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Burns GT, Joubert DP. Running Shoes of the Postmodern Footwear Era: A Narrative Overview of Advanced Footwear Technology. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2024:1-12. [PMID: 39117307 DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2023-0446] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2023] [Revised: 05/16/2024] [Accepted: 05/21/2024] [Indexed: 08/10/2024]
Abstract
The modern era of running shoes began in the 1960s with the introduction of simple polymer midsole foams, and it ended in the late 2010s with the introduction of advanced footwear technology (AFT). AFT is characterized by highly compliant, resilient, and lightweight foams with embedded, rigid, longitudinal architecture. This footwear complex improves a runner's efficiency, and it introduced a step change in running performance. Purpose: This review serves to examine the current state of knowledge around AFT-what it is and what we know about its ingredients, what benefits it confers to runners, and what may or may not mediate that benefit. We also discuss the emerging science around AFT being introduced to track-racing spikes and how it is currently regulated in sporting contexts. Conclusions: AFT has changed running as a sport. The construction of AFT is grossly understood, but the nature of the interacting elements is not. The magnitude of the enhancement of a runner's economy and performance has been characterized and modeled, but the nuanced factors that mediate those responses have not. With these knowns and unknowns, we conclude the review by providing a collection of best practices for footwear researchers, advice for runners interested in AFT, and a list of pertinent items for further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Geoffrey T Burns
- United States Olympic and Paralympic Committee, Colorado Springs, CO, USA
- School of Kinesiology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Dustin P Joubert
- Department of Kinesiology, St. Edward's University, Austin, TX, USA
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Koegel J, Huerta S, Gambietz M, Ullrich M, Heyde C, Dorschky E, Eskofier B. Clustering Runners' Response to Different Midsole Stack Heights: A Field Study. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2024; 24:4694. [PMID: 39066091 PMCID: PMC11280980 DOI: 10.3390/s24144694] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2024] [Revised: 07/08/2024] [Accepted: 07/15/2024] [Indexed: 07/28/2024]
Abstract
Advanced footwear technology featuring stack heights higher than 30 mm has been proven to improve running economy in elite and recreational runners. While it is understood that the physiological benefit is highly individual, the individual biomechanical response to different stack heights remains unclear. Thirty-one runners performed running trials with three different shoe conditions of 25 mm, 35 mm, and 45 mm stack height on an outdoor running course wearing a STRYD sensor. The STRYD running variables for each participant were normalized to the 25 mm shoe condition and used to cluster participants into three distinct groups. Each cluster showed unique running patterns, with leg spring stiffness and vertical oscillation contributing most to the variance. No significant differences were found between clusters in terms of body height, body weight, leg length, and running speed. This study indicates that runners change running patterns individually when running with footwear featuring different stack heights. Clustering these patterns can help understand subgroups of runners and potentially support running shoe recommendations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jannik Koegel
- Machine Learning and Data Analytics Lab, Department Artificial Intelligence in Biomedical Engineering, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg (FAU), 91052 Erlangen, Germany; (S.H.); (E.D.)
- adidas AG, 91074 Herzogenaurach, Germany; (M.U.); (C.H.)
| | - Stacy Huerta
- Machine Learning and Data Analytics Lab, Department Artificial Intelligence in Biomedical Engineering, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg (FAU), 91052 Erlangen, Germany; (S.H.); (E.D.)
| | - Markus Gambietz
- Autonomous Systems and Mechatronics, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg (FAU), 91052 Erlangen, Germany;
| | - Martin Ullrich
- adidas AG, 91074 Herzogenaurach, Germany; (M.U.); (C.H.)
| | | | - Eva Dorschky
- Machine Learning and Data Analytics Lab, Department Artificial Intelligence in Biomedical Engineering, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg (FAU), 91052 Erlangen, Germany; (S.H.); (E.D.)
| | - Bjoern Eskofier
- Machine Learning and Data Analytics Lab, Department Artificial Intelligence in Biomedical Engineering, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg (FAU), 91052 Erlangen, Germany; (S.H.); (E.D.)
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Martinez E, Hoogkamer W, Powell DW, Paquette MR. The Influence of "Super-Shoes" and Foot Strike Pattern on Metabolic Cost and Joint Mechanics in Competitive Female Runners. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2024; 56:1337-1344. [PMID: 38376997 DOI: 10.1249/mss.0000000000003411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/22/2024]
Abstract
PURPOSE The objective of this study is to assess the influence of "super-shoes" on metabolic cost and joint mechanics in competitive female runners and to understand how foot strike pattern may influence the footwear effects. METHODS Eighteen competitive female runners ran four 5-min bouts on a force instrumented treadmill at 12.9 km·h -1 in 1) Nike Vaporfly Next% 2™ (SUPER) and 2) Nike Pegasus 38™ (CON) in a randomized and mirrored order. RESULTS Metabolic power was improved by 4.2% ( P < 0.001; d = 0.43) and metatarsophalangeal (MTP) negative work ( P < 0.001; d = 1.22), ankle negative work ( P = 0.001; d = 0.67), and ankle positive work ( P < 0.001; d = 0.97) were all smaller when running in SUPER compared with CON. There was no correlation between foot strike pattern and the between-shoe (CON to SUPER) percentage change for metabolic power ( r = 0.093, P = 0.715). CONCLUSIONS Metabolic power improved by 4.2% in "super-shoes" (but only by ~3.2% if controlling for shoe mass differences) in this cohort of competitive female runners, which is a smaller improvement than previously observed in men. The reduced mechanical demand at the MTP and ankle in "super-shoes" are consistent with previous literature and may explain or contribute to the metabolic improvements observed in "super-shoes"; however, foot strike pattern was not a moderating factor for the metabolic improvements of "super-shoes." Future studies should directly compare the metabolic response among different types of "super-shoes" between men and women.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Wouter Hoogkamer
- School of Public Health and Health Sciences, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA
| | | | - Max R Paquette
- College of Health Sciences, University of Memphis, Memphis, TN
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Joubert DP, Oehlert GM, Jones EJ, Burns GT. Comparative Effects of Advanced Footwear Technology in Track Spikes and Road-Racing Shoes on Running Economy. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2024; 19:705-711. [PMID: 38815961 DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2023-0372] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2023] [Revised: 03/30/2024] [Accepted: 04/02/2024] [Indexed: 06/01/2024]
Abstract
PURPOSE Determine the effects of advanced footwear technology (AFT) in track spikes and road-racing shoes on running economy (RE). METHODS Four racing shoes (3 AFT and 1 control) and 3 track spikes (2 AFT and 1 control) were tested in 9 male distance runners on 2 visits. Shoes were tested in a random sequence over 5-minute trials on visit 1 (7 trials at 16 km·h-1; 5-min rest between trials) and in the reverse/mirrored order on visit 2. Metabolic data were collected and averaged across visits. RESULTS There were significant differences across footwear conditions for oxygen consumption (F = 13.046; P < .001) and energy expenditure (F = 14.710; P < .001). Oxygen consumption (in milliliters per kilogram per minute) in both the first AFT spike (49.1 [1.7]; P < .001; dz = 2.1) and the other AFT spike (49.3 [1.7]; P < .001; dz = 1.7) was significantly lower than the control spike (50.2 [1.6]), which represented a 2.1% (1.0%) and 1.8% (1.0%) improvement in RE, respectively, for the AFT spikes. When comparing the subjects' most economic shoe by oxygen consumption (49.0 [1.5]) against their most economic spike (49.0 [1.8]), there were no statistical differences (P = .82). Similar statistical conclusions were made when comparing energy expenditure (in watts per kilogram). CONCLUSIONS AFT track spikes improved RE ∼2% relative to a traditional spike. Despite their heavier mass, AFT shoes resulted in similar RE as AFT spikes. This could make the AFT shoe an attractive option for longer track races, particularly in National Collegiate Athletic Association and high school athletics, where there are no stack-height rules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dustin P Joubert
- Department of Kinesiology, St. Edward's University, Austin, TX, USA
| | - Garrett M Oehlert
- Department of Kinesiology and Health Science, Stephen F. Austin State University, Nacogdoches, TX, USA
| | - Eric J Jones
- Department of Kinesiology and Health Science, Stephen F. Austin State University, Nacogdoches, TX, USA
| | - Geoffrey T Burns
- School of Kinesiology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
- United States Olympic and Paralympic Committee, Colorado Springs, CO, USA
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Song Y, Cen X, Sun D, Bálint K, Wang Y, Chen H, Gao S, Bíró I, Zhang M, Gu Y. Curved carbon-plated shoe may further reduce forefoot loads compared to flat plate during running. Sci Rep 2024; 14:13215. [PMID: 38851842 PMCID: PMC11162459 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-64177-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2024] [Accepted: 06/05/2024] [Indexed: 06/10/2024] Open
Abstract
Using a curved carbon-fiber plate (CFP) in running shoes may offer notable performance benefit over flat plates, yet there is a lack of research exploring the influence of CFP geometry on internal foot loading during running. The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of CFP mechanical characteristics on forefoot biomechanics in terms of plantar pressure, bone stress distribution, and contact force transmission during a simulated impact peak moment in forefoot strike running. We employed a finite element model of the foot-shoe system, wherein various CFP configurations, including three stiffnesses (stiff, stiffer, and stiffest) and two shapes (flat plate (FCFP) and curved plate (CCFP)), were integrated into the shoe sole. Comparing the shoes with no CFP (NCFP) to those with CFP, we consistently observed a reduction in peak forefoot plantar pressure with increasing CFP stiffness. This decrease in pressure was even more notable in a CCFP demonstrating a further reduction in peak pressure ranging from 5.51 to 12.62%, compared to FCFP models. Both FCFP and CCFP designs had a negligible impact on reducing the maximum stress experienced by the 2nd and 3rd metatarsals. However, they greatly influenced the stress distribution in other metatarsal bones. These CFP designs seem to optimize the load transfer pathway, enabling a more uniform force transmission by mainly reducing contact force on the medial columns (the first three rays, measuring 0.333 times body weight for FCFP and 0.335 for CCFP in stiffest condition, compared to 0.373 in NCFP). We concluded that employing a curved CFP in running shoes could be more beneficial from an injury prevention perspective by inducing less peak pressure under the metatarsal heads while not worsening their stress state compared to flat plates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Song
- Research Academy of Medicine Combining Sports, Ningbo No.2 Hospital, Ningbo, China
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, China
| | - Xuanzhen Cen
- Doctoral School on Safety and Security Sciences, Óbuda University, Budapest, Hungary
- Faculty of Engineering, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
| | - Dong Sun
- Research Academy of Medicine Combining Sports, Ningbo No.2 Hospital, Ningbo, China
- Faculty of Sports Science, Ningbo University, Ningbo, China
| | - Kovács Bálint
- Research Academy of Medicine Combining Sports, Ningbo No.2 Hospital, Ningbo, China
- Faculty of Sports Science, Ningbo University, Ningbo, China
- Department of Kinesiology, Hungarian University of Sports Science, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Yan Wang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, China
| | - Hairong Chen
- Doctoral School on Safety and Security Sciences, Óbuda University, Budapest, Hungary
- Faculty of Engineering, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
| | - Shunxiang Gao
- Faculty of Sports Science, Ningbo University, Ningbo, China
| | - István Bíró
- Doctoral School on Safety and Security Sciences, Óbuda University, Budapest, Hungary
- Faculty of Engineering, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
| | - Ming Zhang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, China
| | - Yaodong Gu
- Research Academy of Medicine Combining Sports, Ningbo No.2 Hospital, Ningbo, China.
- Doctoral School on Safety and Security Sciences, Óbuda University, Budapest, Hungary.
- Faculty of Sports Science, Ningbo University, Ningbo, China.
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Rodrigo-Carranza V, Hoogkamer W, González-Ravé JM, González-Mohíno F. Relationship Between Advanced Footwear Technology Longitudinal Bending Stiffness and Energy Cost of Running. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2024; 34:e14687. [PMID: 38923087 DOI: 10.1111/sms.14687] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2024] [Revised: 04/13/2024] [Accepted: 06/12/2024] [Indexed: 06/28/2024]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE Shoe longitudinal bending stiffness (LBS) is often considered to influence running economy (RE) and thus, running performance. However, previous results are mixed and LBS levels have not been studied in advanced footwear technology (AFT). The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of increased LBS from curved carbon fiber plates embedded within an AFT midsole compared to a traditional running shoe on RE and spatiotemporal parameters. METHODS Twenty-one male trained runners completed three times 4 min at 13 km/h with two experimental shoe models with a curved carbon fiber plate embedded in an AFT midsole with different LBS values (Stiff: 35.5 N/mm and Stiffest: 43.1 N/mm), and a Control condition (no carbon fiber plate: 20.1 N/mm). We measured energy cost of running (W/kg) and spatiotemporal parameters in one visit. RESULTS RE improved for the Stiff shoe condition (15.71 ± 0.95 W/kg; p < 0.001; n2 = 0.374) compared to the Control condition (16.13 ± 1.08 W/kg; 2.56%) and Stiffest condition (16.03 ± 1.19 W/kg; 1.98%). However, we found no significant differences between the Stiffest and Control conditions. Moreover, there were no spatiotemporal differences between shoe conditions. CONCLUSION Changes in LBS in AFT influences RE suggesting that moderately stiff shoes have the most effective LBS to improve RE in AFT compared to very stiff shoes and traditional, flexible shoe conditions while running at 13 km/h.
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Affiliation(s)
- Víctor Rodrigo-Carranza
- Sports Performance Research Group (GIRD), University of Castilla-La Mancha, Toledo, Spain
- Integrative Locomotion Laboratory, Department of Kinesiology, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Wouter Hoogkamer
- Integrative Locomotion Laboratory, Department of Kinesiology, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts, USA
| | | | - Fernando González-Mohíno
- Sports Performance Research Group (GIRD), University of Castilla-La Mancha, Toledo, Spain
- Facultad de Ciencias de la Vida y de la Naturaleza, Universidad Nebrija, Madrid, Spain
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Barrons ZB, Rodrigo-Carranza V, Bertschy M, Hoogkamer W. The Fallacy of Single Trials: The Need for Multiple Trials in Assessing Running Economy Responses in Advanced Footwear Technology. Sports Med 2024; 54:1357-1360. [PMID: 38407747 DOI: 10.1007/s40279-023-01991-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/21/2023] [Indexed: 02/27/2024]
Abstract
In the quest to uncover the underlying mechanisms responsible for the performance-enhancing benefits imparted by advanced footwear technology (AFT), footwear researchers are employing an individual-level approach. In doing so, they hope to unveil individual-specific responses to AFT otherwise masked by a group-level approach. Classifying an individual's response on the basis of running economy (RE) is a logical strategy given that the intended purpose of AFT is to enhance performance; however, caution should be taken when doing so. Metabolic measurement devices are far from perfect, and given the known errors associated with metabolic measurements we would like to reiterate a suggestion first made 40 years ago: when seeking to quantify the interindividual variability of improvement in RE associated with running in AFT, the best practice is to rely on a minimum of two same-day measurements of RE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zach B Barrons
- Integrative Locomotion Laboratory, Department of Kinesiology, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA, USA.
| | - Victor Rodrigo-Carranza
- Integrative Locomotion Laboratory, Department of Kinesiology, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA, USA
- Sports Performance Research Group (GIRD), University of Castilla-La Mancha, Toledo, Spain
| | - Montgomery Bertschy
- Integrative Locomotion Laboratory, Department of Kinesiology, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA, USA
| | - Wouter Hoogkamer
- Integrative Locomotion Laboratory, Department of Kinesiology, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA, USA
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Hata K, Hamamura Y, Noro H, Yamazaki Y, Nagato S, Kanosue K, Yanagiya T. Plantar Flexor Muscle Activity and Fascicle Behavior in Gastrocnemius Medialis During Running in Highly Cushioned Shoes With Carbon-Fiber Plates. J Appl Biomech 2024; 40:192-200. [PMID: 38458184 DOI: 10.1123/jab.2023-0170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2023] [Revised: 12/18/2023] [Accepted: 01/09/2024] [Indexed: 03/10/2024]
Abstract
The purposes of this study were to clarify the electromyography (EMG) of plantar flexors and to analyze the fascicle and tendon behaviors of the gastrocnemius medialis (GM) during running in the carbon-fiber plate embedded in thicker midsole racing shoes, such as the Nike ZoomX Vaporfly (VF) and traditional racing shoes (TRAD). We compared the fascicle and series elastic element behavior of the GM and EMG of the lower limb muscles during running (14 km/h, 45 s) in athletes wearing VF or TRAD. GM EMGs in the push-off phase were approximately 50% lower in athletes wearing VF than in TRAD. Although the series elastic element behavior and/or mean fascicle-shortening velocity during the entire stance phase were not significantly different between VF and TRAD, a significant difference was found in both the mean EMG and integral EMG of the GM during the push-off phase. EMG of the gastrocnemius lateralis (GL) during the first half of the push-off phase was significantly different between VF and TRAD. Present results suggest that VF facilitates running propulsion, resulting in a decrease in GM and GL EMGs at a given running velocity during the push-off phase, leading to a reduction in metabolic cost.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keiichiro Hata
- Faculty of Health and Sports Science, Juntendo University, Chiba, Japan
| | - Yuta Hamamura
- Graduate School of Health and Sports Science, Juntendo University, Chiba, Japan
| | - Hiroaki Noro
- Faculty of Health and Sports Science, Juntendo University, Chiba, Japan
- Graduate School of Health and Sports Science, Juntendo University, Chiba, Japan
| | - Yohei Yamazaki
- Graduate School of Health and Sports Science, Juntendo University, Chiba, Japan
- Institute of Health and Sports Science & Medicine, Juntendo University, Chiba, Japan
| | - Shunsuke Nagato
- Faculty of Health and Sports Science, Juntendo University, Chiba, Japan
| | - Kazuyuki Kanosue
- Institute of Health and Sports Science & Medicine, Juntendo University, Chiba, Japan
| | - Toshio Yanagiya
- Faculty of Health and Sports Science, Juntendo University, Chiba, Japan
- Institute of Health and Sports Science & Medicine, Juntendo University, Chiba, Japan
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Lee J, Wang Z, Chen M, Liu S, Yu Q, Hu M, Kong Z, Nie J. Allometric exponents for scaling running economy in human samples: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Heliyon 2024; 10:e31211. [PMID: 38818143 PMCID: PMC11137408 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e31211] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2023] [Revised: 05/12/2024] [Accepted: 05/13/2024] [Indexed: 06/01/2024] Open
Abstract
Ratio-scaled VO2 is the widely used method for quantifying running economy (RE). However, this method should be criticized due to its theoretical defect and curvilinear relationship indicated by the allometric scaling, although no consensus has been achieved on the generally accepted exponent b value of body weight. Therefore, this study aimed to provide a quantitative synthesis of the reported exponents used to scale VO2 to body weight. Six electronic databases were searched based on related terms. Inclusion criteria involved human cardiopulmonary testing data, derived exponents, and reported precision statistics. The random-effects model was applied to statistically analyze exponent b. Subgroup and meta-regression analyses were conducted to explore the potential factors contributing to variation in b values. The probability of the true exponent being below 1 in future studies was calculated. The estimated b values were all below 1 and aligned with the 3/4 power law, except for the 95 % prediction interval of the estimated fat-free body weight exponent b. A publication bias and a slightly greater I2 and τ statistic were also observed in the fat-free body weight study cohort. The estimated probabilities of the true body weight exponent, full body weight exponent, and fat-free body weight exponent being lower than 1 were 93.8 % (likely), 95.1 % (very likely), and 94.5 % (likely) respectively. 'Sex difference', 'age category', 'sporting background', and 'testing modality' were four potential but critical variables that impacted exponent b. Overall, allometric-scaled RE should be measured by full body weight with exponent b raised to 3/4.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jay Lee
- University of Macau, Macao, China
| | - Zhiwen Wang
- College of Public Courses, Guangdong University of Science and Technology, Dongguan, China
| | - Mingjian Chen
- School of Humanities and Education, Foshan University, Foshan, China
| | - Siqi Liu
- The Human Ergonomics Laboratory of 361 Degree (China) Co., Ltd, China
| | - Qian Yu
- University of Macau, Macao, China
| | | | | | - Jinlei Nie
- Macao Polytechnic University, Macao, China
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10
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Werkhausen A, Lund-Hansen M, Wiedenbruch L, Peikenkamp K, Rice H. Technologically advanced running shoes reduce oxygen cost and cumulative tibial loading per kilometer in recreational female and male runners. Sci Rep 2024; 14:11903. [PMID: 38789519 PMCID: PMC11126714 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-62263-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2023] [Accepted: 05/15/2024] [Indexed: 05/26/2024] Open
Abstract
Technologically advanced running shoes (TARS) improve performance compared to classical running shoes (CRS). Improved race performance has been attributed to metabolic savings in male runners, but it remains unclear if these same benefits are experienced among females and in recreational runners. The mechanisms behind these benefits are still not fully understood despite the need for optimisation, and their influence on injury mechanisms has not been explored. Here we combined biomechanical, physiological, and modelling approaches to analyse joint mechanics, oxygen uptake, and tibial load in nineteen male and female recreational runners running with CRS and TARS at their individual lactate threshold speed (12.4 ± 1.9 km/h). Oxygen uptake was 3.0 ± 1.5% lower in TARS than in CRS. Ankle dorsiflexion, joint moment and joint power were reduced in TARS compared to CRS at various phases of stance including midstance, while knee joint mechanics were mostly similar throughout. There were no significant differences for tibial bending moment during the stance phase but cumulative tibial damage per kilometre was 12 ± 9% lower in TARS compared to CRS. Our results suggest that running with TARS reduces oxygen cost in recreational female and male runners, which may partly be explained by differences in lower limb joint mechanics. The lower cumulative tibial bone load with TARS may allow runners to run longer distances in this type of shoe compared to CRS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amelie Werkhausen
- Department of Physical Performance, Norwegian School of Sport Sciences, Sognsveien, 220, 0863, Oslo, Norway.
- Section for Pharmacy, Intelligent Health Initiative, Department of Life Sciences and Health, Oslo Metropolitan University, Oslo, Norway.
| | - Magne Lund-Hansen
- Department of Physical Performance, Norwegian School of Sport Sciences, Sognsveien, 220, 0863, Oslo, Norway
| | - Lucas Wiedenbruch
- Department of Physical Performance, Norwegian School of Sport Sciences, Sognsveien, 220, 0863, Oslo, Norway
- Department of Engineering Physics, FH Münster University of Applied Sciences, Münster, Germany
| | - Klaus Peikenkamp
- Department of Engineering Physics, FH Münster University of Applied Sciences, Münster, Germany
| | - Hannah Rice
- Department of Physical Performance, Norwegian School of Sport Sciences, Sognsveien, 220, 0863, Oslo, Norway
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11
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Engel FA, Zehnter F, Yona T, Mai P, Willwacher S, Düking P, Sperlich B. Acute physiological, biomechanical, and perceptual responses of runners wearing downward-curved carbon fiber insoles. Front Sports Act Living 2024; 6:1340154. [PMID: 38645727 PMCID: PMC11026664 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2024.1340154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2023] [Accepted: 03/18/2024] [Indexed: 04/23/2024] Open
Abstract
In a randomized controlled cross-over study ten male runners (26.7 ± 4.9 years; recent 5-km time: 18:37 ± 1:07 min:s) performed an incremental treadmill test (ITT) and a 3-km time trial (3-km TT) on a treadmill while wearing either carbon fiber insoles with downwards curvature or insoles made of butyl rubber (control condition) in light road racing shoes (Saucony Fastwitch 9). Oxygen uptake, respiratory exchange ratio, heart rate, blood lactate concentration, stride frequency, stride length and time to exhaustion were assessed during ITT. After ITT, all runners rated their perceived exertion, perceived shoe comfort and perceived shoe performance. Running time, heart rate, blood lactate levels, stride frequency and stride length were recorded during, and shoe comfort and shoe performance after, the 3-km TT. All parameters obtained during or after the ITT did not differ between the two conditions [range: p = 0.188 to 0.948 (alpha value: 0.05); Cohen's d = 0.021 to 0.479] despite the rating of shoe comfort showing better scores for the control insoles (p = 0.001; d = -1.646). All parameters during and after the 3-km TT showed no differences (p = 0.200 to 1.000; d = 0.000 to 0.501) between both conditions except for shoe comfort showing better scores for control insoles (p = 0.017; d = -0.919). Running with carbon fiber insoles with downwards curvature did not change running performance or any submaximal or maximal physiological or biomechanical parameter and perceived exertion compared to control condition. Shoe comfort is impaired while running with carbon fiber insoles. Wearing carbon fiber insoles with downwards curvature during treadmill running is not beneficial when compared to running with control insoles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Florian A. Engel
- Integrative and Experimental Exercise Science and Training, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Frank Zehnter
- Integrative and Experimental Exercise Science and Training, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Tomer Yona
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Technion Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel
| | - Patrick Mai
- Department of Mechanical and Process Engineering, Offenburg University of Applied Sciences, Offenburg, Germany
| | - Steffen Willwacher
- Department of Mechanical and Process Engineering, Offenburg University of Applied Sciences, Offenburg, Germany
| | - Peter Düking
- Department of Sports Science and Movement Pedagogy, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Billy Sperlich
- Integrative and Experimental Exercise Science and Training, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
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Rodrigo-Carranza V, Hoogkamer W, González-Ravé JM, Horta-Muñoz S, Serna-Moreno MDC, Romero-Gutierrez A, González-Mohíno F. Influence of different midsole foam in advanced footwear technology use on running economy and biomechanics in trained runners. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2024; 34:e14526. [PMID: 37858294 DOI: 10.1111/sms.14526] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2023] [Revised: 09/27/2023] [Accepted: 10/08/2023] [Indexed: 10/21/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Ethylene and vinyl acetate (EVA) and polyether block amide (PEBA) are recently the most widely used materials for advanced footwear technology (AFT) that has been shown to improve running economy (RE). This study investigated the effects of these midsole materials on RE and biomechanics, in both fresh and worn state (after 450 km). METHODS Twenty-two male trained runners participated in this study. Subjects ran four 4-min trials at 13 km‧h-1 with both fresh EVA and PEBA AFT and with the same models with 450 km of wear using a randomized crossover experimental design. We measured energy cost of running (W/kg), spatiotemporal, and neuromuscular parameters. RESULTS There were significant differences in RE between conditions (p = 0.01; n2 = 0.17). There was a significant increase in energy cost in the worn PEBA condition compared with new (15.21 ± 1.01 and 14.87 ± 0.99 W/kg; p < 0.05; ES = 0.54), without differences between worn EVA (15.13 ± 1.14 W/kg; p > 0.05), and new EVA (15.15 ± 1.13 w/kg; ES = 0.02). The increase in energy cost between new and worn was significantly higher for the PEBA shoes (0.32 ± 0.38 W/kg) but without significant increase for the EVA shoes (0.06 ± 0.58 W/kg) (p < 0.01; ES = 0.51) with changes in step frequency and step length. The new PEBA shoes had lower energy cost than the new EVA shoes (p < 0.05; ES = 0.27) with significant differences between conditions in contact time. CONCLUSION There is a clear RE advantage of incorporating PEBA versus EVA in an AFT when the models are new. However, after 450 km of use, the PEBA and EVA shoes had similar RE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Víctor Rodrigo-Carranza
- Sports Performance Research Group (GIRD), University of Castilla-La Mancha, Toledo, Spain
- Department of Kinesiology, Integrative Locomotion Laboratory, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Wouter Hoogkamer
- Department of Kinesiology, Integrative Locomotion Laboratory, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts, USA
| | | | - Sergio Horta-Muñoz
- Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Escuela Técnica Superior Ingenieros Industriales de Ciudad Real, Instituto de Investigaciones Energéticas y Aplicaciones Industriales, Ciudad Real, Spain
| | - María Del Carmen Serna-Moreno
- Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Escuela Técnica Superior Ingenieros Industriales de Ciudad Real, Instituto de Investigaciones Energéticas y Aplicaciones Industriales, Ciudad Real, Spain
| | - Ana Romero-Gutierrez
- Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Escuela Técnica Superior Ingenieros Industriales de Ciudad Real, Instituto de Investigaciones Energéticas y Aplicaciones Industriales, Ciudad Real, Spain
| | - Fernando González-Mohíno
- Sports Performance Research Group (GIRD), University of Castilla-La Mancha, Toledo, Spain
- Facultad de Ciencias de la Vida y de la Naturaleza, Universidad Nebrija, Madrid, Spain
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13
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Mosqueira-Ouréns M, Muñoz-Pérez I, Luis Tuimil J, Saleta-Cobos M, Varela-Sanz A. Well-trained Endurance Runners' Foot Contact Patterns: Barefoot vs. Shod Condition. Int J Sports Med 2023; 44:1067-1074. [PMID: 37739011 DOI: 10.1055/a-2156-2553] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/24/2023]
Abstract
We aimed to investigate the initial foot contact and contact time in experienced endurance runners at individualized speeds, in running shoes and barefoot. Forty-eight participants (33.71±7.49 y, 70.94±8.65 kg, 175.07±7.03 cm, maximum aerobic speed 18.41±1.54 km.h-1) were distributed into three groups according to athletic performance: highly-trained runners, middle-trained runners, and control group. An incremental running test until exhaustion was performed for assessing maximum aerobic speed. After≥24 h of recovery participants randomly walked and ran, barefoot and in running shoes, over a pressure plate at ~4.7 km.h-1 and 85% of the maximum aerobic speed, respectively. They wore the same model of running shoes with homogeneous lacing pattern. A rearfoot strike was performed by 68.8% and 77.1% of participants when running barefoot and in running shoes, respectively. Considering the tendency to develop a rearfoot strike was lower in the barefoot condition, runners with higher performance may benefit from training in minimalist running shoes because their foot contact pattern could tend towards a non-rearfoot strike. Our results suggest that initial foot contact and contact time are related to running performance and may also be influenced by running shoes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manuel Mosqueira-Ouréns
- Faculty of Physiotherapy, Podiatry and Occupational Therapy, San Antonio Catholic University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain
| | - Iker Muñoz-Pérez
- Faculty of Education and Sport Sciences, University of Deusto, Bilbao, Spain
| | - José Luis Tuimil
- Performance and Health Group, Physical and Sports Education Department, Faculty of Sports Sciences and Physical Education, University of A Coruna, A Coruna, Spain
| | | | - Adrian Varela-Sanz
- Performance and Health Group, Physical and Sports Education Department, Faculty of Sports Sciences and Physical Education, University of A Coruna, A Coruna, Spain
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14
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Rodrigo-Carranza V, Hoogkamer W, Salinero JJ, Rodríguez-Barbero S, González-Ravé JM, González-Mohíno F. Influence of Running Shoe Longitudinal Bending Stiffness on Running Economy and Performance in Trained and National Level Runners. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2023; 55:2290-2298. [PMID: 37443458 DOI: 10.1249/mss.0000000000003254] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/15/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE Previous results about shoe longitudinal bending stiffness (LBS) and running economy (RE) show high variability. This study aimed to assess the effects of shoes with increased LBS on RE and performance in trained and national runners. METHODS Twenty-eight male runners were divided into two groups according to their 10-km performance times (trained, 38-45 min and national runners, <34 min). Subjects ran 2 × 3 min (at 9 and 13 km·h -1 for trained, and 13 and 17 km·h -1 for national runners) with an experimental shoe with carbon fiber plate to increase the LBS (Increased LBS) and a control shoe (without carbon fiber plate). We measured energy cost of running (W·kg -1 ) and spatiotemporal parameters in visit one and participants performed a 3000 m time trial (TT) in two successive visits. RESULTS Increased LBS improved RE in the trained group at slow (11.41 ± 0.93 W·kg -1 vs 11.86 ± 0.93 W·kg -1 ) and fast velocity (15.89 ± 1.24 W·kg -1 vs 16.39 ± 1.24 W·kg -1 ) and only at the fast velocity in the national group (20.35 ± 1.45 W·kg -1 vs 20.78 ± 1.18 W·kg -1 ). The improvements in RE were accompanied by different changes in biomechanical variables between groups. There were a similar improvement in the 3000 m TT test in Increased LBS for trained (639 ± 59 vs 644 ± 61 s in control shoes) and national runners (569 ± 21 vs 574 ± 21 s in control shoes) with more constant pace in increased LBS compared with control shoes in both groups. CONCLUSIONS Increasing shoe LBS improved RE at slow and fast velocities in trained runners and only at fast velocity in national runners. However, the 3000 m TT test improved similarly in both levels of runners with increased LBS. The improvements in RE are accompanied by small modifications in running kinematics that could explain the difference between the different levels of runners.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Wouter Hoogkamer
- Integrative Locomotion Laboratory, Department of Kinesiology, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA
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15
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Mai P, Robertz L, Robbin J, Bill K, Weir G, Kurz M, Trudeau MB, Hollander K, Hamill J, Willwacher S. Towards functionally individualised designed footwear recommendation for overuse injury prevention: a scoping review. BMC Sports Sci Med Rehabil 2023; 15:152. [PMID: 37951935 PMCID: PMC10638717 DOI: 10.1186/s13102-023-00760-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2022] [Accepted: 10/25/2023] [Indexed: 11/14/2023]
Abstract
Injury prevention is essential in running due to the risk of overuse injury development. Tailoring running shoes to individual needs may be a promising strategy to reduce this risk. Novel manufacturing processes allow the production of individualised running shoes that incorporate features that meet individual biomechanical and experiential needs. However, specific ways to individualise footwear to reduce injury risk are poorly understood. Therefore, this scoping review provides an overview of (1) footwear design features that have the potential for individualisation; and (2) the literature on the differential responses to footwear design features between selected groups of individuals. These purposes focus exclusively on reducing the risk of overuse injuries. We included studies in the English language on adults that analysed: (1) potential interaction effects between footwear design features and subgroups of runners or covariates (e.g., age, sex) for running-related biomechanical risk factors or injury incidences; (2) footwear comfort perception for a systematically modified footwear design feature. Most of the included articles (n = 107) analysed male runners. Female runners may be more susceptible to footwear-induced changes and overuse injury development; future research should target more heterogonous sampling. Several footwear design features (e.g., midsole characteristics, upper, outsole profile) show potential for individualisation. However, the literature addressing individualised footwear solutions and the potential to reduce biomechanical risk factors is limited. Future studies should leverage more extensive data collections considering relevant covariates and subgroups while systematically modifying isolated footwear design features to inform footwear individualisation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick Mai
- Institute of Biomechanics and Orthopaedics, German Sport University Cologne, Am Sportpark Müngersdorf 6, 50933, Cologne, Germany.
- Institute for Advanced Biomechanics and Motion Studies, Offenburg University, Offenburg, Germany.
- Department of Physical Performance, Norwegian School of Sports Sciences, Oslo, Norway.
| | - Leon Robertz
- Institute of Biomechanics and Orthopaedics, German Sport University Cologne, Am Sportpark Müngersdorf 6, 50933, Cologne, Germany
| | - Johanna Robbin
- Institute for Advanced Biomechanics and Motion Studies, Offenburg University, Offenburg, Germany
| | - Kevin Bill
- Institute of Biomechanics and Orthopaedics, German Sport University Cologne, Am Sportpark Müngersdorf 6, 50933, Cologne, Germany
| | - Gillian Weir
- Biomechanics Laboratory, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA, USA
| | - Markus Kurz
- Sports Tech Research Centre, Mid Sweden University, Östersund, Sweden
| | | | - Karsten Hollander
- Institute of Interdisciplinary Exercise Science and Sports Medicine, MSH Medical School Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Joseph Hamill
- Biomechanics Laboratory, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA, USA
| | - Steffen Willwacher
- Institute of Biomechanics and Orthopaedics, German Sport University Cologne, Am Sportpark Müngersdorf 6, 50933, Cologne, Germany
- Institute for Advanced Biomechanics and Motion Studies, Offenburg University, Offenburg, Germany
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16
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Lang C, Schleichardt A, Warschun F, Walter N, Fleckenstein D, Berkel F, Ueberschär O. Relationship between Longitudinal Upper Body Rotation and Energy Cost of Running in Junior Elite Long-Distance Runners. Sports (Basel) 2023; 11:204. [PMID: 37888531 PMCID: PMC10611096 DOI: 10.3390/sports11100204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2023] [Revised: 09/29/2023] [Accepted: 10/06/2023] [Indexed: 10/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Running is a basic form of human locomotion and one of the most popular sports worldwide. While the leg biomechanics of running have been studied extensively, few studies have focused on upper-body movement. However, an effective arm swing and longitudinal rotation of the shoulders play an important role in running efficiency as they must compensate for the longitudinal torques generated by the legs. The aim of this study is to assess the upper-body rotation using wearable inertial sensors and to elucidate its relation to energy expenditure. Eighty-six junior elite middle- and long-distance runners (37 female, 49 male) performed an incremental treadmill test with sensors attached on both shoulders, tibiae and the sacrum. The mean and total horizontal shoulder and pelvis rotations per stride were derived while energy costs were determined using respiratory gas analysis and blood sampling. Results show that shoulder and pelvis rotations increase with running speed. While shoulder rotation is more pronounced in female than in male runners, there is no sex difference for pelvis rotation. The energy cost of running and upper trunk rotation prove to be slightly negatively correlated. In conclusion, upper body rotation appears to be an individual characteristic influenced by a sex-specific body mass distribution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charlotte Lang
- Institute for Biomechanics, ETH Zürich, 8092 Zurich, Switzerland;
| | - Axel Schleichardt
- Institute for Applied Training Science, 04229 Leipzig, Germany; (A.S.); (F.W.); (N.W.); (D.F.); (F.B.)
| | - Frank Warschun
- Institute for Applied Training Science, 04229 Leipzig, Germany; (A.S.); (F.W.); (N.W.); (D.F.); (F.B.)
| | - Nico Walter
- Institute for Applied Training Science, 04229 Leipzig, Germany; (A.S.); (F.W.); (N.W.); (D.F.); (F.B.)
| | - Daniel Fleckenstein
- Institute for Applied Training Science, 04229 Leipzig, Germany; (A.S.); (F.W.); (N.W.); (D.F.); (F.B.)
| | - Fides Berkel
- Institute for Applied Training Science, 04229 Leipzig, Germany; (A.S.); (F.W.); (N.W.); (D.F.); (F.B.)
| | - Olaf Ueberschär
- Institute for Applied Training Science, 04229 Leipzig, Germany; (A.S.); (F.W.); (N.W.); (D.F.); (F.B.)
- Department of Engineering and Industrial Design, Magdeburg Stendal University of Applied Sciences, 39114 Magdeburg, Germany
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17
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Xia Y, Shen S, Jia SW, Teng J, Gu Y, Fekete G, Korim T, Zhao H, Wei Q, Yang F. Gender differences in footwear characteristics between half and full marathons in China: a cross-sectional survey. Sci Rep 2023; 13:13020. [PMID: 37563273 PMCID: PMC10415251 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-39718-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2023] [Accepted: 07/29/2023] [Indexed: 08/12/2023] Open
Abstract
There are concerns about the risk of injuries caused by marathons in China. Since male and female runners have different injury risks, gender differences in running shoe functionality should be further complemented. A supervised questionnaire survey of 626 marathon runners was collected. The questionnaire was categorized into four sections: (1) participant profile, (2) importance of shoe properties, (3) functional evaluation of shoe properties and (4) importance ranking of shoe properties. The Mann-Whitney U test, Fisher's exact test of cross tabulation and Chi-square test, and two-way ANOVA were used to analyze the results of this survey. The significance level was set at P < 0.05. The full marathon participants were older than the half marathon participants. There was no gender difference in the importance of shoe features to elite runners. In addition, women are more concerned about upper elasticity and have higher requirements for running shoes than men. Women were more focused on injury prevention, while men were more focused on running performance. Heel cushioning was identified by all participants as the most important running shoe feature. There were no gender differences between elite players' demand for running shoes, but significant gender differences were found between genders at other running levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuyu Xia
- School of Social Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
| | - Siqin Shen
- Faculty of Sports Science, Ningbo University, Ningbo, China
- Faculty of Engineering, University of Pannonia, Veszprém, Hungary
- Savaria Institute of Technology, Eötvös Loránd University, Szombathely, Hungary
| | - Sheng-Wei Jia
- School of Social Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China.
- Li Ning Sports Science Research Center, Li Ning (China) Sports Goods Company Limited, Beijing, China.
| | - Jin Teng
- Department of Sports Biomechanics, Beijing Sport University, Beijing, China
| | - Yaodong Gu
- Faculty of Sports Science, Ningbo University, Ningbo, China
| | - Gusztáv Fekete
- Savaria Institute of Technology, Eötvös Loránd University, Szombathely, Hungary
| | - Tamás Korim
- Department of Materials Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Pannonia, Veszprém, Hungary
| | - Haotian Zhao
- Department of Physical Education, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, 214122, China
| | - Qiang Wei
- Department of Physical Education, Tangshan Normal University, Tangshan, China
| | - Fan Yang
- Li Ning Sports Science Research Center, Li Ning (China) Sports Goods Company Limited, Beijing, China.
- Department of Physical Education and Research, China University of Mining and Technology-Beijing, Beijing, 100083, China.
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18
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Joyner MJ, Wiggins CC, Baker SE, Klassen SA, Senefeld JW. Exercise and Experiments of Nature. Compr Physiol 2023; 13:4879-4907. [PMID: 37358508 PMCID: PMC10853940 DOI: 10.1002/cphy.c220027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/27/2023]
Abstract
In this article, we highlight the contributions of passive experiments that address important exercise-related questions in integrative physiology and medicine. Passive experiments differ from active experiments in that passive experiments involve limited or no active intervention to generate observations and test hypotheses. Experiments of nature and natural experiments are two types of passive experiments. Experiments of nature include research participants with rare genetic or acquired conditions that facilitate exploration of specific physiological mechanisms. In this way, experiments of nature are parallel to classical "knockout" animal models among human research participants. Natural experiments are gleaned from data sets that allow population-based questions to be addressed. An advantage of both types of passive experiments is that more extreme and/or prolonged exposures to physiological and behavioral stimuli are possible in humans. In this article, we discuss a number of key passive experiments that have generated foundational medical knowledge or mechanistic physiological insights related to exercise. Both natural experiments and experiments of nature will be essential to generate and test hypotheses about the limits of human adaptability to stressors like exercise. © 2023 American Physiological Society. Compr Physiol 13:4879-4907, 2023.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael J Joyner
- Department of Anesthesiology & Perioperative Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota, USA
- Department of Physiology & Biomedical Engineering, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota, USA
| | - Chad C Wiggins
- Department of Anesthesiology & Perioperative Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota, USA
| | - Sarah E Baker
- Department of Anesthesiology & Perioperative Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota, USA
- Department of Physiology & Biomedical Engineering, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota, USA
| | - Stephen A Klassen
- Department of Kinesiology, Brock University, St. Catharines, Ontario, Canada
| | - Jonathon W Senefeld
- Department of Anesthesiology & Perioperative Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota, USA
- Department of Physiology & Biomedical Engineering, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota, USA
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19
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Knopp M, Muñiz-Pardos B, Wackerhage H, Schönfelder M, Guppy F, Pitsiladis Y, Ruiz D. Variability in Running Economy of Kenyan World-Class and European Amateur Male Runners with Advanced Footwear Running Technology: Experimental and Meta-analysis Results. Sports Med 2023; 53:1255-1271. [PMID: 36862339 DOI: 10.1007/s40279-023-01816-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/26/2023] [Indexed: 03/03/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Advanced footwear technology improves average running economy compared with racing flats in sub-elite athletes. However, not all athletes benefit as performance changes vary from a 10% drawback to a 14% improvement. The main beneficiaries from such technologies, world-class athletes, have only been analyzed using race times. OBJECTIVE The aim of this study was to measure running economy on a laboratory treadmill in advanced footwear technology compared to a traditional racing flat in world-class Kenyan (mean half-marathon time: 59:30 min:s) versus European amateur runners. METHODS Seven world-class Kenyan and seven amateur European male runners completed a maximal oxygen uptake assessment and submaximal steady-state running economy trials in three different models of advanced footwear technology and a racing flat. To confirm our results and better understand the overall effect of new technology in running shoes, we conducted a systematic search and meta-analysis. RESULTS Laboratory results revealed large variability in both world-class Kenyan road runners, which ranged from a 11.3% drawback to a 11.4% benefit, and amateur Europeans, which ranged from a 9.7% benefit to a 1.1% drawback in running economy of advanced footwear technology compared to a flat. The post-hoc meta-analysis revealed an overall significant medium benefit of advanced footwear technology on running economy compared with traditional flats. CONCLUSIONS Variability of advanced footwear technology performance appears in both world-class and amateur runners, suggesting further testing should examine such variability to ensure validity of results and explain the cause as a more personalized approach to shoe selection might be necessary for optimal benefit.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melanie Knopp
- adidas Innovation, adidas AG, Herzogenaurach, Germany. .,Department of Sport and Health Sciences, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany.
| | - Borja Muñiz-Pardos
- GENUD Research Group, Faculty of Health and Sport Sciences, University of Zaragoza, Saragossa, Spain
| | - Henning Wackerhage
- Department of Sport and Health Sciences, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Martin Schönfelder
- Department of Sport and Health Sciences, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Fergus Guppy
- Institute of Life and Earth Sciences, Heriot Watt University, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Yannis Pitsiladis
- School of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Brighton, Eastbourne, UK
| | - Daniel Ruiz
- adidas Innovation, adidas AG, Herzogenaurach, Germany
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20
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Ramsey C, Peterson B, Hébert-Losier K. Measurement and reporting of footwear characteristics in running biomechanics: A systematic search and narrative synthesis of contemporary research methods. Sports Biomech 2023; 22:351-387. [PMID: 36214324 DOI: 10.1080/14763141.2022.2125431] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
This review aimed to synthesise the methods for assessing and reporting footwear characteristics among studies evaluating the effect of footwear on running biomechanics. Electronic searches of Scopus®, EBSCO, PubMed®, ScienceDirect®, and Web of Science® were performed to identify original research articles of the effect of running footwear on running biomechanics published from 1st January 2015 to 7th October 2020. Risk of bias among included studies was not assessed. Results were presented via narrative synthesis. Eligible studies compared the effect of two or more footwear conditions in adult runners on a biomechanical parameter. Eighty-seven articles were included and data from 242 individual footwear were extracted. Predominantly, studies reported footwear taxonomy (i.e., classification) and manufacturer information, however omitted detail regarding the technical specifications of running footwear and did not use validated footwear reporting tools. There is inconsistency among contemporary studies in the methods by which footwear characteristics are assessed and reported. These findings point towards a need for consensus regarding the reporting of these characteristics within biomechanical studies to facilitate the conduct of systematic reviews and meta-analyses pertaining to the effect of running footwear on running biomechanics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Codi Ramsey
- Institute of Sport , Exercise and Health, Otago Polytechnic, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | - Benjamin Peterson
- Department of Podiatry, School of Health, Medical and Applied Sciences, CQUniversity, Rockhampton, QLD, Australia
| | - Kim Hébert-Losier
- Division of Health, Engineering, Computing and Science, Te Huataki Waiora School of Health, University of Waikato, Tauranga, New Zealand
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21
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Ruiz-Alias SA, Molina-Molina A, Soto-Hermoso VM, García-Pinillos F. A systematic review of the effect of running shoes on running economy, performance and biomechanics: analysis by brand and model. Sports Biomech 2023; 22:388-409. [PMID: 35748066 DOI: 10.1080/14763141.2022.2089589] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
This systematic review aims to synthesise the effects of current shoe models in each shoe category and their specific features on running economy, performance and biomechanics. Electronic databases such as Web of Science, SPORTDiscuss, PubMed and Scopus were used to identify studies from 2015 to date. Due to the existing lack of consensus to define running shoes, only studies that specified the shoe brand and models used to assess their effect over runners with a certain level of fitness and training routine were included. Quality assessment of cross-sectional and intervention studies was conducted by three independent raters using a modified version of the Quality Index and the PEDro scale, respectively. A total of 36 articles were finally included, involving the analysis of 61 different shoe models over 10 different topics (i.e., running economy, running performance, spatiotemporal parameters, ground reaction forces, joint stiffness, achilles tendon, plantar pressure, tibiofemoral load, foot strike pattern and joint coordination). With this review, runners and practitioners in the field that are concerned about selecting a suitable shoe for performance, training, or injury prevention functionality have clear information about the effects of the current shoe models and their specific features.
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Affiliation(s)
- Santiago A Ruiz-Alias
- Department of Physical Education and Sport, University of Granada, Granada, Spain.,Sport and Health University Research Center (iMUDS), Granada, Spain
| | - Alejandro Molina-Molina
- Department of Physical Education and Sport, University of Granada, Granada, Spain.,Sport and Health University Research Center (iMUDS), Granada, Spain.,Department of Physical Education, Sports and Recreation, Universidad de La Frontera, Temuco, Chile
| | - Víctor M Soto-Hermoso
- Department of Physical Education and Sport, University of Granada, Granada, Spain.,Sport and Health University Research Center (iMUDS), Granada, Spain
| | - Felipe García-Pinillos
- Department of Physical Education and Sport, University of Granada, Granada, Spain.,Sport and Health University Research Center (iMUDS), Granada, Spain.,Campus Universitario, Universidad San Jorge, Villanuevade Gállego Zaragoza, Spain
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22
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Hébert-Losier K, Pamment M. Advancements in running shoe technology and their effects on running economy and performance - a current concepts overview. Sports Biomech 2023; 22:335-350. [PMID: 35993160 DOI: 10.1080/14763141.2022.2110512] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/15/2022]
Abstract
Advancements in running shoe technology over the last 5 years have sparked controversy in athletics as linked with clear running economy and performance enhancements. Early debates mainly surrounded 'super shoes' in long-distance running, but more recently, the controversy has filtered through to sprint and middle-distance running with the emergence of 'super spikes'. This Current Concepts paper provides a brief overview on the controversial topic of super shoes and super spikes. The defining features of technologically advanced shoes are a stiff plate embedded within the midsole, curved plate and midsole geometry, and lightweight, resilient, high-energy returning foam that - in combination - enhance running performance. Since the launch of the first commercially available super shoe, all world records from the 5 km to the marathon have been broken by athletes wearing super shoes or super spikes, with a similar trend observed in middle-distance running. The improvements in super shoes are around 4% for running economy and 2% for performance, and speculatively around 1% to 1.5% for super spikes. These enhancements are believed multifactorial in nature and difficult to parse, although involve longitudinal bending stiffness, the 'teeter-totter effect', the high-energy return properties of the midsole material, enhanced stack height and lightweight characteristic of shoes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kim Hébert-Losier
- Division of Health, Engineering, Computing and Science, Te Huataki Waiora School of Health, Adams Centre for High Performance, University of Waikato, Tauranga, New Zealand
| | - Milly Pamment
- National Performance Institute, British Athletics, Loughborough University, Loughborough, UK.,School of Sport, Exercise and Health Sciences, Loughborough University, Loughborough, UK
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23
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Rodrigo-Carranza V, González-Mohíno F, Casado A, Santos-Concejero J, Galán-Rioja MÁ, González-Ravé JM. Impact of advanced footwear technology on critical speed and performance in elite runners. FOOTWEAR SCIENCE 2023. [DOI: 10.1080/19424280.2022.2164624] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/12/2023]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Fernando González-Mohíno
- Sport Training Lab. University of Castilla-La Mancha, Toledo, Spain
- Facultad de Ciencias de la Vida y de la Naturaleza, Universidad Nebrija, Madrid, Spain
| | - Arturo Casado
- Centre for Sport Studies, Rey Juan Carlos University, Madrid, Spain
| | - Jordan Santos-Concejero
- Department of Physical Education and Sport, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, Vitoria-Gasteiz, Spain
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24
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Effects of Highly Cushioned and Resilient Racing Shoes on Running Economy at Slower Running Speeds. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2023; 18:164-170. [PMID: 36626911 DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2022-0227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2022] [Revised: 10/05/2022] [Accepted: 10/10/2022] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE The Nike Vaporfly line of running shoes improves running economy by ∼2.7% to 4.2% at running speeds of 13 to 18 km·h-1. It is unclear whether similar benefits are conferred at slower speeds. Our purpose was to determine the effects of the Nike ZoomX Vaporfly Next% 2 (VFN2) on running economy at 10 and 12 km·h-1 compared with a mass-matched control (CTRL) shoe. METHODS Sixteen runners completed 4 × 5-minute trials at both 10 and 12 km·h-1 on the same day. Each shoe was tested twice at each speed in a counterbalanced, mirrored sequence. Data are displayed as mean (SD). RESULTS A 2-way repeated-measures analysis of variance showed a significant shoe × speed interaction for oxygen consumption (P = .021). At 12 km·h-1, oxygen consumption (in mL·kg-1·min-1) was lower (-1.4% [1.1%]; P < .001) for VFN2 (35.8 [1.7]) relative to CTRL (36.4 [1.7]). That was greater in magnitude than the differences observed at 10 km·h-1 (-0.9% [1.8%]; P = .065) between VFN2 (29.4 [1.9]) and CTRL (29.6 [1.9]). CONCLUSIONS From these data, it appears that the VFN2 still enhances running economy at 10 and 12 km·h-1; however, these benefits are smaller in magnitude compared with previous research at faster speeds.
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Ardigò LP, Buglione A, Russo L, Cular D, Esposito F, Doria C, Padulo J. Marathon shoes vs. track spikes: a crossover pilot study on metabolic demand at different speeds in experienced runners. Res Sports Med 2023; 31:13-20. [PMID: 33988477 DOI: 10.1080/15438627.2021.1929225] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to assess the metabolic cost (Cr) with marathon shoes (Adidas Adizero 3 [AA]) vs. track spikes (Nike Zoom Matumbo 3 [NZM]) on track. For this, five experienced runners were randomly assessed (NZM/AA) on a running track at 73% and 85% of best performance speed on 1500-m race. At first, speed (4.39 ± 0.53 m·s-1), Crs with AA and NZM resulted 3.63 ± 0.29 and 3.64 ± 0.43 J·kg-1·m-1 (+0.3% with NZM, effect size [ES] small and p = 0.951), respectively. Besides, at second speed (5.20 ± 0.18 m·s-1), Crs were 4.09 ± 0.28 and 4.07 ± 0.22 J·kg-1·m-1 (-0.5% with NZM, ES small and p = 0.919) with AA and NZM, respectively. It resulted in an increased Cr (+12.2%) between s1 and s2 with both shoe conditions (ES large and p = 0.009 and 0.011 with AA and NZM, respectively). There is a pattern yet to be confirmed for track spikes to become more beneficial at higher speeds (when duty factor becomes lower and therefore grip on track is crucial).
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Affiliation(s)
- Luca Paolo Ardigò
- School of Exercise and Sport Science, Department of Neurosciences, Biomedicine and Movement Sciences, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - Antonio Buglione
- Department of Human Sciences and Promotion of the Quality of Life, San Raffaele Roma Open University, Rome, Italy
| | - Luca Russo
- Department of Biotechnology and Applied Clinical Science, University of L'Aquila, L'Aquila, Italy
| | - Drazen Cular
- Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Split, Split, Croatia.,"Einstein" Craft for Research, Development, Education, Trade and Services, Split, Croatia
| | - Fabio Esposito
- Department of Biomedical Sciences for Health, Università Degli Studi Di Milano, Milan, Italy.,IRCSS Istituto Ortopedico Galeazzi, Milano, Italy
| | - Christian Doria
- Department of Biomedical Sciences for Health, Università Degli Studi Di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Johnny Padulo
- Department of Biomedical Sciences for Health, Università Degli Studi Di Milano, Milan, Italy
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26
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Chollet M, Michelet S, Horvais N, Pavailler S, Giandolini M. Individual physiological responses to changes in shoe bending stiffness: a cluster analysis study on 96 runners. Eur J Appl Physiol 2023; 123:169-177. [PMID: 36229743 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-022-05060-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2022] [Accepted: 09/29/2022] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Shoe longitudinal bending stiffness is known to influence running economy (RE). Recent studies showed divergent results ranging from 3% deterioration to 3% improvement in RE when bending stiffness increases. The variability of these results highlights inter-individual differences. Thus, our purpose was to study the runner-specific metabolic responses to changes in shoe bending stiffness. METHODS After assessing their maximal oxygen consumption ([Formula: see text] max) and aerobic speed (MAS) during a first visit, 96 heterogeneous runners performed two treadmill 5 min runs at 75% [Formula: see text] max with two different prototypes of shoes on a second day. Prototypes differed only by their forefoot bending stiffness (17 N/mm vs. 10.4 N/mm). RE and stride kinematics were recorded during each trial. A clustering analysis was computed by comparing the measured RE and the technical measurement error of our gas exchange analyzer to identify functional groups of runners, i.e., responding similarly to footwear interventions. ANOVAs were then computed on biomechanical and morphological variables to compare the functional groups. RESULTS Considering the whole sample (n = 96), there was no significant difference in RE between the two conditions. Cluster 1 (n = 29) improves RE in the stiffest condition (2.7 ± 2.1%). Cluster 2 (n = 26) impairs RE in the stiffest condition (2.7 ± 1.3%). Cluster 3 (n = 41) demonstrated no change in RE (0.28 ± 0.65%). Cluster 1 demonstrated 1.7 km·h-1 greater MAS compared to cluster 2 (p = 0.014). CONCLUSION The present study highlights that the effect of shoe bending stiffness on RE is runner-specific. High-level runners took advantage of increased bending stiffness, whereas medium-level runners did not. Finally, this study emphasizes the importance of individual response examination to understand the effect of footwear on runner's performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mickael Chollet
- Inter-university Laboratory of Human Movement Sciences, Univ. Savoie Mont Blanc, 73000, Chambery, France.
| | - Samuel Michelet
- Amer sports innovation and sport sciences lab, Salomon SAS, Annecy, France
| | - Nicolas Horvais
- Amer sports innovation and sport sciences lab, Salomon SAS, Annecy, France
| | | | - Marlene Giandolini
- Amer sports innovation and sport sciences lab, Salomon SAS, Annecy, France
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Haugen T, Sandbakk Ø, Seiler S, Tønnessen E. The Training Characteristics of World-Class Distance Runners: An Integration of Scientific Literature and Results-Proven Practice. SPORTS MEDICINE - OPEN 2022; 8:46. [PMID: 35362850 PMCID: PMC8975965 DOI: 10.1186/s40798-022-00438-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2021] [Accepted: 03/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
In this review we integrate the scientific literature and results-proven practice and outline a novel framework for understanding the training and development of elite long-distance performance. Herein, we describe how fundamental training characteristics and well-known training principles are applied. World-leading track runners (i.e., 5000 and 10,000 m) and marathon specialists participate in 9 ± 3 and 6 ± 2 (mean ± SD) annual competitions, respectively. The weekly running distance in the mid-preparation period is in the range 160–220 km for marathoners and 130–190 km for track runners. These differences are mainly explained by more running kilometers on each session for marathon runners. Both groups perform 11–14 sessions per week, and ≥ 80% of the total running volume is performed at low intensity throughout the training year. The training intensity distribution vary across mesocycles and differ between marathon and track runners, but common for both groups is that volume of race-pace running increases as the main competition approaches. The tapering process starts 7–10 days prior to the main competition. While the African runners live and train at high altitude (2000–2500 m above sea level) most of the year, most lowland athletes apply relatively long altitude camps during the preparation period. Overall, this review offers unique insights into the training characteristics of world-class distance runners by integrating scientific literature and results-proven practice, providing a point of departure for future studies related to the training and development in the Olympic long-distance events.
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28
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Metatarsophalangeal Joint Dynamic Stiffness During Toe Rocker Changes With Walking Speed. J Appl Biomech 2022; 38:320-327. [PMID: 36096476 DOI: 10.1123/jab.2021-0385] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2021] [Revised: 05/30/2022] [Accepted: 07/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Dynamic joint stiffness (or simply "stiffness") is a customization criteria used to tune mechanical properties of orthotic and prosthetic devices. This study examines metatarsophalangeal (MTP) joint stiffness during the toe-rocker phase of barefoot walking and establishes baseline characteristics of MTP joint stiffness. Ten healthy individuals walked at 4 speeds (0.4, 0.6, 0.8, and 1.0 statures·s-1) over level ground. MTP sagittal plane joint angles and moments were calculated during the toe-rocker phase of stance. Least-squares linear regressions were conducted on the MTP moment versus angle curve to determine joint stiffness during early toe rocker and late toe rocker. Multilevel linear models were used to test for statistically significant differences between conditions. Early toe rocker stiffness was positive, while late toe rocker was negative. Both early toe rocker and late toe rocker stiffness increased in magnitude significantly with speed. This study establishes baseline characteristics of MTP joint stiffness in healthy walking, which previously had not been examined through a range of controlled walking speeds. This information can be used in the future as design criteria for orthotic and prosthetic ankle and ankle-foot devices that can imitate, support, and facilitate natural human foot motion during walking better than existing devices.
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29
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Jolicoeur Desroches A, Goulet EDB. Is a sub 7-h Ironman TM possible? Front Sports Act Living 2022; 4:866599. [PMID: 36091871 PMCID: PMC9453846 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2022.866599] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2022] [Accepted: 07/19/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
| | - Eric D. B. Goulet
- Faculty of physical activity sciences, University of Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC, Canada
- Research Centre on Aging, University of Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC, Canada
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30
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Masterson A, Warne J. The effects of footwear on dynamic stability and impact loading in jump landing. Sports Biomech 2022:1-14. [PMID: 35980147 DOI: 10.1080/14763141.2022.2105744] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2022] [Accepted: 07/20/2022] [Indexed: 10/15/2022]
Abstract
Research into the effect of footwear on dynamic stability and impact loading is still in its infancy. The aim of this study was to determine whether cushioned footwear influenced dynamic stability (dynamic postural stability index (DPSI) and time to stabilisation (TTS)) or impact loading (peak ground reaction force (pGRF) and loading rate (LR)) through a series of single-leg jump landings when compared to barefoot and minimalist shoes. Fourteen healthy, active participants (9 males, 5 females, Age: 21 ± 1 years; height: 174 ± 9.87 cm; weight: 75 ± 15.40 kg) were recruited to undergo a series of single-leg jump landings. Each participant randomly performed three jumps in each footwear condition. Repeated measures ANOVA was conducted to determine whether any differences occurred between condition. No statistically significant difference was observed for DPSI (p = 0.300, pη2 = 0.083) between footwear types. A statistically significant difference was determined between footwear condition for TTS (p = 0.001, pη2 = 0.52), and also for pGRF (p = 0.003, pη2 = 0.39), and LR (p ≤ 0.001, pη2 = 0.53). For TTS, pGRF, and LR, no differences were noted between minimalist and barefoot, but were worse in the cushioned shoe vs. both other conditions. Overall, this study determined that cushioned footwear can negatively influence both TTS and impact loading, but not DPSI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Masterson
- Department of Applied Science, Technological University Dublin - Tallaght Campus, Tallaght, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Joe Warne
- Department of Applied Science, Technological University Dublin - Tallaght Campus, Tallaght, Dublin, Ireland
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31
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Muñoz-Pérez I, Lago-Fuentes C, Mecías-Calvo M, Casado A. Pacing and packing behavior in elite and world record performances at Berlin marathon. Eur J Sport Sci 2022:1-8. [PMID: 35942622 DOI: 10.1080/17461391.2022.2111278] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to compare pacing and packing behaviors between sex and performance level at elite Berlin marathon races. Official electronic split and finishing times from 279 (149 male and 130 female) marathon performances, including 5 male world records, were obtained from eleven Berlin marathon races held from 2008 to 2018, and from two previous world records and the second world all-time fastest performance also achieved at that same Berlin course. Male performances displaying an even pacing behavior were significantly faster than those adopting a positive behavior (p < 0.001; d = 0.75). Male world records were characterized by even profiles with fast endspurts, being especially remarkable at world all-time two fastest performances which were assisted by the use of a new shoe technology. Female marathon runners decreased their speed less than men during the second half marathon and especially from the 35th km onwards (p < 0.001; 0.51 ≤ d≤0.55). The latest race stages were usually run individually in both sexes. Significant pace differences between performance groups at every race segment were found in women (p < 0.01; 1.0 ≤ d≤2.0), who also covered an important part of the race alone. Prior to participation in meet marathon races such as Berlin marathon, elite runners should select the group that they will join during the race according to their current performance level as a preassigned pace set by a pacemaker will be adopted. Therefore, they could follow an even rather than positive pacing behavior which will allow them to achieve a more optimal performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iker Muñoz-Pérez
- Sport training, RUNNEA, Barakaldo, 48901, Spain. .,Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Isabel I, Burgos, 09003, Spain
| | - Carlos Lago-Fuentes
- Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Europea del Atlántico, Santander, 39011, Spain.
| | - Marcos Mecías-Calvo
- Facultad de Formación del Profesorado, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Lugo, 27001, Spain.
| | - Arturo Casado
- Centre for Sport Studies, Rey Juan Carlos University, Madrid, 28028, Spain.
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32
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Nielsen A, Heyde C, Simonsen MB, Larsen RG, Hansen RK, Kersting U, Zee MD, Brund RBK. Reliability of Running Economy Measurements: Influence of Shoe Familiarisation. Int J Sports Med 2022; 43:1113-1117. [PMID: 35926512 DOI: 10.1055/a-1820-7023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/16/2022]
Abstract
The purpose was to investigate differences in reliability of running economy measurements between familiar and unfamiliar shoes. Thirty-seven runners were included who all ran in familiar and unfamiliar running shoes while running economy was measured at steady state using a treadmill. Each participant was tested on two different visits (three sessions in total), with two trials in each of the three shoe conditions completed at each visit. Coefficient of variation, standard deviation of differences, and limits of agreement of running economy were used to quantify the repeatability (within-visit variation) and reproducibility (between-visit variation). The coefficient of variation showed a marginal difference in reproducibility across shoe conditions, whereas no differences were seen in coefficient of variation, standard deviation of the differences, or limits of agreement for repeatability across shoes. All three shoe conditions showed greater repeatability than reproducibility for running economy, and enhanced repeatability at visit 3 compared to visit 2. Our results indicate that familiarisation to shoes might not be needed for reliable measurements of running economy. Based on our results, when evaluating benefits in running shoes we suggest that running economy be assessed within the same day. Further, our data suggest a beneficial effect of using multiple familiarisation sessions if small differences between shoe conditions are expected.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anders Nielsen
- Sport Sciences, Aalborg Universitet, Aalborg East, Denmark
| | - Christian Heyde
- Future Sport Science Team, Adidas AG, Herzogenaurach, Germany
| | | | - Ryan Godsk Larsen
- Health Science and Technology, Aalborg Universitet, Aalborg, Denmark
| | | | - Uwe Kersting
- Institute of Biomechanics and Orthopaedics, German Sport University Cologne, Köln, Germany
| | - M De Zee
- Health Science and Technology, Aalborg Universitet, Aalborg, Denmark
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33
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Heyde C, Nielsen A, Roecker K, Godsk Larsen R, de Zee M, Kersting U, K. Brund RB. The percentage of recreational runners that might benefit from new running shoes. A likely scenario. FOOTWEAR SCIENCE 2022. [DOI: 10.1080/19424280.2022.2095042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/16/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Anders Nielsen
- Sport Sciences, Department of Health Science and Technology, Aalborg University, Aalborg, Denmark
| | - Kai Roecker
- Institute for Applied Health Promotion and Exercise Medicine (IfAG), Furtwangen University, Furtwangen, Germany
| | - Ryan Godsk Larsen
- Sport Sciences, Department of Health Science and Technology, Aalborg University, Aalborg, Denmark
| | - Mark de Zee
- Sport Sciences, Department of Health Science and Technology, Aalborg University, Aalborg, Denmark
| | - Uwe Kersting
- Institute of Biomechanics and Orthopaedics, German Sport University Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - René B. K. Brund
- Sport Sciences, Department of Health Science and Technology, Aalborg University, Aalborg, Denmark
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34
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Effect of Sex-Specific Running Shoes on Female Recreational Runners. APPLIED SCIENCES-BASEL 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/app12157537] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Alterations in running shoe design have been studied and used in the prevention of injury and enhancement of performance allowing running shoe companies to market to a variety of runners based on skill level, foot-strike pattern, and even sex. These alterations have been shown to affect biomechanical and physiological variables associated with running. Some shoe companies have designed shoes specifically for biological female runners due to the morphological differences found between male and female feet. The purpose of this study is to determine if sex-specific running shoes can alter female runner biomechanics or physiology. Female runners were asked to run in the male and female models of the Altra Torin 4 Plush shoe to determine if there were differences in ground reaction forces (GRFs), sagittal plane joint angles and moments, oxygen consumption (VO2), respiratory exchange ratio (RER), and perceived level of comfort while running; There were no significant differences in GRFs, sagittal joint angles and moments, VO2, RER, or perceived comfort; There were no differences in measured biomechanical or physiological variables between the female and male version of the shoes suggesting that the alterations made to the female-specific shoe do not provide any additional benefit to female recreational runners.
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35
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Hébert-Losier K, Finlayson SJ, Lamb PF, Driller MW, Hanzlíková I, Dubois B, Esculier JF, Beaven CM. Kinematics of recreational male runners in "super", minimalist and habitual shoes. J Sports Sci 2022; 40:1426-1435. [PMID: 35699253 DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2022.2081767] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
We conducted an exploratory analysis to compare running kinematics of 16 male recreational runners wearing Nike Vaporfly 4% (VP4), Saucony Endorphin racing flat (FLAT), and their habitual (OWN) footwear. We also explored potential relationships between kinematic and physiological changes. Runners (age: 33 ± 12 y, V˙ O2peak: 55.2 ± 4.3 ml · kg-1·min-1) attended 3 sessions after completing an V˙ O2peak test in which sagittal plane 3D kinematics at submaximal running speeds (60%, 70% and 80% ʋ V˙ O2peak) were collected alongside economy measures. Kinematics were compared using notched boxplots, and between-shoe kinematic differences were plotted against between-shoe economy differences. Across intensities, VP4 involved longer flight times (6.7 to 10.0 ms) and lower stance hip range of motion (~3°), and greater vertical pelvis displacement than FLAT (~0.4 cm). Peak dorsiflexion angles (~2°), ankle range of motion (1.0° to 3.9°), and plantarflexion velocities (11.3 to 89.0 deg · sec-1) were greatest in FLAT and lowest in VP4. Foot-ground angles were smaller in FLAT (2.5° to 3.6°). Select kinematic variables were moderately related to economy, with higher step frequencies and shorter step lengths in VP4 and FLAT associated with improved economy versus OWN. Footwear changes from OWN altered running kinematics. The most pronounced differences were observed in ankle, spatiotemporal, and foot-ground angle variables.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kim Hébert-Losier
- Division of Health, Engineering, Computing and Science, Te Huataki Waiora School of Health, University of Waikato, Tauranga, New Zealand.,Research & Development, The Running Clinic, Lac Beauport, Québec, Canada
| | - Steven J Finlayson
- Division of Health, Engineering, Computing and Science, Te Huataki Waiora School of Health, University of Waikato, Tauranga, New Zealand
| | - Peter F Lamb
- School of Physical Education, Sport and Exercise Sciences, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | - Matthew W Driller
- Sport and Exercise Science, School of Allied Health, Human Services and Sport, La Trobe University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Ivana Hanzlíková
- Department of Physiotherapy, Faculty of Physical Culture, Palacký University Olomouc, Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Blaise Dubois
- Research & Development, The Running Clinic, Lac Beauport, Québec, Canada
| | - Jean-Francois Esculier
- Research & Development, The Running Clinic, Lac Beauport, Québec, Canada.,Department of Physical Therapy, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Christopher Martyn Beaven
- Division of Health, Engineering, Computing and Science, Te Huataki Waiora School of Health, University of Waikato, Tauranga, New Zealand
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36
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Fu F, Guo L, Tang X, Wang J, Xie Z, Fekete G, Cai Y, Hu Q, Gu Y. Effect of the Innovative Running Shoes With the Special Midsole Structure on the Female Runners’ Lower Limb Biomechanics. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2022; 10:866321. [PMID: 35733527 PMCID: PMC9208082 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2022.866321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2022] [Accepted: 04/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The study aimed to research the effects of innovative running shoes (a high heel-to-toe drop and special structure of midsole) on the biomechanics of the lower limbs and perceptual sensitivity in female runners. Fifteen healthy female runners were recruited to run through a 145-m runway with planted force plates at one peculiar speed (3.6 m/s ± 5%) with two kinds of shoe conditions (innovative running shoes vs. normal running shoes) while getting biomechanical data. The perception of shoe characteristics was assessed simultaneously through a 15-cm visual analog scale. The statistical parametric mapping technique calculated the time-series parameters. Regarding 0D parameters, the ankle dorsiflexion angle of innovative running shoes at touchdown was higher, and the peak dorsiflexion angle, range of motion, peak dorsiflexion velocity, and plantarflexion moment on the metatarsophalangeal joint of innovative running shoes during running were significantly smaller than those of normal running shoes (all p < 0.001). In addition, the braking phase and the time of peak vertical force 1 of innovative running shoes were found to be longer than those of normal running shoes (both p < 0.05). Meanwhile, the average vertical loading rate 1, peak vertical loading rate 1, peak braking force, and peak vertical force 1 in the innovative running shoes were lower than those of the normal running shoes during running (both p < 0.01). The statistical parametric mapping analysis exhibited a higher ankle dorsiflexion angle (0–4%, p < 0.05), a smaller knee internal rotation angle (0–6%, p < 0.05) (63–72%, p < 0.05), a decreased vertical ground reaction force (11–17%, p = 0.009), and braking anteroposterior ground reaction force (22–27%, p = 0.043) for innovative running shoes than normal running shoes. Runners were able to perceive the cushioning of innovative running shoes was better than that of normal running shoes. These findings suggested combining the high offset and structure of the midsole would benefit the industrial utilization of shoe producers in light of reducing the risk of running injuries for female runners.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fengqin Fu
- Faculty of Sports Science, Ningbo University, Ningbo, China
- Doctoral School on Safety and Security Sciences, Óbuda University, Budapest, Hungary
- Science Laboratory, Innovation center of Xtep Co., Ltd., Xiamen, China
| | - Lianming Guo
- Science Laboratory, Innovation center of Xtep Co., Ltd., Xiamen, China
| | - Xunfei Tang
- Science Laboratory, Innovation center of Xtep Co., Ltd., Xiamen, China
| | - Jiayu Wang
- Faculty of Sports Science, Ningbo University, Ningbo, China
| | - Zhihao Xie
- Science Laboratory, Innovation center of Xtep Co., Ltd., Xiamen, China
| | - Gusztáv Fekete
- Savaria Institute of Technology, Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Yuhui Cai
- Science Laboratory, Innovation center of Xtep Co., Ltd., Xiamen, China
| | - Qiuli Hu
- Faculty of Sports Science, Ningbo University, Ningbo, China
| | - Yaodong Gu
- Faculty of Sports Science, Ningbo University, Ningbo, China
- *Correspondence: Yaodong Gu,
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37
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Hata K, Noro H, Takeshita T, Yamazaki Y, Yanagiya T. Leg stiffness during running in highly cushioned shoes with a carbon-fiber plate and traditional shoes. Gait Posture 2022; 95:9-14. [PMID: 35395621 DOI: 10.1016/j.gaitpost.2022.03.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2021] [Revised: 03/15/2022] [Accepted: 03/27/2022] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Nike ZoomX Vaporfly (NVF) improves running economy and performance. The biomechanical mechanisms of these shoes are not fully understood, although thicker midsoles and carbon fiber plates are considered to play an important role in the spring-like leg characteristics during running. Leg stiffness (kleg) in the spring-mass model has been commonly used to investigate spring-like running mechanics during running. RESEARCH QUESTION Does kleg during running differ between NVF and traditional (TRAD) shoes? METHODS Eighteen male habitual forefoot and/or midfoot strike runners ran on a treadmill at 20 km/h with NVF and TRAD shoes, respectively. kleg, vertical oscillation of the center of mass (∆CoM), spatiotemporal parameters, and mechanical loading were determined. RESULTS kleg was 4.8% lower in the NVF shoe condition than in the TRAD condition, although no significant difference was observed. ∆CoM was not significantly different between shoe conditions. Spatiotemporal parameters and mechanical loading were also not significantly different between shoe conditions. SIGNIFICANCE The NVF shoe is well known as improving the running economy and running performance for the cause by characteristics of better spring function. Contrary to expectation, kleg and other parameters were not significantly different during running in the NVF compared to TRAD shoe at 20 km/h. These findings indicate that well-trained runners' spring-like running mechanics would not alter even if wearing the NVF shoes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keiichiro Hata
- Graduate school of Health and Sports Science, Juntendo University, Chiba, Japan; Institute of Health and Sports Science & Medicine, Juntendo University, Chiba, Japan
| | - Hiroaki Noro
- Graduate school of Health and Sports Science, Juntendo University, Chiba, Japan; Institute of Health and Sports Science & Medicine, Juntendo University, Chiba, Japan
| | - Tomonari Takeshita
- Graduate school of Health and Sports Science, Juntendo University, Chiba, Japan; Research fellow of Japan Society for the Promotion of Science, Japan
| | - Yohei Yamazaki
- Graduate school of Health and Sports Science, Juntendo University, Chiba, Japan
| | - Toshio Yanagiya
- Graduate school of Health and Sports Science, Juntendo University, Chiba, Japan; Institute of Health and Sports Science & Medicine, Juntendo University, Chiba, Japan.
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Patoz A, Lussiana T, Breine B, Gindre C. The Nike Vaporfly 4%: a game changer to improve performance without biomechanical explanation yet. FOOTWEAR SCIENCE 2022. [DOI: 10.1080/19424280.2022.2077844] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Aurélien Patoz
- Institute of Sport Sciences, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
- Research and Development Department, Volodalen Swiss Sport Lab, Aigle, Switzerland
| | - Thibault Lussiana
- Research and Development Department, Volodalen Swiss Sport Lab, Aigle, Switzerland
- Research and Development Department, Volodalen, Chavéria, France
- Research Unit EA3920 Prognostic Markers and Regulatory Factors of Cardiovascular Diseases and Exercise Performance, Health, Innovation platform, University of Franche-Comté, France Besançon
| | - Bastiaan Breine
- Research and Development Department, Volodalen Swiss Sport Lab, Aigle, Switzerland
- Department of Movement and Sports Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Cyrille Gindre
- Research and Development Department, Volodalen Swiss Sport Lab, Aigle, Switzerland
- Research and Development Department, Volodalen, Chavéria, France
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Nielsen A, Franch J, Heyde C, de Zee M, Kersting U, Larsen RG. Carbon Plate Shoes Improve Metabolic Power and Performance in Recreational Runners. Int J Sports Med 2022; 43:804-810. [PMID: 35523201 DOI: 10.1055/a-1776-7986] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
This study compared metabolic power (MP) and time trial (TT) running performance between Adidas Adizero Adios (AAA) and Nike VaporFly 4% (NVP). Thirty-seven runners completed three laboratory sessions and two field sessions (n=30). After familiarization (visit 1), participants completed eight 6-min treadmill running bouts (four with each shoe, counterbalanced) at their preferred pace, and MP was assessed using indirect calorimetry (visits 2 and 3). During visits 4 and 5, participants completed two outdoor TTs (~3.5 km) in NVP and AAA (counterbalanced). Compared with AAA, NVP exhibited superior MP (NVP: median=13.88 (Q1-Q3=12.90-15.08 W/kg; AAA: median=14.08 (Q1-Q3=13.12-15.44 W/kg; z=-4.81, p<.001, effect size=.56) and TT (NVP=793±98 s; AAA=802±100 s, p=.001; effect size=.09). However, there was no relationship between changes in MP and changes in TT between shoes (r=.151 p=.425, 95% confidence interval=[-.22; .48]). Our results demonstrate that NVP, compared with AAA, improves MP and TT in recreational runners. The lack of correlation between changes in MP and TT indicates that factors other than improved MP contribute to faster short-distance TT with NVP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anders Nielsen
- Department of Health Science and Technology, Aalborg Universitet, Aalborg East, Denmark
| | - Jesper Franch
- Department of Health Science and Technology, Aalborg Universitet, Aalborg, Denmark
| | - Christian Heyde
- Future Sport Science Team, Adidas AG, Herzogenaurach, Germany
| | - Mark de Zee
- Department of Health Science and Technology, Aalborg Universitet, Aalborg, Denmark
| | - Uwe Kersting
- Department of Health Science and Technology, Aalborg Universitet, Aalborg, Denmark.,Institute of Biomechanics and Orthopaedics, German Sport University Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Ryan Godsk Larsen
- Department of Health Science and Technology, Aalborg Universitet, Aalborg, Denmark
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Whiting CS, Hoogkamer W, Kram R. Metabolic cost of level, uphill, and downhill running in highly cushioned shoes with carbon-fiber plates. JOURNAL OF SPORT AND HEALTH SCIENCE 2022; 11:303-308. [PMID: 34740871 PMCID: PMC9189710 DOI: 10.1016/j.jshs.2021.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2021] [Revised: 09/02/2021] [Accepted: 09/26/2021] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Compared to conventional racing shoes, Nike Vaporfly 4% running shoes reduce the metabolic cost of level treadmill running by 4%. The reduction is attributed to their lightweight, highly compliant, and resilient midsole foam and a midsole-embedded curved carbon-fiber plate. We investigated whether these shoes also could reduce the metabolic cost of moderate uphill (+3°) and downhill (-3°) grades. We tested the null hypothesis that, compared to conventional racing shoes, highly cushioned shoes with carbon-fiber plates would impart the same ∼4% metabolic power (W/kg) savings during uphill and downhill running as they do during level running. METHODS After familiarization, 16 competitive male runners performed six 5-min trials (2 shoes × 3 grades) in 2 Nike marathon racing-shoe models (Streak 6 and Vaporfly 4%) on a level, uphill (+3°), and downhill (-3°) treadmill at 13 km/h (3.61 m/s). We measured submaximal oxygen uptake and carbon dioxide production during Minutes 4-5 and calculated metabolic power (W/kg) for each shoe model and grade combination. RESULTS Compared to the conventional shoes (Streak 6), the metabolic power in the Vaporfly 4% shoes was 3.83% (level), 2.82% (uphill), and 2.70% (downhill) less (all p < 0.001). The percent of change in metabolic power for uphill running was less compared to level running (p = 0.04; effect size (ES) = 0.561) but was not statistically different between downhill and level running (p = 0.17; ES = 0.356). CONCLUSION On a running course with uphill and downhill sections, the metabolic savings and hence performance enhancement provided by Vaporfly 4% shoes would likely be slightly less overall, compared to the savings on a perfectly level race course.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clarissa S Whiting
- Locomotion Laboratory, Department of Integrative Physiology, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309, USA.
| | - Wouter Hoogkamer
- Integrative Locomotion Lab, Department of Kinesiology, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003, USA
| | - Rodger Kram
- Locomotion Laboratory, Department of Integrative Physiology, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309, USA
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Hébert-Losier K, Finlayson SJ, Driller MW, Dubois B, Esculier JF, Beaven CM. Metabolic and performance responses of male runners wearing 3 types of footwear: Nike Vaporfly 4%, Saucony Endorphin racing flats, and their own shoes. JOURNAL OF SPORT AND HEALTH SCIENCE 2022; 11:275-284. [PMID: 33264686 PMCID: PMC9189709 DOI: 10.1016/j.jshs.2020.11.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2020] [Revised: 09/02/2020] [Accepted: 10/22/2020] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE We compared running economy (RE) and 3-km time-trial (TT) variables of runners wearing Nike Vaporfly 4% (VP4), Saucony Endorphin lightweight racing flats (FLAT), and their habitual running (OWN) footwear. METHODS Eighteen male recreational runners (age = 33.5 ± 11.9 year (mean ± SD), peak oxygen uptake (VO2peak) = 55.8 ± 4.4 mL/kg·min) attended 4 sessions approximately 7 days apart. The first session consisted of a VO2peak test to inform subsequent RE speeds set at 60%, 70%, and 80% of the speed eliciting VO2peak. In subsequent sessions, treadmill RE and 3-km TTs were assessed in the 3 footwear conditions in a randomized, counterbalanced crossover design. RESULTS Oxygen consumption (mL/kg·min) was less in VP4 (from 4.3% to 4.4%, p ≤ 0.002) and FLAT (from 2.7% to 3.4%, p ≤ 0.092) vs. OWN across intensities, with a non-significant difference between VP4 and FLAT (1.0%-1.7%, p ≥ 0.292). Findings related to energy cost (W/kg) and energetics cost of transport (J/kg·m) were comparable. VP4 3-km TT performance (11:07.6 ± 0:56.6 mm:ss) was enhanced vs. OWN by 16.6 s (2.4%, p = 0.005) and vs. FLAT by 13.0 s (1.8%, p = 0.032). The 3-km times between OWN and FLAT (0.5%, p = 0.747) were similar. Most runners (n = 11, 61%) ran their fastest TT in VP4. CONCLUSION Overall, VP4 improved laboratory-based RE measures in male recreational runners at relative speeds compared to OWN, but the RE improvements in VP4 were not significant vs. FLAT. More runners exhibited better treadmill TT performances in VP4 (61%) vs. FLAT (22%) and OWN (17%). The variability in RE (-10.3% to 13.3%) and TT (-4.7% to 9.3%) improvements suggests that responses to different types of shoes are individualized and warrant further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kim Hébert-Losier
- Division of Health, Engineering, Computing and Science, Te Huataki Waiora School of Health, University of Waikato, Mount Maunganui, Tauranga 3116, New Zealand.
| | - Steven J Finlayson
- Division of Health, Engineering, Computing and Science, Te Huataki Waiora School of Health, University of Waikato, Mount Maunganui, Tauranga 3116, New Zealand
| | - Matthew W Driller
- Division of Health, Engineering, Computing and Science, Te Huataki Waiora School of Health, University of Waikato, Mount Maunganui, Tauranga 3116, New Zealand; Sport and Exercise Science, School of Allied Health, Human Services and Sport, La Trobe University, Melbourne, VIC 3086, Australia
| | - Blaise Dubois
- Research & Development, the Running Clinic, Lac-Beauport, QC G3B 2J8, Canada
| | | | - Christopher Martyn Beaven
- Division of Health, Engineering, Computing and Science, Te Huataki Waiora School of Health, University of Waikato, Mount Maunganui, Tauranga 3116, New Zealand
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Healey LA, Hoogkamer W. Longitudinal bending stiffness does not affect running economy in Nike Vaporfly Shoes. JOURNAL OF SPORT AND HEALTH SCIENCE 2022; 11:285-292. [PMID: 34280602 PMCID: PMC9189697 DOI: 10.1016/j.jshs.2021.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2021] [Revised: 04/23/2021] [Accepted: 06/03/2021] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE This study aimed to determine the independent effect of the curved carbon-fiber plate in the Nike Vaporfly 4% shoe on running economy and running biomechanics. METHODS Fifteen healthy male runners completed a metabolic protocol and a biomechanics protocol. In both protocols participants wore 2 different shoes, an intact Nike Vaporfly 4% (VFintact) and a cut Nike Vaporfly 4% (VFcut). The VFcut had 6 medio-lateral cuts through the carbon-fiber plate in the forefoot to reduce the effectiveness of the plate. In the metabolic protocol, participants ran at 14 km/h for 5 min, twice with each shoe, on a force-measuring treadmill while we measured metabolic rate. In the biomechanics protocol, participants ran across a runway with embedded force plates at 14 km/h. We calculated running economy, kinetics, and lower limb joint mechanics. RESULTS Running economy did not significantly differ between shoe conditions (on average, 0.55% ± 1.77% (mean ± SD)) worse in the VFcut compared to the VFintact; 95% confidence interval (-1.44% to 0.40%). Biomechanical differences were only found in the metatarsophalangeal (MTP) joint with increased MTP dorsiflexion angle, angular velocity, and negative power in the VFcut. Contact time was 1% longer in the VFintact. CONCLUSION Cutting the carbon-fiber plate and reducing the longitudinal bending stiffness did not have a significant effect on the energy savings in the Nike Vaporfly 4%. This suggests that the plate's stiffening effect on the MTP joint plays a limited role in the reported energy savings, and instead savings are likely from a combination and interaction of the foam, geometry, and plate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura A Healey
- Integrative Locomotion Laboratory, Department of Kinesiology, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003-9258, USA.
| | - Wouter Hoogkamer
- Integrative Locomotion Laboratory, Department of Kinesiology, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003-9258, USA
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Cigoja S, Fletcher JR, Nigg BM. Can changes in midsole bending stiffness of shoes affect the onset of joint work redistribution during a prolonged run? JOURNAL OF SPORT AND HEALTH SCIENCE 2022; 11:293-302. [PMID: 33359799 PMCID: PMC9189708 DOI: 10.1016/j.jshs.2020.12.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2020] [Revised: 10/23/2020] [Accepted: 11/27/2020] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE This study aimed to investigate if changing the midsole bending stiffness of athletic footwear can affect the onset of lower limb joint work redistribution during a prolonged run. METHODS Fifteen trained male runners (10-km time of <44 min) performed 10-km runs at 90% of their individual speed at lactate threshold (i.e., when change in lactate exceeded 1 mmol/L during an incremental running test) in a control and stiff shoe condition on 2 occasions. Lower limb joint kinematics and kinetics were measured using a motion capture system and a force-instrumented treadmill. Data were acquired every 500 m. RESULTS Prolonged running resulted in a redistribution of positive joint work from distal to proximal joints in both shoe conditions. Compared to the beginning of the run, less positive work was performed at the ankle (approximately 9%; p ≤ 0.001) and more positive work was performed at the knee joint (approximately 17%; p ≤ 0.001) at the end of the run. When running in the stiff shoe condition, the onset of joint work redistribution at the ankle and knee joints occurred at a later point during the run. CONCLUSION A delayed onset of joint work redistribution in the stiff condition may result in less activated muscle volume, because ankle plantar flexor muscles have shorter muscles fascicles and smaller cross-sectional areas compared to knee extensor muscles. Less active muscle volume could be related to previously reported decreases in metabolic cost when running in stiff footwear. These results contribute to the notion that footwear with increased stiffness likely results in reductions in metabolic cost by delaying joint work redistribution from distal to proximal joints.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sasa Cigoja
- Human Performance Laboratory, Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 1N4, Canada.
| | - Jared R Fletcher
- Department of Health and Physical Education, Mount Royal University, Calgary, AB T3E 6K6, Canada
| | - Benno M Nigg
- Human Performance Laboratory, Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 1N4, Canada
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Non-South East Asians have a better running economy and different anthropometrics and biomechanics than South East Asians. Sci Rep 2022; 12:6291. [PMID: 35428794 PMCID: PMC9012817 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-10030-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2021] [Accepted: 03/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Running biomechanics and ethnicity can influence running economy (RE), which is a critical factor of running performance. Our aim was to compare RE of South East Asian (SEA) and non-South East Asian (non-SEA) runners at several endurance running speeds (10-14 km/h) matched for on-road racing performance and sex. Secondly, we explored anthropometric characteristics and relationships between RE and anthropometric and biomechanical variables. SEA were 6% less economical (p = 0.04) than non-SEA. SEA were lighter and shorter than non-SEA, and had lower body mass indexes and leg lengths (p ≤ 0.01). In terms of biomechanics, a higher prevalence of forefoot strikers in SEA than non-SEA was seen at each speed tested (p ≤ 0.04). Furthermore, SEA had a significantly higher step frequency (p = 0.02), shorter contact time (p = 0.04), smaller footstrike angle (p < 0.001), and less knee extension at toe-off (p = 0.03) than non-SEA. Amongst these variables, only mass was positively correlated to RE for both SEA (12 km/h) and non-SEA (all speeds); step frequency, negatively correlated to RE for both SEA (10 km/h) and non-SEA (12 km/h); and contact time, positively correlated to RE for SEA (12 km/h). Despite the observed anthropometric and biomechanical differences between cohorts, these data were limited in underpinning the observed RE differences at a group level. This exploratory study provides preliminary indications of potential differences between SEA and non-SEA runners warranting further consideration. Altogether, these findings suggest caution when generalizing from non-SEA running studies to SEA runners.
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Hunter I, Bradshaw C, McLeod A, Ward J, Standifird T. Energetics and Biomechanics of Uphill, Downhill and Level Running in Highly-Cushioned Carbon Fiber Midsole Plated Shoes. J Sports Sci Med 2022; 21:127-130. [PMID: 35250342 PMCID: PMC8851112 DOI: 10.52082/jssm.2022.127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2021] [Accepted: 02/01/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Road-racing shoes recently experienced major changes. In the recent past, lightweight, thin midsole shoes were thought to help runners maximize their performance. But, in 2017, Nike released the Vaporfly shoe which transformed the thinking about racing shoe design. Incorporating a curved carbon fiber plate embedded in a thick, compliant and resilient midsole resulted in a reduced metabolic cost across a range of running speeds. We hypothesized the new style of shoes would be less effective uphill than downhill due to the larger ground reaction forces and hence greater elastic energy storage in the shoe during downhill running. Eighteen runners completed two days of testing, each comprising two trials of two shoe models (Saucony Endorphin Pro (EP) and Type A) and three grade conditions (uphill, level and downhill), i.e. 12 trials per day. Oxygen uptake, ground reaction forces, and lower-body kinematics were captured during each condition. Comparisons of the percent metabolic benefit were made between shoes for each grade. Stride rate, ground time, peak vertical force, and flight time were regressed with the percent metabolic benefit of the EP over the Type A shoe across grades. Metabolic benefits of the Endorphin Pro were similar across the three grade conditions (p = 0.778). No significant correlations were observed between how much benefit one runner got over another specific to grade. The new style of road-racing shoes effectively decreases metabolic cost equally across grades. Differences in running mechanics between runners did not explain greater individual metabolic benefits between shoe conditions during uphill or downhill running.
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Abstract
The recent and rapid developments in track spike innovation have been followed by a wave of record-breaking times and top performances. This has led many to question what role “super spikes” play in improving running performance. To date, the specific contributions of new innovations in footwear, including lightweight, resilient, and compliant midsole foam, altered geometry, and increased longitudinal bending stiffness, to track running performance are unknown. Based on current literature, we speculate about what advantages these features provide. Importantly, the effects of super spikes will vary based on several factors including the event (e.g., 100 m vs. 10,000 m) and the characteristics of the athlete wearing them. Further confounding our understanding of super spikes is the difficulty of testing them. Unlike marathon shoes, testing track spikes comes with a unique challenge of quantifying the metabolic energy demands of middle-distance running events, which are partly anaerobic. Quantifying the exact benefits from super spikes is difficult and we may need to rely on comparison of track performances pre- and post- the introduction of super spikes.
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Joubert DP, Jones GP. A comparison of running economy across seven highly cushioned racing shoes with carbon-fibre plates. FOOTWEAR SCIENCE 2022. [DOI: 10.1080/19424280.2022.2038691] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Dustin P. Joubert
- Department of Kinesiology and Health Science, Stephen F. Austin State University, Nacogdoches, TX, USA
| | - Garrett P. Jones
- Department of Kinesiology and Health Science, Stephen F. Austin State University, Nacogdoches, TX, USA
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Muniz-Pardos B, Zelenkova I, Gonzalez-Aguero A, Knopp M, Boitz T, Graham M, Ruiz D, Casajus JA, Pitsiladis YP. The Impact of Grounding in Running Shoes on Indices of Performance in Elite Competitive Athletes. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:ijerph19031317. [PMID: 35162340 PMCID: PMC8834746 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph19031317] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2021] [Revised: 01/21/2022] [Accepted: 01/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The introduction of carbon fiber plate shoes has triggered a plethora of world records in running, which has encouraged shoe industries to produce novel shoe designs to enhance running performance, including shoes containing conductor elements or “grounding shoes” (GS), which could potentially reduce the energy cost of running. The aim of this study was to examine the physiological and perceptual responses of athletes subjected to grounding shoes during running. Ten elite runners were recruited. Firstly, the athletes performed an incremental running test for VO2max and anaerobic threshold (AT) determination, and were familiarized with the two shoe conditions (traditional training shoe (TTS) and GS, the latter containing a conductor element under the insole). One week apart, athletes performed running economy tests (20 min run at 80% of the AT) on a 400 m dirt track, with shoe conditions randomized. VO2, heart rate, lactate, and perceived fatigue were registered throughout the experiment. No differences in any of the physiological or perceptual variables were identified between shoe conditions, with an equal running economy in both TTS and GS (51.1 ± 4.2 vs. 50.9 ± 5.1 mL kg−1 min−1, respectively). Our results suggest that a grounding stimulus does not improve the energy cost of running, or the physiological/perceptual responses of elite athletes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Borja Muniz-Pardos
- Faculty of Health and Sports Science (FCSD), Department of Physiatry and Nursing, University of Zaragoza, 50009 Zaragoza, Spain; (B.M.-P.); (A.G.-A.)
- GENUD (Growth, Exercise, Nutrition and Development) Research Group, Department of Physiatry and Nursing, University of Zaragoza, 50009 Zaragoza, Spain; (I.Z.); (J.A.C.)
- International Federation of Sports Medicine (FIMS), 1007 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Irina Zelenkova
- GENUD (Growth, Exercise, Nutrition and Development) Research Group, Department of Physiatry and Nursing, University of Zaragoza, 50009 Zaragoza, Spain; (I.Z.); (J.A.C.)
- International Federation of Sports Medicine (FIMS), 1007 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Alex Gonzalez-Aguero
- Faculty of Health and Sports Science (FCSD), Department of Physiatry and Nursing, University of Zaragoza, 50009 Zaragoza, Spain; (B.M.-P.); (A.G.-A.)
- GENUD (Growth, Exercise, Nutrition and Development) Research Group, Department of Physiatry and Nursing, University of Zaragoza, 50009 Zaragoza, Spain; (I.Z.); (J.A.C.)
- International Federation of Sports Medicine (FIMS), 1007 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Melanie Knopp
- adidas Innovation, adidas AG, 91074 Herzogenaurach, Germany; (M.K.); (T.B.); (M.G.); (D.R.)
| | - Toni Boitz
- adidas Innovation, adidas AG, 91074 Herzogenaurach, Germany; (M.K.); (T.B.); (M.G.); (D.R.)
| | - Martin Graham
- adidas Innovation, adidas AG, 91074 Herzogenaurach, Germany; (M.K.); (T.B.); (M.G.); (D.R.)
| | - Daniel Ruiz
- adidas Innovation, adidas AG, 91074 Herzogenaurach, Germany; (M.K.); (T.B.); (M.G.); (D.R.)
| | - Jose A. Casajus
- GENUD (Growth, Exercise, Nutrition and Development) Research Group, Department of Physiatry and Nursing, University of Zaragoza, 50009 Zaragoza, Spain; (I.Z.); (J.A.C.)
- International Federation of Sports Medicine (FIMS), 1007 Lausanne, Switzerland
- Faculty of Medicine, Department of Physiatry and Nursing, University of Zaragoza, 50009 Zaragoza, Spain
| | - Yannis P. Pitsiladis
- International Federation of Sports Medicine (FIMS), 1007 Lausanne, Switzerland
- School of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Brighton, Eastbourne BN20 7SN, UK
- Centre for Exercise Sciences and Sports Medicine, FIMS Collaborating Centre of Sports Medicine, University of Rome “Foro Italico”, 00135 Rome, Italy
- European Federation of Sports Medicine Associations (EFSMA), 1007 Lausanne, Switzerland
- Correspondence:
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Black MI, Kranen SH, Kadach S, Vanhatalo A, Winn B, Farina EM, Kirby BS, Jones AM. Highly Cushioned Shoes Improve Running Performance in Both the Absence and Presence of Muscle Damage. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2021; 54:633-645. [PMID: 34816812 PMCID: PMC8920011 DOI: 10.1249/mss.0000000000002832] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE We tested the hypotheses that a highly cushioned running shoe (HCS) would: 1) improve incremental exercise performance and reduce the oxygen cost (Oc) of submaximal running; and 2) attenuate the deterioration in Oc elicited by muscle damage consequent to a downhill run. METHODS Thirty-two recreationally-active participants completed an incremental treadmill test in a HCS and a control running shoe (CON) for the determination of Oc and maximal performance. Subsequently, participants were pair-matched and randomly assigned to one of the two footwear conditions to perform a moderate-intensity running bout pre- and 48 h post a 30-min downhill run designed to elicit muscle damage. RESULTS Incremental treadmill test performance was improved (+5.7%; +1:16 min:ss; P < 0.01) in the HCS when assessed in the non-damaged state, relative to CON. This coincided with a significantly lower Oc (-3.2%; -6 ml·kg-1·km-1; P < 0.001) at a range of running speeds and an increase in the speed corresponding to 3 mM blood lactate (+3.2%; +0.4 km·h-1; P < 0.05). As anticipated, the downhill run resulted in significant changes in biochemical, histological, and perceptual markers of muscle damage, and a significant increase in Oc (+5.2%; 10.1 ml·kg-1·km-1) was observed 48 h post. In the presence of muscle damage, Oc was significantly lower in HCS (-4.6%; -10 ml·kg-1·km-1) compared to CON. CONCLUSIONS These results indicate that HCS improved incremental exercise performance and Oc in the absence of muscle damage and show, for the first time, that despite worsening of Oc consequent to muscle damage, improved Oc in HCS is maintained.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew I Black
- Sport and Health Sciences, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter, United Kingdom Nike Sport Research Laboratory, Beaverton, OR
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Riddick RC, Farris DJ, Brown NAT, Kelly LA. Stiffening the human foot with a biomimetic exotendon. Sci Rep 2021; 11:22778. [PMID: 34815463 PMCID: PMC8610986 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-02059-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2021] [Accepted: 10/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Shoes are generally designed protect the feet against repetitive collisions with the ground, often using thick viscoelastic midsoles to add in-series compliance under the human. Recent footwear design developments have shown that this approach may also produce metabolic energy savings. Here we test an alternative approach to modify the foot-ground interface by adding additional stiffness in parallel to the plantar aponeurosis, targeting the windlass mechanism. Stiffening the windlass mechanism by about 9% led to decreases in peak activation of the ankle plantarflexors soleus (~ 5%, p < 0.001) and medial gastrocnemius (~ 4%, p < 0.001), as well as a ~ 6% decrease in positive ankle work (p < 0.001) during fixed-frequency bilateral hopping (2.33 Hz). These results suggest that stiffening the foot may reduce cost in dynamic tasks primarily by reducing the effort required to plantarflex the ankle, since peak activation of the intrinsic foot muscle abductor hallucis was unchanged (p = 0.31). Because the novel exotendon design does not operate via the compression or bending of a bulky midsole, the device is light (55 g) and its profile is low enough that it can be worn within an existing shoe.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan C Riddick
- Centre for Sensorimotor Performance, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, 4072, Australia.
| | - Dominic J Farris
- Sport and Health Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter, EX4 4PY, UK
| | - Nicholas A T Brown
- Faculty of Health, University of Canberra, Canberra, ACT, 2617, Australia
| | - Luke A Kelly
- Centre for Sensorimotor Performance, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, 4072, Australia
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