An Examination of Four Traditional School Physical Activity Models on Children's Step Counts and MVPA

Classroom Teachers' Perceived Barriers to Implementing Comprehensive School Physical Activity Programs (TPB- CSPAP): Instrument Development

Although physical education teachers generally act as the physical activity champion and promote adherence to whole-school physical activity programs, classroom teachers manage the majority of students' access to movement throughout the school day. Purpose: To support the adoption of a whole-school physical activity program, this study developed an instrument that identifies barriers perceived by classroom teachers related to adopting this type of program in their school. Method: A four-step process provided the conceptual framework for this instrument development (literature review, expert review, quantitative evaluation, and validation). The final validation phase (N = 520 teachers) included two individual analyses to separately evaluate respondents from elementary (K-5) and secondary levels (6-12). Each group was randomly split to run exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) of the models. Results: CFA results support models with adequate fit to the data for barriers for elementary, e.g., (SRMR = 0.0726; Bentler CFI = 0.92.79) and secondary (SRMR = 0.0813; Bentler CFI = 0.9374) teachers for whole-school programming. Conclusion: This instrument can be used by school personnel and researchers to understand perceived barriers for classroom teachers to implement a whole-school physical activity program in their context and then follow up to remove or reduce the barriers.

Variations in Physical Activity and Screentime According to School Format During the COVID-19 Pandemic

BACKGROUND

Early studies indicate children's physical activity (PA) decreased during the pandemic but may vary by school format and season. We longitudinally assessed changes in PA and screentime (ST) behaviors throughout 1 year of the COVID-19 pandemic and according to changes in school format.

METHODS

Parents of children (5-18 years) completed a survey about school format, home characteristics, PA, and ST. Initial data were collected in November 2020 with follow-up in February, May, and August 2021. Physical activity and ST were compared by season and school format using a 4 (format) × 4 (season) repeated measures analysis of variance.

RESULTS

Children were active for at least 60 minutes/day less often in winter (2.4 ± 0.3 days; p < .001; n = 176) than in other seasons. Longitudinal analysis (n = 61) showed that PA was highest among students attending school fully in-person and lowest among students attending remotely, though school format differences were not significant. Non-school ST did not differ by season or school format.

IMPLICATIONS FOR SCHOOL HEALTH POLICY, PRACTICE, AND EQUITY

These results suggest that changes in school format influence students' lifestyle behaviors.

CONCLUSIONS

The impact on children's lifestyle behaviors should be considered in planning for safe, in-person operation of schools in the event of future pandemics or natural disasters.

Effects of applying a multivariate training program on physical fitness and tactical performance in a team sport taught during physical education classes

Introduction

A multivariate training program could be a pedagogical choice to improve physical and tactical performance in a team sport taught during physical education classes at different levels of education. Thus, the aim of this study was to verify the effects of applying a multivariate training program on physical fitness and tactical performance during the teaching of a basketball didactic unit in basic and secondary education.

Methods

Seventy-five students from a Portuguese school, with an average age of 15.02 ± 1.31 years, included forty-two students from basic school and thirty-three students from secondary school. The FITescola® test battery was used to assess physical fitness (i.e., sit-ups, push-ups, horizontal impulse, shuttle test, 40 m sprint, agility 4 × 10 m). The Game Performance Assessment Instrument (GPAI) was used to assess students' tactical performance for each player's game performance during a 20-minute 3 vs. 3 match. The GPAI variables were decision making index (DMI), skill execution index (SEI), support actions index (SI), and adaptability index (AI). During a basketball didactic unit teaching, the students were randomly divided into two groups, a control group that will not carry out the training program and an experimental group that will carry out a strength training program, high intensity explosive exercises and activities based on small-sided games (SSG) for 6 weeks. The two groups were evaluated in two moments: before the application of the training program and after the application of the training program regarding changes in physical fitness and tactical performance. The independent samples t-test (samples from two groups) and paired sample Test (for the same group) were applied for pre and post-assessment comparisons.

Results

All indexes present significant differences between basic and secondary students in the pre- and post-assessment tests with small effects (t = -6.54 to -4.82, Δ = -27.57 to -0.16, p<0.05-p< 0.001, d = 0.78-1.05).

Discussion

The results allow to conclude that in a school environment, a well-structured multivariate training program can effectively improve students' tactical skills, increasing their physical conditioning levels.

Evaluating the Efficacy of Behavior Modification Strategies on Physical Activity Levels Among Incarcerated Youth

This study examined the impact of prompting only and prompting combined with independent group-oriented contingency on incarcerated adolescent males' physical activity level during a sport-leadership program. An alternating treatment design was employed to allow for the evaluation among multiple treatment conditions. The study occurred during 35 consecutive sport programming lessons at a juvenile correctional facility. Participants were 16 adolescent males (Mage = 18.79). Two behavior modification strategies, prompting only and prompting combined with independent group-oriented contingency, were employed. Data were plotted graphically so visual analysis could be determined in order to explore any functional associations between the treatment conditions (e.g., interventions) and target behavior (e.g., step count). Prompting only slightly increased physical activity, whereas prompting in conjunction with independent group-oriented contingency elevated activity levels by 36%, with a smaller standard deviation indicating that all participants were equivalently physically active. The results of this study underpin the expansive benefits of sport-leadership programming, not just in similar programs' ability to develop life skill integration, positively impact life during incarceration, improve attitudes, and promote physical activity, but also to provide elevated opportunities for youth to be physically active.

Physical Activity Interventions During the School Day: Reviewing Policies, Practices, and Benefits

BACKGROUND

There are many ways to increase physical activity (PA) during the school day as part of a Comprehensive School Physical Activity Plan. This article reviews policies and practices that can be used during the school day to increase PA for students.

METHODS

We searched systematic reviews for articles that met criteria (2010-2018, phase 1), followed by a search for individual articles addressing topics for which we did not identify a sufficiently relevant or recent review or to update an earlier review that concluded insufficient evidence (2010-2020, phase 2). We included 45 articles (45 studies, 54 interventions).

RESULTS

We grouped studies by intervention type: school-wide PA approaches to reach all students within the school setting (17), physical education (PE) interventions (13), and interventions related to recess (15). Few studies involved secondary schools or rural settings. Among 45 studies reporting PA behavior or fitness outcomes, 37 reported at least 1 improvement.

CONCLUSIONS

PA policies, PE, and recess can help improve school health by increasing the PA levels of students.

Classroom teachers' "off-the-shelf" use of movement integration products and its impact on children's sedentary behavior and physical activity

Movement integration (MI) products are one of many MI strategies that aim to reduce students' sedentary behavior (SB) and increase physical activity (PA) during classroom time. This study examined elementary classroom teachers' off-the-shelf (i.e., no researcher support) use of MI products (GoNoodle Plus [GN], ABC for Fitness [ABC], Take10) and their impact on students' SB and PA. Teachers (N = 57) at five schools received one MI product and reported MI strategy uses/day while student (n = 1,098, 52% female, 66% Black) accelerometer-determined SB and PA was assessed. Mixed regression models estimated changes in MI uses/day and SB and PA during the school day prior to and after teachers received the MI product. GoNoodle was the only MI product where overall MI strategy uses/day increased (∆ = 0.8, 95% CI = 0.1, 1.4). Across products, students' SB increased (∆ = 2.2, 95% CI = 1.2, 3.1) while light (∆ = -1.7, 95% CI = 1.2, 3.1) and MVPA (∆ = -0.5, 95% CI = -0.8, -0.2) decreased. For GN SB (∆ = -3.3, 95% CI = -7.8, 1.3), light (∆ = 2.5, 95% CI = -0.7, 5.7), and MVPA (∆ = 0.8, 95% CI = -0.9, 2.5), did not show statistically significant change. For Take10 SB (∆ = 1.0, 95% CI = -0.2, 2.2) and MVPA (∆ = 0.1, 95% CI = -0.3, 0.6) did not change while light PA decreased (∆ = -1.1, 95% CI = -2.0, -0.3). For ABC SB increased (∆ = 11.1, 95% CI = 8.4, 13.9) while light (∆ = -7.0, 95% CI = -8.9, -5.0) and MVPA (∆ = -4.2, 95% CI = -5.2, -3.1) decreased. GN shows promise for classroom teacher use. However, given limited uptake of the other products and the lack of change in children's SB and PA, this study suggests that off-the-shelf MI products cannot be integrated into classroom routines without additional support.

Research Brief: Physical Activity Trends Among Incarcerated Youth During a Sport Leadership Program

Research indicates that engagement in physical activity is advantageous to adolescents' overall health. One subset of the population that is not provided with ample opportunities to be physically active includes incarcerated youth. To date, sport leadership programs have been designed to target this population; yet, little is known about physical activity opportunities for participants. The purpose of this study was to explore physical activity during a sport leadership program within a juvenile detention center. The participants were 27 incarcerated male youth (Mage = 18.7 years), all of whom participated in a sport leadership program. Physical activity was assessed during 32 sessions using Yamax DigiWalker SW 701 pedometers. Youth who participated in the sport leadership program accumulated an average of 3232 steps per session, with average standard deviation of 1245.5. As youth attended more sessions, overall physical activity levels during programming increased with a drastic reduction in variance among participants. This study is the first to closely examine and provide insights into youths' physical activity trends across programming and demonstrates a noticeable uptrend in activity and deceleration of variability among participants. Findings suggest that participation in a structured sport leadership program within juvenile detention centers can provide participants a critical opportunity to engage in physical activity.

Influence of Secondary School Students' Physical Fitness on Sports Performance during an Ultimate Frisbee Competition

The aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of secondary school students’ fitness profile on physical and technical−tactical performance in simulated competition conditions of ultimate frisbee when there is no previous experience in the practice of the sport. Forty-three secondary school students participated in this research. The students were divided into two groups according to their results in the Assessing Levels of Physical Activity and fitness test battery (ALPHA fitness test): poor physical fitness (PPF) (N = 24; age: 14.9 ± 0.8 years; height: 166.1 ± 10.9 cm; body mass: 62.2 ± 11.0 kg; ALPHA fitness score: 2.7 ± 0.7 points) and good physical fitness (GPF) (N = 19; age: 14.5 ± 0.6 years; height: 165.9 ± 5.8 cm; body mass: 58.9 ± 7.5 kg; ALPHA fitness score: 4.4 ± 0.3 points). Physical variables during the ultimate frisbee match were assessed using Global Positioning System technology. The matches were video-recorded, and individual technical actions were noted afterwards. The GPF group showed higher values for running (p = 0.039), high-speed running (p = 0.015), sprinting (p = 0.022) and total distance covered (p = 0.025) than the PPF group. In addition, more passes (p = 0.019), offensive decision making (p = 0.009) and player participation (p = 0.046) were recorded in the GPF group than the PPF group. Correlational analysis revealed a positive relationship (p < 0.05) between individual participation and the meters covered for jogging, running, running at high speed and sprinting during the game. In conclusion, although the students were novices in ultimate frisbee, the high physical fitness level had a positive effect on the game performance. Physical education teachers should consider this information when introducing new sports into their physical education classes.

A Systematic Review of Multi-Component Comprehensive School Physical Activity Program (CSPAP) Interventions

OBJECTIVE

To identify, review, and describe multicomponent physical activity (PA) interventions in terms of: (a) number and combination of Comprehensive School Physical Activity Program (CSPAP) components, (b) study characteristics, and (c) primary outcomes.

DATA SOURCE

Five electronic databases (i.e., PubMed, PsychInfo, Physical Education Index, Sport Discus, and ERIC).

STUDY INCLUSION AND EXCLUSION CRITERIA

Included articles were peer-reviewed, written in English language, published since 1987, and included multicomponent school-based interventions.

DATA EXTRACTION

Data items extracted were: school level, setting, CSPAP component description, health outcomes, academic outcomes, main conclusion, and reference.

DATA SYNTHESIS

Included articles were synthesized by: (1) CSPAP components utilized, and (2) research outcome measured (i.e., health or academic).

RESULTS

Across 32 studies, 11 included physical education plus 1 additional CSPAP component (PE + 1); 10 included PE + 2 additional CSPAP components; 8 included PE + 3 additional CSPAP components; and 1 included all 5 CSPAP components. Two other studies included 2 or 3 CSPAP components without PE. Most interventions targeted health outcomes (94%) rather than academic outcomes (6%).

CONCLUSIONS

Multicomponent approaches aligned with CSPAPs are effective in promoting PA and other positive outcomes for youth in schools. Future research should seek to understand effects of CSPAP components on a variety of outcomes and settings.

Segmented School Physical Activity and Weight Status in Children: Application of Compositional Data Analysis

The purpose of this study was to apply compositional data analysis (CoDA) for the analysis of segmented school step counts and associate the school step count composition to body mass index (BMI) z-scores in a sample of children. Participants were 855 (51.8% female) children recruited from the fourth and fifth grades from four schools following a 7-h school schedule. Using piezoelectric pedometers, step count data were collected during physical education, recess, lunch, and during academic class time. A multi-level mixed effects model associated the step count composition with BMI z-scores. Compositional isotemporal substitution determined changes in BMI z-scores per reallocation of steps between pairs of school segments. A higher percentage of steps accrued during physical education (b = −0.34, 95%CI: −0.65–−0.03, p = 0.036) and recess (b = −0.47, 95%CI: −0.83–−0.11, p = 0.012), relative to other segments, was associated with lower BMI z-scores. Specifically, a 5% to 15% reallocation of steps accrued during lunchtime to either physical education or recess was associated with lower BMI z-scores, ranging from −0.07 to −0.25 standard deviation units. Focusing school-based promotion of physical activity during physical education and recess may have greater relative importance if targeted outcomes are weight-related.

The Preliminary Effects of a Multi-Recess School Intervention: Using Accelerometers to Measure Physical Activity Patterns in Elementary Children

This pilot study used accelerometers to investigate the effectiveness of a multiple recess school intervention on physical activity patterns in younger elementary children using a post-test only with nonequivalent groups design. First and second grade students (N = 157) participating in a larger study, the LiiNK Project^® (Let's inspire innovation 'N Kids), wore accelerometers for the duration of the school day for two weeks to measure physical activity intensity and number of steps taken daily. Students attended either an intervention school (N = 90), participating in four 15-min unstructured, outdoor recesses and one 15-min character development lesson daily, or a control school (N = 67), participating in two 15-min unstructured, outdoor recesses daily and no character development program. The intervention students, grades 1 and 2, took more steps (p < 0.001) and time spent in moderate (p < 0.001) and vigorous (p < 0.001) physical activity (MVPA) than the control school students. Intervention students averaged approximately 900 more steps per day than the control school students. These results show young children given 60 min of recess daily continue to increase physical activity patterns over those with 30 min of recess daily. Next steps are to evaluate if children demonstrate healthier body fat levels as a result of these higher patterns of MVPA daily.

Physical Activity Opportunities of Low-Income Elementary School-Aged Children During the Segmented School Day

BACKGROUND

In this study, we examined moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) of children in a school district serving children from low-income and minority households.

METHODS

This observational study was conducted in 8 rural elementary schools in South Carolina. Children (N = 719, age = 7.7 years, 48.0% girls, 88.0% African American) wore accelerometers during school hours. Physical activity was distilled into time engaged in MVPA during 4 distinct opportunities. These 4 opportunities were non-activity time (eg, class-time), extended lunch (lunch recess after eating), physical education (PE), and recess. Mixed effects linear regressions estimated MVPA on days that had no activity opportunities, extended lunch, recess, PE, and multiple activity opportunities (eg, PE and recess).

RESULTS

On days with multiple activity opportunities, girls and boys accumulated 8.0 (95% CI = 4.9, 11.1) and 7.1 (95% CI = 3.6, 10.7) additional minutes of MVPA compared to a no activity day. On PE days boys accumulated 5.2 (95% CI = 0.3, 10.2) additional minutes of MVPA, whereas recess days provided girls with 3.0 (95% CI = 0.1, 6.0) additional MVPA minutes. No other activity opportunities provided statistically significant increases in school-day MVPA.

CONCLUSIONS

In low-income schools it may be necessary to provide multiple physical activity opportunities during the school day to increase boys' and girls' MVPA.

Effects of a Need-Supportive Motor Skill Intervention on Children's Motor Skill Competence and Physical Activity

A need-supportive environment can provide various motivational benefits to impact children’s psychomotor developmental levels. However, very little is known about the effects of need-supportive motor skill intervention on children’s motor skill competence and physical activity by gender. Guided by self-determination theory (SDT), this study aimed to (a) investigate the effect of a need-supportive fundamental movement skill (FMS) program on children’s FMS competence and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA), and (b) explore potential gender differences in these effects. Thirty-six children (63.8% girls; M_age = 6.52 ± 0.97) participated and were divided into two groups: an intervention group (24 need-supportive FMS sessions over eight weeks) and a control group. A repeated-measures multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was used to examine the influence of the motor skill intervention on FMS competence and MVPA over time by group (intervention, control) and gender (boys, girls). The results showed (a) significant group differences between the intervention and control group in FMS competence and MVPA (p < 0.001), (b) non-significant gender differences between boys and girls in FMS competence and MVPA (p = 0.85), and (c) non-significant interaction effects over time (p = 0.52). The findings highlight that a need-supportive FMS program may enhance FMS development and daily physical activity for both genders during the early school years.

Using a multi-stakeholder experience-based design process to co-develop the Creating Active Schools Framework

BACKGROUND

UK and global policies recommend whole-school approaches to improve childrens' inadequate physical activity (PA) levels. Yet, recent meta-analyses establish current interventions as ineffective due to suboptimal implementation rates and poor sustainability. To create effective interventions, which recognise schools as complex adaptive sub-systems, multi-stakeholder input is necessary. Further, to ensure 'systems' change, a framework is required that identifies all components of a whole-school PA approach. The study's aim was to co-develop a whole-school PA framework using the double diamond design approach (DDDA).

METHODOLOGY

Fifty stakeholders engaged in a six-phase DDDA workshop undertaking tasks within same stakeholder (n = 9; UK researchers, public health specialists, active schools coordinators, headteachers, teachers, active partner schools specialists, national organisations, Sport England local delivery pilot representatives and international researchers) and mixed (n = 6) stakeholder groupings. Six draft frameworks were created before stakeholders voted for one 'initial' framework. Next, stakeholders reviewed the 'initial' framework, proposing modifications. Following the workshop, stakeholders voted on eight modifications using an online questionnaire.

RESULTS

Following voting, the Creating Active Schools Framework (CAS) was designed. At the centre, ethos and practice drive school policy and vision, creating the physical and social environments in which five key stakeholder groups operate to deliver PA through seven opportunities both within and beyond school. At the top of the model, initial and in-service teacher training foster teachers' capability, opportunity and motivation (COM-B) to deliver whole-school PA. National policy and organisations drive top-down initiatives that support or hinder whole-school PA. To the authors' knowledge, this is the first time practitioners, policymakers and researchers have co-designed a whole-school PA framework from initial conception. The novelty of CAS resides in identifying the multitude of interconnecting components of a whole-school adaptive sub-system; exposing the complexity required to create systems change. The framework can be used to shape future policy, research and practice to embed sustainable PA interventions within schools. To enact such change, CAS presents a potential paradigm shift, providing a map and method to guide future co-production by multiple experts of PA initiatives 'with' schools, while abandoning outdated traditional approaches of implementing interventions 'on' schools.

China National Assessment of Education Quality - Physical Education & Health (CNAEQ-PEH) 2015: An Introduction

PURPOSE

To summarize the framework and development procedure of the China National Assessment of Education Quality - Physical Education & Health in 2015 (CNAEQ-PEH 2015), an authoritative and evidence-based national surveillance protocol developed by the Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China for Grade 4 and Grade 8 students.

METHODS

The framework of CNAEQ-PEH 2015 included a test battery of physical fitness and health outcomes and self-reported questionnaires regarding facilitators and barriers to physical fitness and health in school settings and family status, completed by students, teachers, and principals. A qualified, standardized, and responsible work procedure was generated to provide insights into the quality of data collection and supervision of large-scale school-based physical fitness testing implementation. Measure development, stratified unequal probability sampling, and implementation were included in the working procedure.

RESULTS

In the first circle of the CNAEQ-PEH conducted on June 18, 2015, 111,173 Grade 4 students from 4,015 elementary schools and 72,243 Grade 8 students from 2,461 middle schools, along with their principals (n = 6,447) and physical education (PE) teachers (n = 11,418), were sampled by probability proportionate to size (PPS) across 323 counties in China. Results provided detailed information regarding students' physical fitness outcomes, learning, lifestyle, and educational environment.

CONCLUSIONS

CNAEQ-PEH 2015 is a large-scale assessment of physical fitness and health outcomes. It helps provide opportunities to understand the physical fitness and health status of Chinese Grade 4 and 8 students and to study the correlations of physical fitness and health, as well as their relationship with education-related indicators and academic performance.

Comparing Physical Activity Behavior of Children During School Between Balanced and Traditional School Day Schedules

BACKGROUND

Some Canadian schools have modified their daily schedules from the traditional school day (TSD) schedule (two 15-minute breaks and one 60-minute break) to a balanced school day (BSD) schedule (two 40-minute breaks). While this change increases daily planning and instructional time, it also changes the amount of time available for moderate-vigorous physical activity (MVPA).

METHODS

This study uses a case-control design to examine differences in objectively measured MVPA between children in 3 schools using a BSD schedule and 3 schools using a TSD schedule. Study participants (aged 10-12 years) were recruited from schools in Ontario, Canada.

RESULTS

Regardless of schedule type, girls had lower MVPA than boys, and as both boys and girls got older their MVPA significantly decreased. The findings indicate there was no statistically significant difference in the total minutes of in-school MVPA between children from BSD schools and children from TSD schools. MVPA was significantly higher for older girls attending BSD schools than older girls attending TSD schools, suggesting that implementing a BSD may help curb declining MVPA as girls enter adolescence.

CONCLUSION

Despite encouraging findings, more rigorous studies (ie, pre-post experiments with control) are needed to better understand how changing schedules impacts children's health.

Physical Activity, Health-Related Fitness, and Classroom Behavior in Children: A Discriminant Function Analysis

PURPOSE

The purpose of this study was to examine the predictive relationship among physical activity, health-related fitness, and on-task classroom behavior in children using a discriminant function analysis.

METHOD

Participants were a convenience sample of children (N = 533; M_age = 8.8 ± 1.9 years) recruited from 77 1st- through 5th-grade classrooms at 3 low-income schools in a capital city in the Southwest United States. Percent of the school day spent in sedentary behavior (%SED), moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (%MVPA), and health-related fitness scores (body mass index [BMI] and Progressive Aerobic Cardiovascular Endurance Run [PACER] laps) were assessed during school hours. Classrooms were observed for on-task behavior during the academic year with the use of 5-s momentary time sampling methodology. A discriminant function analysis was performed using a binary on-task behavior outcome, stratified by an 80% on-task behavior cut point.

RESULTS

The results yielded 1 function (r² = .26, F = 13.1) explaining approximately one quarter of the total variance. The standardized function coefficients were -.29, .29, -.48, and .48 for %SED, %MVPA, BMI, and PACER laps, respectively. The sensitivity and specificity of the derived function for classifying a child into an on-task or off-task classroom were .79 and .73, respectively. Children who belonged to classrooms that achieved 80% on-task behavior displayed shorter times in sedentary behaviors (d = 1.01), lower BMI (d = 0.13), and higher PACER scores (d = 0.22) compared with children who belonged to off-task classrooms.

CONCLUSION

School-day physical activity behaviors and health-related fitness scores can moderately discriminate children who belong to classrooms from low-income schools that are categorized as being sufficiently on task.

SHAPE America's 50 Million StrongTM: Critical Research Questions Related to Youth Physical Activity

SHAPE America - Society of Health and Physical Educators has targeted youth physical activity (PA) as 1 of its 4 goals within the 50 Million Strong^TM campaign. Only 27.1% of youth met the target of all students (preK-12) participating in at least 60 min of PA that increases their heart rate enough to breathe hard at least some of the time for 7 days/week. Thus, improvements for child and adolescent engagement in PA need to be made now through 2029 and beyond. The need for these improvements warrants research related to PA and youth. We present a plethora of research questions within 3 general areas: PA and school PA programs, PA and sedentary behavior measurement, and PA and social justice imperatives. Each question is framed within the social-ecological framework levels of learning, opportunity, policy, and population health.

Fit "N" Cool Kids: The Effects of Character Modeling and Goal Setting on Children's Physical Activity and Fruit and Vegetable Consumption

Efforts to decrease the risk of overweight and obesity should focus on children's physical activity (PA) and fruit and vegetable (FV) consumption. Within school-based interventions, there is insufficient evidence on the effectiveness of the use of character modeling and goal setting to determine changes in step counts, MVPA, and FV consumption. Study participants were 187 students in grades 4 and 5 from 2 Title 1 elementary schools in the Southwest United States. The intervention was a quasi-experimental character modeling and goal setting program. New Lifestyles NL-1000 activity monitors were used to assess number of steps taken and MVPA by the participants. Fruit and vegetable consumption was measured by direct observation. School day steps, MVPA, and FV consumption were recorded at baseline, intervention, and during a 10-week follow-up. There were not differences between groups at baseline. Steps and MVPA were statistically significantly (P < .05; Δ = ~2500 steps and ~5 minutes of MVPA) greater in the intervention compared with the control group over time. Fruit and vegetable consumption was not significantly (P = .308) greater in the intervention compared with the control group over time. Students in the intervention school were significantly more active than students in the control school during the intervention phase and at follow-up. The findings reported here would suggest that character modeling and goal setting can increase PA among elementary aged children but did not increase FV consumption.

The theory of expanded, extended, and enhanced opportunities for youth physical activity promotion

BACKGROUND

Physical activity interventions targeting children and adolescents (≤18 years) often focus on complex intra- and inter-personal behavioral constructs, social-ecological frameworks, or some combination of both. Recently published meta-analytical reviews and large-scale randomized controlled trials have demonstrated that these intervention approaches have largely produced minimal or no improvements in young people's physical activity levels.

DISCUSSION

In this paper, we propose that the main reason for previous studies' limited effects is that fundamental mechanisms that lead to change in youth physical activity have often been overlooked or misunderstood. Evidence from observational and experimental studies is presented to support the development of a new theory positing that the primary mechanisms of change in many youth physical activity interventions are approaches that fall into one of the following three categories: (a) the expansion of opportunities for youth to be active by the inclusion of a new occasion to be active, (b) the extension of an existing physical activity opportunity by increasing the amount of time allocated for that opportunity, and/or (c) the enhancement of existing physical activity opportunities through strategies designed to increase physical activity above routine practice. Their application and considerations for intervention design and interpretation are presented. The utility of these mechanisms, referred to as the Theory of Expanded, Extended, and Enhanced Opportunities (TEO), is demonstrated in their parsimony, logical appeal, support with empirical evidence, and the direct and immediate application to numerous settings and contexts. The TEO offers a new way to understand youth physical activity behaviors and provides a common taxonomy by which interventionists can identify appropriate targets for interventions across different settings and contexts. We believe the formalization of the TEO concepts will propel them to the forefront in the design of future intervention studies and through their use, lead to a greater impact on youth activity behaviors than what has been demonstrated in previous studies.

Prediction of Optimal Daily Step Count Achievement from Segmented School Physical Activity

Optimizing physical activity in childhood is needed for prevention of disease and for healthy social and psychological development. There is limited research examining how segmented school physical activity patterns relate to a child achieving optimal physical activity levels. The purpose of this study was to examine the predictive relationship between step counts during specific school segments and achieving optimal school (6,000 steps/day) and daily (12,000 steps/day) step counts in children. Participants included 1,714 school-aged children (mean age =9.7±1.0years) recruited across six elementary schools. Physical activity was monitored for one week using pedometers. Generalized linear mixed effects models were used to determine the adjusted odds ratios (ORs) of achieving both school and daily step count standards for every 1,000 steps taken during each school segment. The school segment that related in strongest way to a student achieving 6,000 steps during school hours was afternoon recess (OR = 40.03;P<0.001) and for achieving 12,000 steps for the entire day was lunch recess (OR = 5.03;P<0.001). School segments including lunch and afternoon recess play an important role for optimizing daily physical activity in children.