation, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Northumbria University, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom
- Center for Human Movement Sciences, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
| | - David T. Hendry
- Department of Sport, Exercise and Rehabilitation, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Northumbria University, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom
| | - Lieke Schiphof-Godart
- Center for Human Movement Sciences, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
| | - Marije T. Elferink-Gemser
- Center for Human Movement Sciences, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
| | - Florentina J. Hettinga
- Department of Sport, Exercise and Rehabilitation, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Northumbria University, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom
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