Social anxiety and information processing biases: An integrated theoretical perspective

Oxytocin modulation of explicit pandemic stigma in men with varying social anxiety levels

OBJECTIVE

Stigma can create divisions within societies, hindering social cohesion and cooperation. Notably, it has significant public health implications, especially during infectious disease outbreaks like COVID-19. However, little is known about the neural and molecular basis of disease-related stigma and their association with individual differences.

METHODS

To address this gap, we performed a double-blind, placebo-controlled, within-subject design study with 70 males, to investigate the effect of intranasal oxytocin (OT) administration on the explicit and implicit processing of disease-related stigma (i.e., COVID-19 stigma). After self-administrated 24 IU of OT or placebo, participants completed a stigma evaluation task and an Implicit Association Test (IAT) to assess the explicit and implicit processes of stigma evaluation, respectively.

RESULTS

The results showed that oxytocin amplified the differences between participants with high and low social anxiety in explicit COVID-19 stigma, with a higher inclination to attribute the stigmatized status of the stigmatized targets (i.e., COVID-19 related group) to personal causes in high social anxiety individuals, but reduced blame towards the stigmatized targets in low social anxiety individuals under oxytocin compared to placebo treatment. Furthermore, oxytocin strengthened the connections between responsibility attribution and the other processes (i.e., emotional, approach motivation, social deviance). While no modulation of oxytocin on implicit stigma emerged, oxytocin did modulate the associations between specific dimensions of explicit stigma (i.e., social deviance and approach motivation) and implicit stigma.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, these findings demonstrated that intranasal oxytocin administration could temporally impact the explicit cognitive judgment in disease-related stigma but not the implicit aspect; furthermore, it modulated in distinct ways in individuals with different levels of social anxiety. These findings highlight the trait-dependent oxytocin modulation on disease-related stigma, implying that oxytocin is partly involved in the endocrine system of disease-related stigma. By unraveling the molecular basis of stigma and its association with individual traits, such as social anxiety, we can tailor interventions to meet specific needs of different individuals in the future.

Altered mechanisms of adaptation in social anxiety: differences in adapting to positive versus negative emotional faces

Social anxiety is characterised by fear of negative evaluation and negative perceptual biases; however, the cognitive mechanisms underlying these negative biases are not well understood. We investigated a possible mechanism which could maintain negative biases: altered adaptation to emotional faces. Heightened sensitivity to negative emotions could result from weakened adaptation to negative emotions, strengthened adaptation to positive emotions, or both mechanisms. We measured adaptation from repeated exposure to either positive or negative emotional faces, in individuals high versus low in social anxiety. We quantified adaptation strength by calculating the point of subjective equality (PSE) before and after adaptation for each participant. We hypothesised: (1) weaker adaptation to angry vs happy faces in individuals high in social anxiety, (2) no difference in adaptation to angry vs happy faces in individuals low in social anxiety, and (3) no difference in adaptation to sad vs happy faces in individuals high in social anxiety. Our results revealed a weaker adaptation to angry compared to happy faces in individuals high in social anxiety (Experiment 1), with no such difference in individuals low in social anxiety (Experiment 1), and no difference in adaptation strength to sad vs happy faces in individuals high in social anxiety (Experiment 2).

Social media addiction and academic engagement as serial mediators between social anxiety and academic performance among college students

BACKGROUND

Social anxiety has been shown to affect college students' academic performance. However, the role of social media addiction and academic engagement in this association is unclear.

METHODS

A total 2661 college students completed a self-report questionnaire including Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale, the Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale, the Utrecht Student Work Engagement Scale for Students, and the grade point average. Hayes' PROCESS macro for SPSS was employed to test the serial mediation effect.

RESULTS

Results indicated that social anxiety was negatively related to academic performance, only academic engagement played a single mediating role in the relationship between social anxiety and academic performance, meanwhile social media addiction and academic engagement acted as serial mediators between social anxiety on academic performance.

CONCLUSIONS

Social media addiction and academic engagement can explain the potential mechanisms of the association between social anxiety and academic performance, which have implications for devising intervention strategies to enhance the mental health and academic outcomes of college students.

Vulnerabilities in social anxiety: Integrating intra- and interpersonal perspectives

What are the major vulnerabilities in people with social anxiety? What are the most promising directions for translational research pertaining to this condition? The present paper provides an integrative summary of basic and applied translational research on social anxiety, emphasizing vulnerability factors. It is divided into two subsections: intrapersonal and interpersonal. The intrapersonal section synthesizes research relating to (a) self-representations and self-referential processes; (b) emotions and their regulation; and (c) cognitive biases: attention, interpretation and judgment, and memory. The interpersonal section summarizes findings regarding the systems of (a) approach and avoidance, (b) affiliation and social rank, and their implications for interpersonal impairments. Our review suggests that the science of social anxiety and, more generally, psychopathology may be advanced by examining processes and their underlying content within broad psychological systems. Increased interaction between basic and applied researchers to diversify and elaborate different perspectives on social anxiety is necessary for progress.

When emotions cannot be efficiently used to guide attention: Flexible, goal-relevant utilization of facial emotions is hindered by social anxiety

In order to achieve optimal outcomes in diverse situations, emotional information can be used to initiate novel, goal-directed processes that are not inherently related to the emotional meaning. Demonstrating this goal-dependent flexibility, in a recent study, we presented facial emotions as informative spatial cues: Participants could direct their attention to the probable target location based on the expressed emotion with a remarkable efficiency (Folyi, Rohr, & Wentura, 2020). However, as inherent motivational aspects of threat-related facial expressions can be particularly salient to socially anxious individuals (e.g., Staugaard, 2010), they might not be able to use this information flexibly in the pursuit of a context-specific goal. The present study tested this assumption in an endogenous cueing task with anger and fear expressions as informative central cues. Indeed, in Experiment 1 (N = 174), higher social anxiety was associated with reduced cueing at a 600 ms cue-target asynchrony, and this deficit was specific to social as opposed to general anxiety. Furthermore, this effect occurred only when faces were presented upright (Experiment 1), and not under inverted presentation (Experiment 2, N = 90), ruling out a general deficit in attentional control. The results suggest that flexible utilization of threat-related emotional information is sensitive to participants' social anxiety, suggesting an imbalance between using emotional information in the pursuit of a context-dependent goal on the one hand, and processes intrinsically related to the emotional meaning on the other.

Positive Interpretation Bias Predicts Longitudinal Decreases in Social Anxiety

Theoretical models of social anxiety suggest that distorted interpretation processes contribute to its development and maintenance, although the pathways through which this occurs are not well understood. Therefore, the present longitudinal study sought to determine whether negative interpretation bias, positive interpretation bias, and interpretation inflexibility (the degree to which participants correctly revise initial interpretations) predict changes in social anxiety over time. In an important advance over prior studies, individual differences in working memory capacity (WMC) were accounted for, as WMC is thought to play a crucial role in the generation and maintenance of interpretation biases. Following a baseline assessment of social anxiety, interpretation biases, and WMC, participants completed follow-up assessments of social anxiety both 2 weeks (n = 106) and 4 weeks (n = 96) later. After controlling for baseline social anxiety and WMC, greater positive interpretation bias was found to predict lower social anxiety at both follow-ups. Neither negative interpretation bias nor interpretation inflexibility was significantly associated with follow-up social anxiety. These results provide support for greater positive interpretation bias as a facilitator of decreases in social anxiety and a potential target for clinical intervention.

Does the Power of Social Example Fade? Nudge Effect of Social Information on Individual's Donation Behaviors During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Moderated Mediation Model with Three-Wave Cross-Sectional Data

Purpose

This study assesses how various social information influence individuals' money donation behaviors towards charitable funds against the COVID-19 pandemic at different stages of the pandemic. It also explores the mediating role of social anxiety and the moderating role of self-control.

Materials and Methods

This three-wave study was conducted with online survey experiments using convenience sampling at the pandemic's outbreak stage (April-June 2020), trough stage (February-March 2021), and resurgence stage (May 2022) in China. The nudge power of social information was measured by whether participants changed their initial money donation decisions after informed positive or negative social information. Self-report scales were used to measure levels of social anxiety (Social Interaction Anxiety Scale) and self-control (Self-Control Scale). The final data set included 1371 participants from 26 provinces of mainland China. Stata medeff package and SPSS PROCESS were used to analyze the data.

Results

Individuals' initial donation behaviors did not fluctuate along with the pandemic status, but the nudge effect of social information did. From outbreak stage to trough stage, the nudge power of positive social information significantly declined, but did not significantly change again at the resurgence stage. By contrast, the nudge power of negative social information did not significantly differ between outbreak and trough stage but did significantly increase at the resurgence stage. Social anxiety played a significant mediating role in the relationship between COVID-19 status and power of social information. Moreover, self-control moderated the direct effect of COVID-19 status on power of social information and the indirect effect via social anxiety.

Conclusion

Our findings enrich research on the nudge power variation of social information on individuals' donation behaviors along with the pandemic status and its potential psychological influence factors. This study also helps guide organizations to better design and carry out social information nudge mechanism.

The scarring impact of status loss in social anxiety: An evolutionary perspective

Evolutionary models suggest that social anxiety (SA) is associated with sensitivity to status loss. These models make several additional predictions concerning the strength as well as the specificity of the association between post-event distress (PED) following status losses and SA. First, the strength of this association is postulated to be enhanced in men, especially following status losses inflicted by other men (intra-male status losses). Second, given the evolutionary postulated relationship between social status and physical fitness, sensitivity to status loss in SA is expected to extend to physically threatening events. We examined these predictions in four online samples (total N = 1123; 59% females, 27% above the cutoff for clinically elevated SA). In all studies, participants recalled social status-loss events and rated the emotional and distressing impact of these experiences. In two samples, participants also identified and recalled physically threatening events. Our findings were consistent with evolutionary predictions. SA was associated with PED following social status-loss events (β = 0.27). This association was stronger in men than in women (β = 0.40, β = 0.16, respectively). Moreover, the SA-PED association was especially enhanced following intra-male, compared to intra-female and inter-gender, status losses (β = 0.47, β = 0.26, and β = 0.17, respectively). Furthermore, SA was uniquely associated with PED following physically threatening events, over and above PED following social status-loss events (β = 0.21). Our data highlights the significant impact of socially and physically threatening events and delineates the scarring signature of such events in SA.

Now you see it, now you don’t: Relevance of threat enhances social anxiety-linked attentional bias to angry faces, but relevance of neutral information attenuates it

Temporary goals modulate attention to threat. We examined whether attentional bias to angry faces differs depending on whether a temporary background goal is neutral, or threat related, whilst also measuring social anxiety. Participants performed a dot probe task combined with a separate task that induced a temporary goal. Depending on the phase in this goal task, the goal made angry faces or neutral stimuli (i.e., houses) relevant. The dot probe task measured attention to combinations of angry faces, neutral but goal-relevant stimuli (i.e., houses), and neutral control stimuli. Attention was allocated to angry faces when an angry goal was active. This was more pronounced for people scoring high on social phobia. The neutral goal attenuated attention to angry faces and effects of social phobia were no longer apparent. These findings suggest that individual differences in social anxiety interact with current and temporary goals to affect attentional processes.

The Relationship Between Attention, Interpretation, and Memory Bias During Facial Perception in Social Anxiety

Although cognitive theories suggest the interactive nature of information processing biases in contributing to social anxiety, most studies to date have investigated these biases in isolation. This study aimed at (a) testing the association between social anxiety and each of the threat-related cognitive biases: attention, interpretation, and memory bias; and (b) examining the relationship between these cognitive biases in facial perception. We recruited an unselected sample of 188 adult participants and measured their level of social anxiety and cognitive biases using faces displaying angry, disgusted, happy, and ambiguous versions of these expressions. All bias tasks were assessed with the same set of facial stimuli. Regression analyses showed that social anxiety symptoms significantly predicted attention avoidance and poorer sensitivity in recognizing threatening faces. Social anxiety was, however, unrelated to interpretation bias in our sample. Results of path analysis suggested that attention bias influenced memory bias indirectly through interpretation bias for angry but not disgusted faces. Our findings suggest that, regardless of social anxiety level, when individuals selectively oriented to faces displaying anger, the faces were interpreted to be more negative. This, in turn, predicted better memory for the angry faces. The results provided further empirical support for the combined cognitive bias hypothesis.

The impact of social anxiety on feedback-based go and nogo learning

The term “Pavlovian” bias describes the phenomenon that learning to execute a response to obtain a reward or to inhibit a response to avoid punishment is much easier than learning the reverse. The present study investigated the interplay between this learning bias and individual levels of social anxiety. Since avoidance behavior is a hallmark feature of social anxiety and high levels of social anxiety have been associated with better learning from negative feedback, it is conceivable that the Pavlovian bias is altered in individuals with high social anxiety, with a strong tendency to avoid negative feedback, especially (but not only) in a nogo context. In addition, learning may be modulated by the individual propensity to learn from positive or negative feedback, which can be assessed as a trait-like feature. A sample of 84 healthy university students completed an orthogonalized go/nogo task that decoupled action type (go/nogo) and outcome valence (win/avoid) and a probabilistic selection task based upon which the individual propensity to learn from positive and negative feedback was determined. Self-reported social anxiety and learning propensity were used as predictors in linear mixed-effect model analysis of performance accuracy in the go/nogo task. Results revealed that high socially anxious subjects with a propensity to learn better from negative feedback showed particularly pronounced learning for nogo to avoid while lacking significant learning for nogo to win as well as go to avoid. This result pattern suggests that high levels of social anxiety in concert with negative learning propensity hamper the overcoming of Pavlovian bias in a win context while facilitating response inhibition in an avoidance context. The present data confirm the robust Pavlovian bias in feedback-based learning and add to a growing body of evidence for modulation of feedback learning by individual factors, such as personality traits. Specifically, results show that social anxiety is associated with altered Pavlovian bias, and might suggest that this effect could be driven by altered basal ganglia function primarily affecting the nogo pathway.

Implicit Cognition and Psychopathology: Looking Back and Looking Forward

Implicit cognitive processing is theorized to have a central role in many forms of psychopathology. In the current review, we focus on implicit associations, by which we mean evaluative representations in memory that are difficult to control and do not require conscious reflection to influence affect, cognition, or behavior. We consider definitional and measurement challenges before examining recent empirical evidence for these associations in anxiety, obsessive–compulsive, posttraumatic stress, depressive, and alcohol use disorders. This examination is framed by a brief review of the ways that prominent models of psychopathology represent biased implicit processing of disorder-relevant information. We consider to what extent models reflect more traditional automatic/implicit versus strategic/explicit dual-process perspectives or reflect more recent dynamical systems perspectives in which mental representations are iteratively reprocessed, evolving continuously. Finally, we consider the future research needed to better understand the interactive and temporal dynamics of implicit cognition in psychopathology.

Case conceptualization from a process-based and modular perspective: Rationale and application to mood and anxiety disorders

This article presents the theoretical, clinical, and practical arguments supporting a process-based transdiagnostic approach to psychotherapy. A working definition of "psychological process" is provided, as well as a tri-dimensional categorization of psychological processes potentially involved in psychopathology. Guidelines are proposed to select psychological interventions based on the active psychopathological processes evidenced in a given case. We also provide a rationale to organize treatment as a set of modules, each addressing a specific psychopathological process. Next, we review the main processes that may be active in mood and anxiety disorders, and that are accessible to clinicians in regular practice. For each process, we propose a validated assessment questionnaire. Finally, we offer a free-access web-based instrument that allows clients to fill in these questionnaires via an internet survey, and that provides therapists with a tool to easily decode and interpret the questionnaire results and to present them to the clients.

The impact bias in self and others: Affective and empathic forecasting in individuals with social anxiety

People tend to overestimate the intensity and duration of affect (i.e., impact bias) when making predictions about their own and others' responding, termed affective and empathic forecasting, respectively. Research links impact biases to clinical symptoms of affective disorders, but little work has been done to examine how social anxiety is related to affective and empathic forecasting biases. The current investigation included two studies examining these associations in independent samples of young adults with dimensionally distributed social anxiety symptoms. Study 1 (N = 100) examined the associations between social anxiety and affective and empathic forecasts in response to a series of novel hypothetical vignettes in which a second-person narrator (i.e., the self) elicited anger, disgust, or happiness from another person (i.e., the other). Study 2 utilized an innovative experimental paradigm involving N = 68 participant dyads. Overall, results supported the existence of affective and empathic forecasting biases. Further, symptoms of social anxiety were associated with the tendency to overestimate one's own and others' negative affect and underestimate others' positive affect. Such forecasting biases may help to explain the avoidance that is characteristic of individuals with social anxiety and could represent a fruitful target of cognitive behavioral intervention.

The Role of Shame and Self-Criticism in Social Anxiety: A Daily-Diary Study in a Nonclinical Sample

We sought to explore the daily association between shame and self-criticism, and the extent to which this association varies as a function of social anxiety symptoms. Fifty-nine undergraduate students completed a measure of social anxiety symptoms at a baseline meeting and then completed measures of shame experienced during significant social interactions and self-criticism following those interactions twice daily for 10 days. Social anxiety symptoms predicted more shame during daily social interactions and more self-criticism following them. Additionally, shame predicted subsequent self-criticism. This relationship was moderated by levels of social anxiety symptoms, such that those with higher levels of social anxiety symptoms exhibited high levels of self-criticism following daily social interactions characterized by both high and low shame, whereas those with lower levels of social anxiety symptoms showed high levels of self-criticism only after interactions with high levels of shame. These findings are consistent with the notion that self-criticism may serve as a regulatory coping method when experiencing shame, and that social anxiety difficulties are related to an inflexibly high level of self-criticism.

‘You can hear wholly only if you remove the waxes in your ears’: The Hararghe Oromo’s theory for establishing the intersubjective foundation of cognition

The article sets out to examine the way the Hararghe Oromo in Ethiopia use their mirriiysa culture to express and cultivate criticality, mindfulness, interpersonal sensitivity and emotional intelligence. The paper discusses the nature of the performance culture and analyses the social psychological meanings of a set of mirriiysa texts collected from a group of folk performers who participated also in the interpretation and analysis of the cultural, social and psychological meanings of the texts. For theory, the study drew on interpretivism. During data analysis, the horizontal and vertical planes of analysis interacted and reinforced each other. The act of removing earwax symbolizes a cultural dimension of intersubjectivity and interaffectivity. The analyses indicated that mirriiysa is a socio-cultural performance wherein listening, understanding and responding occur in socially meaningful and interactive contexts. To understand the communicative intent of a mirriiysa text, one should take broader perspectives and pay due attention to the non-linguistic elements that offer the performance holistic import. The paper highlights the implication of these and other findings for our understanding of the meanings of mirriiysa and other genre performances.

Selective attention to emotional prosody in social anxiety: a dichotic listening study

The majority of evidence on social anxiety (SA)-linked attentional biases to threat comes from research using facial expressions. Emotions are, however, communicated through other channels, such as voice. Despite its importance in the interpretation of social cues, emotional prosody processing in SA has been barely explored. This study investigated whether SA is associated with enhanced processing of task-irrelevant angry prosody. Fifty-three participants with high and low SA performed a dichotic listening task in which pairs of male/female voices were presented, one to each ear, with either the same or different prosody (neutral or angry). Participants were instructed to focus on either the left or right ear and to identify the speaker's gender in the attended side. Our main results show that, once attended, task-irrelevant angry prosody elicits greater interference than does neutral prosody. Surprisingly, high socially anxious participants were less prone to distraction from attended-angry (compared to attended-neutral) prosody than were low socially anxious individuals. These findings emphasise the importance of examining SA-related biases across modalities.