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Angelike T, Musch J. A comparative evaluation of measures to assess randomness in human-generated sequences. Behav Res Methods 2024; 56:7831-7848. [PMID: 38954396 PMCID: PMC11362514 DOI: 10.3758/s13428-024-02456-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/05/2024] [Indexed: 07/04/2024]
Abstract
Whether and how well people can behave randomly is of interest in many areas of psychological research. The ability to generate randomness is often investigated using random number generation (RNG) tasks, in which participants are asked to generate a sequence of numbers that is as random as possible. However, there is no consensus on how best to quantify the randomness of responses in human-generated sequences. Traditionally, psychologists have used measures of randomness that directly assess specific features of human behavior in RNG tasks, such as the tendency to avoid repetition or to systematically generate numbers that have not been generated in the recent choice history, a behavior known as cycling. Other disciplines have proposed measures of randomness that are based on a more rigorous mathematical foundation and are less restricted to specific features of randomness, such as algorithmic complexity. More recently, variants of these measures have been proposed to assess systematic patterns in short sequences. We report the first large-scale integrative study to compare measures of specific aspects of randomness with entropy-derived measures based on information theory and measures based on algorithmic complexity. We compare the ability of the different measures to discriminate between human-generated sequences and truly random sequences based on atmospheric noise, and provide a systematic analysis of how the usefulness of randomness measures is affected by sequence length. We conclude with recommendations that can guide the selection of appropriate measures of randomness in psychological research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tim Angelike
- Institute of Experimental Psychology, Department of Psychological Assessment and Differential Psychology, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Universitätsstraße 1, 40225, Düsseldorf, Germany.
| | - Jochen Musch
- Institute of Experimental Psychology, Department of Psychological Assessment and Differential Psychology, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Universitätsstraße 1, 40225, Düsseldorf, Germany
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2
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Guseva M, Bogler C, Allefeld C, Haynes JD. Instruction effects on randomness in sequence generation. Front Psychol 2023; 14:1113654. [PMID: 37034908 PMCID: PMC10075230 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1113654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2022] [Accepted: 02/20/2023] [Indexed: 04/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Randomness is a fundamental property of human behavior. It occurs both in the form of intrinsic random variability, say when repetitions of a task yield slightly different behavioral outcomes, or in the form of explicit randomness, say when a person tries to avoid being predicted in a game of rock, paper and scissors. Randomness has frequently been studied using random sequence generation tasks (RSG). A key finding has been that humans are poor at deliberately producing random behavior. At the same time, it has been shown that people might be better randomizers if randomness is only an implicit (rather than an explicit) requirement of the task. We therefore hypothesized that randomization performance might vary with the exact instructions with which randomness is elicited. To test this, we acquired data from a large online sample (n = 388), where every participant made 1,000 binary choices based on one of the following instructions: choose either randomly, freely, irregularly, according to an imaginary coin toss or perform a perceptual guessing task. Our results show significant differences in randomness between the conditions as quantified by conditional entropy and estimated Markov order. The randomization scores were highest in the conditions where people were asked to be irregular or mentally simulate a random event (coin toss) thus yielding recommendations for future studies on randomization behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maja Guseva
- Bernstein Center for Computational Neuroscience, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
- Berlin School of Mind and Brain, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany
- Department of Psychology, Humboldt Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany
- *Correspondence: Maja Guseva,
| | - Carsten Bogler
- Bernstein Center for Computational Neuroscience, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Carsten Allefeld
- Department of Psychology, City University of London, London, United Kingdom
| | - John-Dylan Haynes
- Bernstein Center for Computational Neuroscience, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
- Berlin School of Mind and Brain, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany
- Department of Psychology, City University of London, London, United Kingdom
- Berlin Center for Advanced Neuroimaging, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
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3
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Li H, Wang M, Wu Y, Chen X, Xue C, Liu P, Zhang R, Liao Z. Clinical Effect of Electroacupuncture on Acute Sleep Deprivation and Event-Related Potential Affecting the Inhibition Control of the Brain: Study Protocol for a Randomized Controlled Trial. Front Neurol 2022; 13:911668. [PMID: 35873761 PMCID: PMC9305177 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2022.911668] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2022] [Accepted: 06/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Acute sleep deprivation (ASD) can effect mood, attention, memory, alertness and metabolism. Especially, it is often accompanied by cognitive impairment of the brain. Acupuncture is safe and effective for improving cognitive function, but its underlying mechanism is not fully understood. In this study, an event-related potential (ERP) technique will be employed to measure the behavioral, cognitive, and physiological changes produced by electroacupuncture intervention after ASD. Methods We will recruit 60 healthy subjects. The participants will be randomly divided into a treatment group, a control group, a sham electroacupuncture group and a blank group, at a 1:1:1:1 ratio. The primary outcome will be determined by the change from baseline to 36 h in the MoCA score. The secondary results include the amplitude and latency of ERP N2 and P3, Go-hit rates, Go-RTs, No-Go-FA rates, the WCST, the Digit Span Subtest of the WAIS, the ESS score and FS-14. The 15 healthy subjects will not receive acupuncture treatment and ASD, but will receive EEG records and cognition functions test at the beginning and end of the experiment. Electroacupuncture intervention will be performed for 30 min once every 12 h, a total of three times. ERP measurements and other tests will be performed after baseline and ASD, and the statistician and outcome evaluator will be blinded to treatment allocation. Discussion This study is expected to investigate the effectiveness of electroacupuncture in improving cognition for ASD. Trial Registration ChiCTR2200055999.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haiping Li
- College of Acupuncture, Moxibustion and Tuina, Henan University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Mengyu Wang
- School of Rehabilitation Medicine, Henan University of Chinese Medicine, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Yiming Wu
- The Third Affiliated Hospital of Henan University of Chinese Medicine, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Xinwang Chen
- College of Acupuncture, Moxibustion and Tuina, Henan University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Zhengzhou, China
- *Correspondence: Xinwang Chen
| | - Cong Xue
- College of Acupuncture, Moxibustion and Tuina, Henan University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Peidong Liu
- College of Acupuncture, Moxibustion and Tuina, Henan University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Run Zhang
- College of Acupuncture, Moxibustion and Tuina, Henan University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Ziyun Liao
- College of Acupuncture, Moxibustion and Tuina, Henan University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Zhengzhou, China
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4
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Naefgen C, Janczyk M. Free choice tasks as random generation tasks: an investigation through working memory manipulations. Exp Brain Res 2018; 236:2263-2275. [DOI: 10.1007/s00221-018-5295-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2018] [Accepted: 05/17/2018] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
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5
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Engle-Friedman M, Mathew GM, Martinova A, Armstrong F, Konstantinov V. The role of sleep deprivation and fatigue in the perception of task difficulty and use of heuristics. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2018; 11:74-84. [PMID: 30083294 PMCID: PMC6056069 DOI: 10.5935/1984-0063.20180016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
This study investigated the effects of sleep deprivation on perception of task
difficulty and use of heuristics (mental shortcuts) compared to
naturally-experienced sleep at home. Methods: Undergraduate
students were screened and assigned through block-random assignment to
Naturally-Experienced Sleep (NES; n=19) or Total Sleep
Deprivation (TSD; n=20). The next morning, reported fatigue,
perception of task difficulty, and use of “what-is-beautiful-is-good,” “greedy
algorithm,” and “speed-accuracy trade-off” heuristics were assessed.
Results: NES slept for an average of 354.74 minutes
(SD=72.84), or 5.91 hours. TSD rated a reading task as
significantly more difficult and requiring more time than NES. TSD was
significantly more likely to use the greedy algorithm heuristic by skipping
instructions and the what-is-beautiful-is-good heuristic by rating an
unattractive consumer item with a favorable review as poor quality. Those in
Total Sleep Deprivation who chose more difficult math problems made this
selection to finish the task more quickly in findings approaching significance,
indicating use of the speed-accuracy trade-off heuristic. Collapsed across
conditions, self-reported fatigue predicted greater perceived difficulty in both
the reading task and a visuo-motor task, higher quality rating for the
attractive consumer item, and lower quality rating for the unattractive consumer
item. Conclusions: Findings indicate sleep deprivation and fatigue
increase perceptions of task difficulty, promote skipping instructions, and
impair systematic evaluation of unappealing stimuli compared to
naturally-experienced sleep.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Gina Marie Mathew
- Baruch College, City University of New York, Psychology - New York - NY - USA
| | - Anastasia Martinova
- Baruch College, City University of New York, Psychology - New York - NY - USA
| | - Forrest Armstrong
- Baruch College, City University of New York, Psychology - New York - NY - USA
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6
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Algorithmic complexity for psychology: a user-friendly implementation of the coding theorem method. Behav Res Methods 2016; 48:314-29. [PMID: 25761393 DOI: 10.3758/s13428-015-0574-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Kolmogorov-Chaitin complexity has long been believed to be impossible to approximate when it comes to short sequences (e.g. of length 5-50). However, with the newly developed coding theorem method the complexity of strings of length 2-11 can now be numerically estimated. We present the theoretical basis of algorithmic complexity for short strings (ACSS) and describe an R-package providing functions based on ACSS that will cover psychologists' needs and improve upon previous methods in three ways: (1) ACSS is now available not only for binary strings, but for strings based on up to 9 different symbols, (2) ACSS no longer requires time-consuming computing, and (3) a new approach based on ACSS gives access to an estimation of the complexity of strings of any length. Finally, three illustrative examples show how these tools can be applied to psychology.
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7
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Frenda SJ, Fenn KM. Sleep Less, Think Worse: The Effect of Sleep Deprivation on Working Memory. JOURNAL OF APPLIED RESEARCH IN MEMORY AND COGNITION 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jarmac.2016.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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8
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Martella D, Marotta A, Fuentes LJ, Casagrande M. Inhibition of return, but not facilitation, disappears under vigilance decrease due to sleep deprivation. Exp Psychol 2014; 61:99-109. [PMID: 23988869 DOI: 10.1027/1618-3169/a000229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
In this study, we assessed whether unspecific attention processes signaled by general reaction times (RTs), as well as specific facilitatory (validity or facilitation effect) and inhibitory (inhibition of return, IOR) effects involved in the attentional orienting network, are affected by low vigilance due to both circadian factors and sleep deprivation (SD). Eighteen male participants performed a cuing task in which peripheral cues were nonpredictive about the target location and the cue-target interval varied at three levels: 200 ms, 800 ms, and 1,100 ms. Facilitation with the shortest and IOR with the longest cue-target intervals were observed in the baseline session, thus replicating previous related studies. Under SD condition, RTs were generally slower, indicating a reduction in the participants' arousal level. The inclusion of a phasic alerting tone in several trials partially compensated for the reduction in tonic alertness, but not with the longest cue-target interval. With regard to orienting, whereas the facilitation effect due to reflexive shifts of attention was preserved with sleep loss, the IOR was not observed. These results suggest that the decrease of vigilance produced by SD affects both the compensatory effects of phasic alerting and the endogenous component involved in disengaging attention from the cued location, a requisite for the IOR effect being observed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diana Martella
- Basque Center on Cognition, Brain and Language, Donostia-San Sebastián, Spain
| | - Andrea Marotta
- Dipartmento di Psicologia, "Sapienza" Università di Roma, Italy
| | - Luis J Fuentes
- Departamento de Psicología Básica y Metodología, Facultad de Psicología, Universidad de Murcia, Spain
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9
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López Zunini R, Muller-Gass A, Campbell K. The effects of total sleep deprivation on semantic priming: event-related potential evidence for automatic and controlled processing strategies. Brain Cogn 2013; 84:14-25. [PMID: 24220105 DOI: 10.1016/j.bandc.2013.08.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2013] [Revised: 08/19/2013] [Accepted: 08/27/2013] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
There is general consensus that performance on a number of cognitive tasks deteriorates following total sleep deprivation. At times, however, subjects manage to maintain performance. This may be because of an ability to switch cognitive strategies including the exertion of compensatory effort. The present study examines the effects of total sleep deprivation on a semantic word priming task. Word priming is unique because it can be carried out using different strategies involving either automatic, effortless or controlled, effortful processing. Twelve subjects were presented with word pairs, a prime and a target, that were either highly semantically associated (cat…dog), weakly associated (cow…barn) or unassociated (apple…road). In order to increase the probability of the use of controlled processing following normal sleep, the subject's task was to determine if the target word was semantically related to the prime. Furthermore, the time between the offset of the prime and the onset of the target was relatively long, permitting the use of an effortful, expectancy-predictive strategy. Event-related potentials (ERPs) were recorded from 64 electrode sites. After normal sleep, RTs were faster and accuracy higher to highly associated targets; this performance advantage was also maintained following sleep deprivation. A large negative deflection, the N400, was larger to weakly associated and unassociated targets in both sleep-deprived and normal conditions. The overall N400 was however larger in the normal sleep condition. Moreover, a long-lasting negative slow wave developed between the offset of the prime and the onset of the target. These physiological measures are consistent with the use of an effortful, predictive strategy following normal sleep but an automatic, effortless strategy following total sleep deprivation. A picture priming task was also run. This task benefits less from the use of a predictive strategy. Accordingly, in this task, ERPs following the target did not differ as a function of the amount of sleep.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Kenneth Campbell
- School of Psychology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa K1N 6N5, Canada.
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10
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Rand MK, Heuer H. Implicit and explicit representations of hand position in tool use. PLoS One 2013; 8:e68471. [PMID: 23894307 PMCID: PMC3716878 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0068471] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2013] [Accepted: 05/29/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Understanding the interactions of visual and proprioceptive information in tool use is important as it is the basis for learning of the tool's kinematic transformation and thus skilled performance. This study investigated how the CNS combines seen cursor positions and felt hand positions under a visuo-motor rotation paradigm. Young and older adult participants performed aiming movements on a digitizer while looking at rotated visual feedback on a monitor. After each movement, they judged either the proprioceptively sensed hand direction or the visually sensed cursor direction. We identified asymmetric mutual biases with a strong visual dominance. Furthermore, we found a number of differences between explicit and implicit judgments of hand directions. The explicit judgments had considerably larger variability than the implicit judgments. The bias toward the cursor direction for the explicit judgments was about twice as strong as for the implicit judgments. The individual biases of explicit and implicit judgments were uncorrelated. Biases of these judgments exhibited opposite sequential effects. Moreover, age-related changes were also different between these judgments. The judgment variability was decreased and the bias toward the cursor direction was increased with increasing age only for the explicit judgments. These results indicate distinct explicit and implicit neural representations of hand direction, similar to the notion of distinct visual systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miya K Rand
- IfADo-Leibniz Research Centre for Working Environment and Human Factors, Dortmund, Germany.
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11
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Cipolli C, Mazzetti M, Plazzi G. Sleep-dependent memory consolidation in patients with sleep disorders. Sleep Med Rev 2013; 17:91-103. [DOI: 10.1016/j.smrv.2012.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2011] [Revised: 01/13/2012] [Accepted: 01/14/2012] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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12
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Rakitin BC, Tucker AM, Basner RC, Stern Y. The effects of stimulus degradation after 48 hours of total sleep deprivation. Sleep 2012; 35:113-21. [PMID: 22215925 DOI: 10.5665/sleep.1598] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022] Open
Abstract
STUDY OBJECTIVES To test the hypothesis that total sleep deprivation (TSD) slows stimulus detection and evaluation processes. Towards that end we manipulate degradation of the imperative stimulus, a manipulation well established to affect the processes of interest, in a delayed letter recognition (DLR) task and the psychomotor vigilance task (PVT), and predicted that after TSD the ordinary reaction time (RT) slowing effect of stimulus degradation would be increased. These hypotheses were only partially confirmed (see below). DESIGN Participants were exposed to 48 h of total sleep loss. The PVT and DLR were administered to the same participants. The PVT was administered 8 times -every 6 h from 12:00 on Day 1. The DLR was administered twice, at 09:00 of Day 1 and 48 h later. SETTING Participants were continuously monitored in a sleep laboratory. SUBJECTS 26 healthy young adults enrolled. Due to dropouts and technical failures, the final n's were 20 for the DLR and 21 for the PVT. MEASUREMENTS AND RESULTS General linear mixed models were employed. In the DLR task there was no interaction between TSD and degradation on any variable. There was, however, a significant interaction between TSD and degradation on mean reaction time in the PVT (P = 0.01). CONCLUSIONS As in our previous reports, we observe the specificity with which total sleep deprivation affects cognitive processes. One aspect of visual processing, stimulus detection, was affected by total sleep deprivation and made a significant contribution to the performance impairments observed. Another aspect of visual processing, stimulus evaluation, remained unaffected after 2 days and nights of total sleep loss.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian C Rakitin
- Cognitive Neuroscience Division of the Taub Institute for Research in Alzheimer's Disease and the Aging Brain, Department of Neurology, Columbia University, 630 West 168th Street, New York, NY 10032, USA.
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Barclay NL, Eley TC, Maughan B, Rowe R, Gregory AM. Associations between diurnal preference, sleep quality and externalizing behaviours: a behavioural genetic analysis. Psychol Med 2011; 41:1029-1040. [PMID: 20836908 DOI: 10.1017/s0033291710001741] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Certain aspects of sleep co-occur with externalizing behaviours in youth, yet little is known about these associations in adults. The present study: (1) examines the associations between diurnal preference (morningness versus eveningness), sleep quality and externalizing behaviours; (2) explores the extent to which genetic and environmental influences are shared between or are unique to these phenotypes; (3) examines the extent to which genetic and environmental influences account for these associations. method: Questionnaires assessing diurnal preference, sleep quality and externalizing behaviours were completed by 1556 young adult twins and siblings. RESULTS A preference for eveningness and poor sleep quality were associated with greater externalizing symptoms [r=0.28 (95% CI 0.23-0.33) and 0.34 (95% CI 0.28-0.39), respectively]. A total of 18% of the genetic influences on externalizing behaviours were shared with diurnal preference and sleep quality and an additional 14% were shared with sleep quality alone. Non-shared environmental influences common to the phenotypes were small (2%). The association between diurnal preference and externalizing behaviours was mostly explained by genetic influences [additive genetic influence (A)=80% (95% CI 0.56-1.01)], as was the association between sleep quality and externalizing behaviours [A=81% (95% CI 0.62-0.99)]. Non-shared environmental (E) influences accounted for the remaining variance for both associations [E=20% (95% CI -0.01 to 0.44) and 19% (95% CI 0.01-0.38), respectively]. CONCLUSIONS A preference for eveningness and poor sleep quality are moderately associated with externalizing behaviours in young adults. There is a moderate amount of shared genetic influences between the phenotypes and genetic influences account for a large proportion of the association between sleep and externalizing behaviours. Further research could focus on identifying specific genetic polymorphisms common to both sleep and externalizing behaviours.
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Affiliation(s)
- N L Barclay
- Department of Psychology, Goldsmiths, University of London, Lewisham Way, New Cross, London, UK.
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14
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Alerting, orienting and executive control: the effects of sleep deprivation on attentional networks. Exp Brain Res 2011; 210:81-9. [PMID: 21390488 DOI: 10.1007/s00221-011-2605-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2009] [Accepted: 02/14/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Sleep deprivation alters attentional functions like vigilance or tonic alerting (i.e., sustaining an alert state over a period of time). However, the effects of sleep loss on both orienting and executive control are still not clear, and no study has assessed whether sleep deprivation might affect the relationships among these three attentional systems. In order to investigate the efficiency of the three attentional networks--alerting, orienting and executive control--within a single task, we used the Attention Network Test (ANT). Eighteen right-handed male participants took part in the experiment, which took place on two consecutive days. On the first day, each participant performed a 20 min training session of the ANT. On the second day, participants remained awake for 24 h during which time the ANT was performed once at 5:00 p.m. and once at 4:00 a.m. Results showed an overall slowing of reaction times in the nocturnal session, indicating a strong decrease in vigilance. Furthermore, sleep deprivation did affect attentional orienting and executive control. Results are consistent with the hypothesis that the tonic component of alerting interacts with both attentional orienting and executive functions.
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15
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Tucker AM, Whitney P, Belenky G, Hinson JM, Van Dongen HPA. Effects of sleep deprivation on dissociated components of executive functioning. Sleep 2010; 33:47-57. [PMID: 20120620 DOI: 10.1093/sleep/33.1.47] [Citation(s) in RCA: 182] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
STUDY OBJECTIVES We studied the effects of sleep deprivation on executive functions using a task battery which included a modified Sternberg task, a probed recall task, and a phonemic verbal fluency task. These tasks were selected because they allow dissociation of some important executive processes from non-executive components of cognition. DESIGN Subjects were randomized to a total sleep deprivation condition or a control condition. Performance on the executive functions task battery was assessed at baseline, after 51 h of total sleep deprivation (or no sleep deprivation in the control group), and following 2 nights of recovery sleep, at fixed time of day (11:00). Performance was also measured repeatedly throughout the experiment on a control task battery, for which the effects of total sleep deprivation had been documented in previously published studies. SETTING Six consecutive days and nights in a controlled laboratory environment with continuous behavioral monitoring. PARTICIPANTS Twenty-three healthy adults (age range 22-38 y; 11 women). Twelve subjects were randomized to the sleep deprivation condition; the others were controls. RESULTS Performance on the control task battery was considerably degraded during sleep deprivation. Overall performance on the modified Sternberg task also showed impairment during sleep deprivation, as compared to baseline and recovery and compared to controls. However, two dissociated components of executive functioning on this task--working memory scanning efficiency and resistance to proactive interference--were maintained at levels equivalent to baseline. On the probed recall task, resistance to proactive interference was also preserved. Executive aspects of performance on the phonemic verbal fluency task showed improvement during sleep deprivation, as did overall performance on this task. CONCLUSION Sleep deprivation affected distinct components of cognitive processing differentially. Dissociated non-executive components of cognition in executive functions tasks were degraded by sleep deprivation, as was control task performance. However, the executive functions of working memory scanning efficiency and resistance to proactive interference were not significantly affected by sleep deprivation, nor were dissociated executive processes of phonemic verbal fluency performance. These results challenge the prevailing view that executive functions are especially vulnerable to sleep loss. Our findings also question the idea that impairment due to sleep deprivation is generic to cognitive processes subserved by attention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adrienne M Tucker
- Sleep and Performance Research Center, Washington State University Spokane, WA 99210-1495, USA
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16
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Heuer H, Janczyk M, Kunde W. Random noun generation in younger and older adults. Q J Exp Psychol (Hove) 2010; 63:465-78. [DOI: 10.1080/17470210902974138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
We examined age-related changes of executive functions by means of random noun generation. Consistent with previous observations on random letter generation, older participants produced more prepotent responses than younger ones. In the case of random noun generation, prepotent responses are nouns of the same category as the preceding noun. In contrast to previous observations, older participants exhibited stronger repetition avoidance and a stronger tendency toward local evenness—that is, toward equal frequencies of the alternative responses even in short subsequences. These data suggest that at higher adult age inhibition of prepotent responses is impaired. In addition, strategic attentional processes of response selection are strengthened, in particular the application of a heuristic for randomness. In this sense response selection is more controlled in older than in younger adults.
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Affiliation(s)
- Herbert Heuer
- IfADo–Leibniz Research Centre for Working Environment and Human Factors, Dortmund, Germany
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17
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Reynolds AC, Banks S. Total sleep deprivation, chronic sleep restriction and sleep disruption. PROGRESS IN BRAIN RESEARCH 2010; 185:91-103. [PMID: 21075235 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-444-53702-7.00006-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/07/2022]
Abstract
Sleep loss may result from total sleep deprivation (such as a shift worker might experience), chronic sleep restriction (due to work, medical conditions or lifestyle) or sleep disruption (which is common in sleep disorders such as sleep apnea or restless legs syndrome). Total sleep deprivation has been widely researched, and its effects have been well described. Chronic sleep restriction and sleep disruption (also known as sleep fragmentation) have received less experimental attention. Recently, there has been increasing interest in sleep restriction and disruption as it has been recognized that they have a similar impact on cognitive functioning as a period of total sleep deprivation. Sleep loss causes impairments in cognitive performance and simulated driving and induces sleepiness, fatigue and mood changes. This review examines recent research on the effects of sleep deprivation, restriction and disruption on cognition and neurophysiologic functioning in healthy adults, and contrasts the similarities and differences between these three modalities of sleep loss.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy C Reynolds
- Centre for Sleep Research, University of South Australia, Adelaide, Australia
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Friedman NP, Corley RP, Hewitt JK, Wright KP. Individual differences in childhood sleep problems predict later cognitive executive control. Sleep 2009; 32:323-33. [PMID: 19294952 PMCID: PMC2647786 DOI: 10.1093/sleep/32.3.323] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
STUDY OBJECTIVE To determine whether individual differences in developmental patterns of general sleep problems are associated with 3 executive function abilities-inhibiting, updating working memory, and task shifting-in late adolescence. PARTICIPANTS 916 twins (465 female, 451 male) and parents from the Colorado Longitudinal Twin Study. MEASUREMENTS AND RESULTS Parents reported their children's sleep problems at ages 4 years, 5 y, 7 y, and 9-16 y based on a 7-item scale from the Child-Behavior Checklist; a subset of children (n = 568) completed laboratory assessments of executive functions at age 17. Latent variable growth curve analyses were used to model individual differences in longitudinal trajectories of childhood sleep problems. Sleep problems declined over time, with approximately 70% of children having > or = 1 problem at age 4 and approximately 33% of children at age 16. However, significant individual differences in both the initial levels of problems (intercept) and changes across time (slope) were observed. When executive function latent variables were added to the model, the intercept did not significantly correlate with the later executive function latent variables; however, the slope variable significantly (P < 0.05) negatively correlated with inhibiting (r = -0.27) and updating (r = -0.21), but not shifting (r = -0.10) abilities. Further analyses suggested that the slope variable predicted the variance common to the 3 executive functions (r = -0.29). CONCLUSIONS Early levels of sleep problems do not seem to have appreciable implications for later executive functioning. However, individuals whose sleep problems decrease more across time show better general executive control in late adolescence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naomi P Friedman
- Institute for Behavioral Genetics, University of Colorado at Boulder Boulder CO 80309, USA.
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Kahn-Greene ET, Lipizzi EL, Conrad AK, Kamimori GH, Killgore WD. Sleep deprivation adversely affects interpersonal responses to frustration. PERSONALITY AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 2006. [DOI: 10.1016/j.paid.2006.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 121] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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Gottselig JM, Adam M, Rétey JV, Khatami R, Achermann P, Landolt HP. Random number generation during sleep deprivation: effects of caffeine on response maintenance and stereotypy. J Sleep Res 2006; 15:31-40. [PMID: 16490000 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2869.2006.00497.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Neurophysiological and functional imaging studies have demonstrated that frontal regions of the brain are particularly responsive to homeostatic sleep pressure. Previous neuropsychological studies indicate that sleep deprivation causes impairments in prefrontal cortical function. Random number generation (RNG) is thought to provide a sensitive index of executive functions that rely on the prefrontal cortex. The present study tested the hypothesis that sleep deprivation would impair RNG and that caffeine would mitigate this impairment. Healthy young men (n = 21) participated in two 40-h sleep deprivations 1 week apart. During each sleep deprivation period subjects received either caffeine or placebo according to a randomized, double-blind cross-over design, and they completed an oral RNG task at 3-h intervals. Comparison of test sessions at analogous times of day revealed that sleep deprivation was associated with significant drops in the number of responses, a threefold increase in the percentage of rule violations, 59% greater response redundancy and a 20% increase in stereotypy of adjacent response pairs. Sleep deprivation did not consistently alter counting tendency. Caffeine ameliorated the decrease in the number of responses but did not mitigate other deficits in RNG that arose during sleep deprivation. These findings are consistent with prior reports of diminished vigilance and increased perseveration during extended wakefulness. They support the conclusion that caffeine preserves simple aspects of cognitive performance during sleep deprivation, whereas caffeine may not prevent detrimental effects of sleep deprivation on some complex cognitive functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julie M Gottselig
- Section of Psychopharmacology and Sleep Research, Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.
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