1
|
Das S, Das A, Das N, Nath T, Langthasa M, Pandey P, Kumar V, Choure K, Kumar S, Pandey P. Harnessing the potential of microbial keratinases for bioconversion of keratin waste. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2024:10.1007/s11356-024-34233-6. [PMID: 38985428 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-024-34233-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2023] [Accepted: 06/30/2024] [Indexed: 07/11/2024]
Abstract
The increasing global consumption of poultry meat has led to the generation of a vast quantity of feather keratin waste daily, posing significant environmental challenges due to improper disposal methods. A growing focus is on utilizing keratinous polymeric waste, amounting to millions of tons annually. Keratins are biochemically rigid, fibrous, recalcitrant, physiologically insoluble, and resistant to most common proteolytic enzymes. Microbial biodegradation of feather keratin provides a viable solution for augmenting feather waste's nutritional value while mitigating environmental contamination. This approach offers an alternative to traditional physical and chemical treatments. This review focuses on the recent findings and work trends in the field of keratin degradation by microorganisms (bacteria, actinomycetes, and fungi) via keratinolytic and proteolytic enzymes, as well as the limitations and challenges encountered due to the low thermal stability of keratinase, and degradation in the complex environmental conditions. Therefore, recent biotechnological interventions such as designing novel keratinase with high keratinolytic activity, thermostability, and binding affinity have been elaborated here. Enhancing protein structural rigidity through critical engineering approaches, such as rational design, has shown promise in improving the thermal stability of proteins. Concurrently, metagenomic annotation offers insights into the genetic foundations of keratin breakdown, primarily predicting metabolic potential and identifying probable keratinases. This may extend the understanding of microbial keratinolytic mechanisms in a complex community, recognizing the significance of synergistic interactions, which could be further utilized in optimizing industrial keratin degradation processes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sandeep Das
- Department of Microbiology, Assam University, Silchar, 788011, Assam, India
| | - Ankita Das
- Department of Microbiology, Assam University, Silchar, 788011, Assam, India
| | - Nandita Das
- Department of Microbiology, Assam University, Silchar, 788011, Assam, India
| | - Tamanna Nath
- Department of Microbiology, Assam University, Silchar, 788011, Assam, India
| | | | - Prisha Pandey
- Department of Biotechnology, Royal Global University, Guwahati, 781035, Assam, India
| | - Vijay Kumar
- Himalayan School of Biosciences, Swami Rama Himalayan University, Dehradun, India, 248016
| | - Kamlesh Choure
- Department of Biotechnology, AKS University, Satna, 485001, Madhya Pradesh, India
| | - Sanjeev Kumar
- Department of Life Sciences and Bioinformatics, Assam University, Silchar, 788011, Assam, India
| | - Piyush Pandey
- Department of Microbiology, Assam University, Silchar, 788011, Assam, India.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Ablimit N, Zheng F, Wang Y, Wen J, Wang H, Deng K, Cao Y, Wang Z, Jiang W. Bacillus velezensis strain NA16 shows high poultry feather-degrading efficiency, protease and amino acid production. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2024; 278:116353. [PMID: 38691885 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2024.116353] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2023] [Revised: 04/12/2024] [Accepted: 04/18/2024] [Indexed: 05/03/2024]
Abstract
Isolated Bacillus velezensis strain NA16, which produces proteases, amino acids and the transcription levels of different keratinolytic enzymes and disulfide reductase genes in whole gene sequencing, was evaluated during feather degradation. The result shows under optimum fermentation conditions, chicken feather fermentation showed total amino acid concentration of 7599 mg/L, degradation efficiency of 99.3% at 72 h, and protease activity of 1058 U/mL and keratinase activity of 288 U/mL at 48 h. Goose feather fermentation showed total amino acid concentration of 4918 mg/L (96 h), and degradation efficiency was 98.9% at 120 h. Chicken feather fermentation broth at 72 h showed high levels of 17 amino acids, particularly phenylalanine (1050 ± 1.90 mg/L), valine (960 ± 1.04 mg/L), and glutamic (950 ± 3.00 mg/L). Scanning electron microscopy and Fourier transform infrared analysis revealed the essential role of peptide bond cleavage in structural changes and degradation of feathers. Protein purification and zymographic analyses revealed a key role in feather degradation of the 39-kDa protein encoded by gene1031, identified as an S8 family serine peptidase. Whole genome sequencing of NA16 revealed 26 metalloproteinase genes and 22 serine protease genes. Among the proteins, S8 family serine peptidase (gene1031, gene1428) and S9 family peptidase (gene3132) were shown by transcription analysis to play major roles in chicken feather degradation. These findings revealed the transcription levels of different families of keratinolytic enzymes in the degradation of feather keratin by microorganisms, and suggested potential applications of NA16 in feather waste management and amino acid production.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nuraliya Ablimit
- State Key Laboratory of Animal Biotech Breeding, College of Biological Sciences, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China.
| | - Fengzhen Zheng
- College of Biological and Environmental Engineering, Zhejiang Shuren University, 36 Zhoushan E Rd, Hangzhou 310015, China.
| | - Yan Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Animal Biotech Breeding, College of Biological Sciences, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China.
| | - Jiaqi Wen
- State Key Laboratory of Animal Biotech Breeding, College of Biological Sciences, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China.
| | - Hui Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Animal Biotech Breeding, College of Biological Sciences, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China.
| | - Kun Deng
- State Key Laboratory of Animal Biotech Breeding, College of Biological Sciences, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China.
| | - Yunhe Cao
- State Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China.
| | - Zengli Wang
- College of Food Science and Nutritional Engineering, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China.
| | - Wei Jiang
- State Key Laboratory of Animal Biotech Breeding, College of Biological Sciences, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Li K, Li G, Liang Y, Zhang R, Peng S, Tan M, Ma D. Structural and enzymatic characterization of a novel metallo-serine keratinase KerJY-23. Int J Biol Macromol 2024; 260:129659. [PMID: 38266845 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2024.129659] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2023] [Revised: 01/02/2024] [Accepted: 01/19/2024] [Indexed: 01/26/2024]
Abstract
KerJY-23 was a novel keratinase from feather-degrading Ectobacillus sp. JY-23, but its enzymatic characterization and structure are still unclear. In this study, the KerJY-23 was obtained by heterologous expression in Escherichia coli BL21(DE3), and enzymatic properties indicated that KerJY-23 was optimal at 60 °C and pH 9.0 and could be promoted by divalent metal ions or reducing agents. Furthermore, KerJY-23 had a broad substrate specificity towards casein, soluble keratin, and expanded feather powder, but its in vitro degradation against chicken feathers required an additional reducing agent. Homology modeling indicated that KerJY-23 contained a highly conserved zinc-binding HELTH motif and a His-Asp-Ser catalytic triad that belonged to the typical characteristics of M4-family metallo-keratinase and serine-keratinase, respectively. Molecular docking revealed that KerJY-23 achieved a reinforced binding on feather keratin via abundant hydrogen bonding interactions. This work not only deepened understanding of the novel and interesting metallo-serine keratinase KerJY-23, but also provided a theoretical basis for realizing the efficient use of waste feather keratin.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kuntai Li
- College of Food Science and Technology of Guangdong Ocean University, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Aquatic Product Processing and Safety, Guangdong Provincial Engineering Technology Research Center of Seafood, Guangdong Province Engineering Laboratory for Marine Biological Products, Key Laboratory of Advanced Processing of Aquatic Product of Guangdong Higher Education Institution, Zhanjiang 524088, China
| | - Ganghui Li
- College of Food Science and Technology of Guangdong Ocean University, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Aquatic Product Processing and Safety, Guangdong Provincial Engineering Technology Research Center of Seafood, Guangdong Province Engineering Laboratory for Marine Biological Products, Key Laboratory of Advanced Processing of Aquatic Product of Guangdong Higher Education Institution, Zhanjiang 524088, China
| | - Yingyin Liang
- College of Food Science and Technology of Guangdong Ocean University, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Aquatic Product Processing and Safety, Guangdong Provincial Engineering Technology Research Center of Seafood, Guangdong Province Engineering Laboratory for Marine Biological Products, Key Laboratory of Advanced Processing of Aquatic Product of Guangdong Higher Education Institution, Zhanjiang 524088, China
| | - Rong Zhang
- Jiangxi Engineering Laboratory for the Development and Utilization of Agricultural Microbial Resources, Jiangxi Agricultural University, Nanchang 330045, China
| | - Shuaiying Peng
- Jiangxi Engineering Laboratory for the Development and Utilization of Agricultural Microbial Resources, Jiangxi Agricultural University, Nanchang 330045, China.
| | - Minghui Tan
- College of Food Science and Technology of Guangdong Ocean University, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Aquatic Product Processing and Safety, Guangdong Provincial Engineering Technology Research Center of Seafood, Guangdong Province Engineering Laboratory for Marine Biological Products, Key Laboratory of Advanced Processing of Aquatic Product of Guangdong Higher Education Institution, Zhanjiang 524088, China
| | - Donglin Ma
- College of Food Science and Technology of Guangdong Ocean University, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Aquatic Product Processing and Safety, Guangdong Provincial Engineering Technology Research Center of Seafood, Guangdong Province Engineering Laboratory for Marine Biological Products, Key Laboratory of Advanced Processing of Aquatic Product of Guangdong Higher Education Institution, Zhanjiang 524088, China.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Li K, Li G, Peng S, Tan M. Effective biodegradation on chicken feather by the recombinant KerJY-23 Bacillus subtilis WB600: A synergistic process coupled by disulfide reductase and keratinase. Int J Biol Macromol 2023; 253:127194. [PMID: 37793516 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.127194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2023] [Revised: 09/26/2023] [Accepted: 09/30/2023] [Indexed: 10/06/2023]
Abstract
Keratin wastes are abundantly available but rich in hard-degrading fibrous proteins, and the keratinase-producing microorganisms have gained significant attention due to their biodegradation ability against keratinous materials. In order to improve the degradation efficiency of feather keratins, the keratinase gene (kerJY-23) from our previously isolated feather-degrading Ectobacillus sp. JY-23 was overexpressed in Bacillus subtilis WB600 strain. The recombinant KerJY-23 strain degraded chicken feathers rapidly within 48 h, during which the activities of disulfide reductase and keratinase KerJY-23 were sharply increased, and the free amino acids especially the essential phenylalanine and tyrosine were significantly accumulated in feather hydrolysate. The results of structural characterizations including scanning electron microscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectrum, X-ray diffraction, and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, demonstrated that the feather microstructure together with the polypeptide bonds and SS bonds in feather keratins were attacked and destroyed by the recombinant KerJY-23 strain. Therefore, the recombinant KerJY-23 strain contributed to feather degradation through the synergistic action of the secreted disulfide reductase to break the SS bonds and keratinase (KerJY-23) to hydrolyze the polypeptide bonds in keratins. This study offers a new insight into the underlying mechanism of keratin degradation, and provides a potential recombinant strain for the valorization of keratin wastes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kuntai Li
- College of Food Science and Technology of Guangdong Ocean University, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Aquatic Product Processing and Safety, Guangdong Provincial Engineering Technology Research Center of Seafood, Guangdong Province Engineering Laboratory for Marine Biological Products, Key Laboratory of Advanced Processing of Aquatic Product of Guangdong Higher Education Institution, Zhanjiang 524088, China
| | - Ganghui Li
- College of Food Science and Technology of Guangdong Ocean University, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Aquatic Product Processing and Safety, Guangdong Provincial Engineering Technology Research Center of Seafood, Guangdong Province Engineering Laboratory for Marine Biological Products, Key Laboratory of Advanced Processing of Aquatic Product of Guangdong Higher Education Institution, Zhanjiang 524088, China
| | - Shuaiying Peng
- Jiangxi Engineering Laboratory for the Development and Utilization of Agricultural Microbial Resources, Jiangxi Agricultural University, Nanchang 330045, China.
| | - Minghui Tan
- College of Food Science and Technology of Guangdong Ocean University, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Aquatic Product Processing and Safety, Guangdong Provincial Engineering Technology Research Center of Seafood, Guangdong Province Engineering Laboratory for Marine Biological Products, Key Laboratory of Advanced Processing of Aquatic Product of Guangdong Higher Education Institution, Zhanjiang 524088, China.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Zhang J, Liang M, Wu L, Yang Y, Sun Y, Wang Q, Gao X. Bioconversion of feather waste into bioactive nutrients in water by Bacillus licheniformis WHU. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2023; 107:7055-7070. [PMID: 37750916 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-023-12795-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2023] [Revised: 08/23/2023] [Accepted: 09/13/2023] [Indexed: 09/27/2023]
Abstract
Feathers become hazardous pollutants when deposited directly into the environment. The rapid expansion of the poultry industry has significantly increased feather waste, necessitating the development of new ways to degrade and utilize feathers. This study investigated the ability of Bacillus licheniformis WHU to digest intact chicken feathers in water. The results indicated that yields of free amino acids, bioactive peptides, and keratin-derived nano-/micro-particles were improved in bacteria- versus purified keratinase-derived feather hydrolysate. Bacteria-derived feather hydrolysate supplementation induced health benefits in mice, including significantly increased intestinal villus height and zonula occludens-1 protein expression, as well as increased secretory immunoglobulin A levels in the intestinal mucosa and superoxide dismutase activity in serum. Additionally, feather hydrolysate supplementation modulated the mouse gut microbiota, reflected by increased relative abundance of probiotics such as Lactobacillus spp., decreased relative abundance of Proteobacteria at the phylum level and pathogens such as Staphylococcus spp., and increased Bacteroidota/Firmicutes ratio. This study developed a simple, cost-effective method to degrade feathers by B. licheniformis WHU digestion, yielding a hydrolysate that can be directly used as a bioactive nutrient resource. The study findings have applications in the livestock, poultry, and aquaculture industries, which have high demands for cheap protein. KEY POINTS: • Bacillus licheniformis could degrade intact feather in water. • The resulting feather hydrolysate shows prebiotic effects on mouse.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jing Zhang
- School of Pharmacy, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, 646000, Sichuan, China
| | - Manyu Liang
- School of Pharmacy, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, 646000, Sichuan, China
| | - Lijuan Wu
- Department of Endocrinology, The Affiliated Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital of Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, 646000, Sichuan, China
| | - Yanhong Yang
- School of Pharmacy, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, 646000, Sichuan, China
| | - Yingjie Sun
- School of Pharmacy, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, 646000, Sichuan, China
| | - Qin Wang
- School of Pharmacy, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, 646000, Sichuan, China.
- Dazhou Vocational College of Chinese Medicine, Tongchuan District, Luojiang Town, Dazhou, 635000, China.
| | - Xiaowei Gao
- School of Pharmacy, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, 646000, Sichuan, China.
- Dazhou Vocational College of Chinese Medicine, Tongchuan District, Luojiang Town, Dazhou, 635000, China.
- Green Pharmaceutical Technology Key Laboratory of Luzhou, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, 646000, Sichuan, China.
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Xu Y, Hu K, Liu C, Du P, Zhou F, Lu Y, Fu Q, Xu J, Lyu G. Eschar dissolution and the immunoregulator effect of keratinase on burn wounds. Sci Rep 2023; 13:13238. [PMID: 37580372 PMCID: PMC10425458 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-39765-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2023] [Accepted: 07/30/2023] [Indexed: 08/16/2023] Open
Abstract
At present, enzyme debridement preparation has shown a good curative effect on eschar removal of burn wounds. Keratinase has shown great potential in enzymatic debridement because of its good fibrin-degrading ability. In this study, the debridement of keratinase was examined by using a third degree burn wound model in rats. We observed the wound, and keratinase shortened the time of eschar dissolution after debridement. Histopathology and immunofluorescence staining showed that the eschar in the keratinase group became thinner, inflammatory cell infiltration in the wound increased, the fluorescence intensity of the macrophage surface marker CD68 increased, and the CD163/CD86 ratio increased. In bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDMs), there was no significant difference in the activity of CCK-8 in cells in the keratinase group compared with the control group. The fluorescence intensity of the keratinase group was higher than that of the control group. At 12 h, the cell scratches were obviously closed. The number of migrated Transwell cells increased. Flow cytometry and immunofluorescence analysis showed increased expression of CD206 and Arg-1 and decreased expression of CD86 and iNOS. The gene expression of the Arg-1, iNOS and IL-10 was increased, as shown by qPCR. The secretion of IL-10 was increased and TNF-α was decreased, as shown by ELISA. We concluded that keratinase dissolution of eschar not only has a hydrolytic effect on eschar but may also affect immune regulation to enhance the migration and phagocytosis of macrophages, promote the polarization of macrophages, and further enhance the effect of eschar dissolution. Therefore, keratinase may have good prospects for the debridement of burn wounds.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yan Xu
- Wuxi Clinical Medical College of Nanjing University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Wuxi, 214041, China
- Affiliated Hospital of Jiangnan University, Wuxi, 214041, China
| | - Kai Hu
- Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, 210023, China
| | - Chenyang Liu
- Affiliated Hospital of Jiangnan University, Wuxi, 214041, China
| | - Pan Du
- Jiangnan University, Wuxi, 214122, China
| | - Feifan Zhou
- Medical College of Nantong University, Nantong, 226000, China
| | - Yichi Lu
- Jiangnan University, Wuxi, 214122, China
| | - Qiuyan Fu
- Jiangnan University, Wuxi, 214122, China
| | - Jianmin Xu
- Affiliated Hospital of Jiangnan University, Wuxi, 214041, China.
| | - Guozhong Lyu
- Affiliated Hospital of Jiangnan University, Wuxi, 214041, China.
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Ibrahim SRM, Mohamed SGA, Alsaadi BH, Althubyani MM, Awari ZI, Hussein HGA, Aljohani AA, Albasri JF, Faraj SA, Mohamed GA. Secondary Metabolites, Biological Activities, and Industrial and Biotechnological Importance of Aspergillus sydowii. Mar Drugs 2023; 21:441. [PMID: 37623723 PMCID: PMC10455642 DOI: 10.3390/md21080441] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2023] [Revised: 07/29/2023] [Accepted: 08/02/2023] [Indexed: 08/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Marine-derived fungi are renowned as a source of astonishingly significant and synthetically appealing metabolites that are proven as new lead chemicals for chemical, pharmaceutical, and agricultural fields. Aspergillus sydowii is a saprotrophic, ubiquitous, and halophilic fungus that is commonly found in different marine ecosystems. This fungus can cause aspergillosis in sea fan corals leading to sea fan mortality with subsequent changes in coral community structure. Interestingly, A. sydowi is a prolific source of distinct and structurally varied metabolites such as alkaloids, xanthones, terpenes, anthraquinones, sterols, diphenyl ethers, pyrones, cyclopentenones, and polyketides with a range of bioactivities. A. sydowii has capacity to produce various enzymes with marked industrial and biotechnological potential, including α-amylases, lipases, xylanases, cellulases, keratinases, and tannases. Also, this fungus has the capacity for bioremediation as well as the biocatalysis of various chemical reactions. The current work aimed at focusing on the bright side of this fungus. In this review, published studies on isolated metabolites from A. sydowii, including their structures, biological functions, and biosynthesis, as well as the biotechnological and industrial significance of this fungus, were highlighted. More than 245 compounds were described in the current review with 134 references published within the period from 1975 to June 2023.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sabrin R. M. Ibrahim
- Preparatory Year Program, Department of Chemistry, Batterjee Medical College, Jeddah 21442, Saudi Arabia
- Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Assiut University, Assiut 71526, Egypt
| | | | - Baiaan H. Alsaadi
- Department of Clinical Service, Pharmaceutical Care Services, King Salman Medical City, MOH, Al Madinah Al Munawwarah 11176, Saudi Arabia; (B.H.A.); (M.M.A.)
| | - Maryam M. Althubyani
- Department of Clinical Service, Pharmaceutical Care Services, King Salman Medical City, MOH, Al Madinah Al Munawwarah 11176, Saudi Arabia; (B.H.A.); (M.M.A.)
| | - Zainab I. Awari
- Pharmaceutical Care Services, King Salman Medical City, MOH, Al Madinah Al Munawwarah 11176, Saudi Arabia;
| | - Hazem G. A. Hussein
- Preparatory Year Program, Batterjee Medical College, Jeddah 21442, Saudi Arabia;
| | - Abrar A. Aljohani
- Pharmaceutical Care Services, Medina Cardiac Center, MOH, Al Madinah Al Munawwarah 11176, Saudi Arabia;
| | - Jumanah Faisal Albasri
- Pharmacy Department, Home Health Care, MOH, Al Madinah Al Munawwarah 11176, Saudi Arabia;
| | - Salha Atiah Faraj
- Pharmacy Department, King Salman Medical City, MOH, Almadinah Almunawarah 11176, Saudi Arabia;
| | - Gamal A. Mohamed
- Department of Natural Products and Alternative Medicine, Faculty of Pharmacy, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia;
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Sharma I, Gupta P, Kango N. Synthesis and characterization of keratinase laden green synthesized silver nanoparticles for valorization of feather keratin. Sci Rep 2023; 13:11608. [PMID: 37463953 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-38721-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2023] [Accepted: 07/13/2023] [Indexed: 07/20/2023] Open
Abstract
This study focuses on the efficient and cost-effective synthesis of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) using plant extracts, which have versatile and non-toxic applications. The research objectives include synthesizing AgNPs from readily available plant extracts, optimizing their production and multi scale characterization, along with exploring their use for enzyme immobilization and mitigation of poultry feather waste. Among the plant extracts tested, the flower extract of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis (HF) showed the most potential for AgNP synthesis. The synthesis of HF-mediated AgNPs was optimized using response surface methodology (RSM) for efficient and environment friendly production. Additionally, the keratinase enzyme obtained from Bacillus sp. NCIM 5802 was covalently linked to AgNPs, forming a keratinase nanocomplex (KNC) whose biochemical properties were evaluated. The KNC demonstrated optimal activity at pH 10.0 and 60 °C and it displayed remarkable stability in the presence of various inhibitors, metal ions, surfactants, and detergents. Spectroscopic techniques such as FTIR, UV-visible, and X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis were employed to investigate the formation of biogenic HF-AgNPs and KNC, confirming the presence of capping and stabilizing agents. The morphological characteristics of the synthesized AgNPs and KNC were determined using transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and particle size analysis. The study highlighted the antimicrobial, dye scavenging, and antioxidant properties of biogenic AgNPs and KNC, demonstrating their potential for various applications. Overall, this research showcases the effectiveness of plant extract-driven green synthesis of AgNPs and the successful development of keratinase-laden nanocomplexes, opening possibilities for their use in immobilizing industrial and commercial enzymes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Isha Sharma
- Department of Microbiology, Dr. Harisingh Gour Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Sagar, Madhya Pradesh, 470003, India
| | - Pranshi Gupta
- Department of Microbiology, Dr. Harisingh Gour Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Sagar, Madhya Pradesh, 470003, India
| | - Naveen Kango
- Department of Microbiology, Dr. Harisingh Gour Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Sagar, Madhya Pradesh, 470003, India.
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Martín-González D, Bordel S, Santos-Beneit F. Characterization of the Keratinolytic Activity of Three Streptomyces Strains and Impact of Their Co-Cultivation on This Activity. Microorganisms 2023; 11:1109. [PMID: 37317082 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms11051109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2023] [Revised: 04/20/2023] [Accepted: 04/23/2023] [Indexed: 06/16/2023] Open
Abstract
In this study, we describe the characterization of three efficient chicken feather-degrading Streptomyces bacteria isolated from honeybee samples and assess the impact of their co-cultivation on this activity and antistaphylococcal activity. Streptomyces griseoaurantiacus AD2 was the strain showing the highest keratinolytic activity (4000 U × mL-1), followed by Streptomyces albidoflavus AN1 and Streptomyces drozdowiczii AD1, which both generated approximately 3000 U × mL-1. Moreover, a consortium constituted of these three strains was able to use chicken feathers as its sole nutrient source and growth in such conditions led to a significant increase in antibiotic production. S. griseoaurantiacus AD2 was the only strain that exhibited weak antimicrobial activity against Staphylococcus aureus. UPLC analyses revealed that a significant number of peaks detected in the extracts of co-cultures of the three strains were missing in the extracts of individual cultures. In addition, the production of specialized metabolites, such as undecylprodigiosin and manumycin A, was clearly enhanced in co-culture conditions, in agreement with the results of the antimicrobial bioassays against S. aureus. Our results revealed the benefits of co-cultivation of these bacterial species in terms of metabolic wealth and antibiotic production. Our work could thus contribute to the development of novel microbial-based strategies to valorize keratin waste.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Diego Martín-González
- Institute of Sustainable Processes, Dr. Mergelina, s/n, 47011 Valladolid, Spain
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Environmental Technology, School of Industrial Engineering, University of Valladolid, Dr. Mergelina, s/n, 47011 Valladolid, Spain
| | - Sergio Bordel
- Institute of Sustainable Processes, Dr. Mergelina, s/n, 47011 Valladolid, Spain
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Environmental Technology, School of Industrial Engineering, University of Valladolid, Dr. Mergelina, s/n, 47011 Valladolid, Spain
| | - Fernando Santos-Beneit
- Institute of Sustainable Processes, Dr. Mergelina, s/n, 47011 Valladolid, Spain
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Environmental Technology, School of Industrial Engineering, University of Valladolid, Dr. Mergelina, s/n, 47011 Valladolid, Spain
- Department of Functional Biology, Medical School, University of Oviedo, Av. Julián Clavería, 6, 33006 Oviedo, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Genome sequence analysis and characterization of Bacillus altitudinis B12, a polylactic acid- and keratin-degrading bacterium. Mol Genet Genomics 2023; 298:389-398. [PMID: 36585993 DOI: 10.1007/s00438-022-01989-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2022] [Accepted: 12/20/2022] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Keratin-rich wastes, mainly in the form of feathers, are recalcitrant residues generated in high amounts as by-products in chicken farms and food industry. Polylactic acid (PLA) is the second most common biodegradable polymer found in commercial plastics, which is not easily degraded by microbial activity. This work reports the 3.8-Mb genome of Bacillus altitudinis B12, a highly efficient PLA- and keratin-degrading bacterium, with potential for environmental friendly biotechnological applications in the feed, fertilizer, detergent, leather, and pharmaceutical industries. The whole genome sequence of B. altitudinis B12 revealed that this strain (which had been previously misclassified as Bacillus pumilus B12) is closely related to the B. altitudinis strains ER5, W3, and GR-8. A total of 4056 coding sequences were annotated using the RAST server, of which 2484 are core genes of the pan genome of B. altitudinis and 171 are unique to this strain. According to the sequence analysis, B. pumilus B12 has a predicted secretome of 353 proteins, among which a keratinase and a PLA depolymerase were identified by sequence analysis. The presence of these two enzymes could explain the characterized PLA and keratin biodegradation capability of the strain.
Collapse
|
11
|
Martín-González D, Bordel S, Solis S, Gutierrez-Merino J, Santos-Beneit F. Characterization of Bacillus Strains from Natural Honeybee Products with High Keratinolytic Activity and Antimicrobial Potential. Microorganisms 2023; 11:microorganisms11020456. [PMID: 36838421 PMCID: PMC9959047 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms11020456] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2023] [Revised: 02/07/2023] [Accepted: 02/10/2023] [Indexed: 02/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Two efficient feather-degrading bacteria were isolated from honeybee samples and identified as Bacillus sonorensis and Bacillus licheniformis based on 16S rRNA and genome sequencing. The strains were able to grow on chicken feathers as the sole carbon and nitrogen sources and degraded the feathers in a few days. The highest keratinase activity was detected by the B. licheniformis CG1 strain (3800 U × mL-1), followed by B. sonorensis AB7 (1450 U × mL-1). Keratinase from B. licheniformis CG1 was shown to be active across a wide range of pH, potentially making this strain advantageous for further industrial applications. All isolates displayed antimicrobial activity against Micrococcus luteus; however, only B. licheniformis CG1 was able to inhibit the growth of Mycobacterium smegmatis. In silico analysis using BAGEL and antiSMASH identified gene clusters associated with the synthesis of non-ribosomal peptide synthetases (NRPS), polyketide synthases (PKSs) and/or ribosomally synthesized and post-translationally modified peptides (RiPPs) in most of the Bacillus isolates. B. licheniformis CG1, the only strain that inhibited the growth of the mycobacterial strain, contained sequences with 100% similarity to lichenysin (also present in the other isolates) and lichenicidin (only present in the CG1 strain). Both compounds have been described to display antimicrobial activity against distinct bacteria. In summary, in this work, we have isolated a strain (B. licheniformis CG1) with promising potential for use in different industrial applications, including animal nutrition, leather processing, detergent formulation and feather degradation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Diego Martín-González
- Institute of Sustainable Processes, Dr. Mergelina s/n, 47011 Valladolid, Spain
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Environmental Technology, School of Industrial Engineering, University of Valladolid, Dr. Mergelina, s/n, 47011 Valladolid, Spain
| | - Sergio Bordel
- Institute of Sustainable Processes, Dr. Mergelina s/n, 47011 Valladolid, Spain
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Environmental Technology, School of Industrial Engineering, University of Valladolid, Dr. Mergelina, s/n, 47011 Valladolid, Spain
| | - Selvin Solis
- School of Biosciences and Medicine, University of Surrey, Guildford GU2 7XH, UK
| | | | - Fernando Santos-Beneit
- Institute of Sustainable Processes, Dr. Mergelina s/n, 47011 Valladolid, Spain
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Environmental Technology, School of Industrial Engineering, University of Valladolid, Dr. Mergelina, s/n, 47011 Valladolid, Spain
- Correspondence:
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Giteru SG, Ramsey DH, Hou Y, Cong L, Mohan A, Bekhit AEDA. Wool keratin as a novel alternative protein: A comprehensive review of extraction, purification, nutrition, safety, and food applications. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2023; 22:643-687. [PMID: 36527315 DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.13087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2022] [Revised: 11/04/2022] [Accepted: 11/17/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
The growing global population and lifestyle changes have increased the demand for specialized diets that require protein and other essential nutrients for humans. Recent technological advances have enabled the use of food bioresources treated as waste as additional sources of alternative proteins. Sheep wool is an inexpensive and readily available bioresource containing 95%-98% protein, making it an outstanding potential source of protein for food and biotechnological applications. The strong structure of wool and its indigestibility are the main hurdles to achieving its potential as an edible protein. Although various methods have been investigated for the hydrolysis of wool into keratin, only a few of these, such as sulfitolysis, oxidation, and enzymatic processes, have the potential to generate edible keratin. In vitro and in vivo cytotoxicity studies reported no cytotoxicity effects of extracted keratin, suggesting its potential for use as a high-value protein ingredient that supports normal body functions. Keratin has a high cysteine content that can support healthy epithelia, glutathione synthesis, antioxidant functions, and skeletal muscle functions. With the recent spike in new keratin extraction methods, extensive long-term investigations that examine prolonged exposure of keratin generated from these techniques in animal and human subjects are required to ascertain its safety. Food applications of wool could improve the ecological footprint of sheep farming and unlock the potential of a sustainable protein source that meets demands for ethical production of animal protein.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Yakun Hou
- College of Food Science and Technology, Hebei Agricultural University, Baoding, China
| | - Lei Cong
- Department of Agribusiness and Markets, Lincoln University, Lincoln, New Zealand
| | - Anand Mohan
- Alliance Group Limited, Invercargill, New Zealand
| | | |
Collapse
|
13
|
Pei XD, Li F, Yue SY, Huang XN, Gao TT, Jiao DQ, Wang CH. Production and characterization of novel thermo- and organic solvent-stable keratinase and aminopeptidase from Pseudomonas aeruginosa 4-3 for effective poultry feather degradation. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2023; 30:2480-2493. [PMID: 35930154 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-022-22367-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2022] [Accepted: 07/29/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Feather biodegradation is an important premise for efficient resource development and utilization, in which keratinase plays an important role. However, there are few keratinases that combine the high activity, thermal stability, and organic solvent tolerance required for industrialization. This paper reported an efficient feather-degrading Pseudomonas aeruginosa 4-3 isolated from slaughterhouses. After 48 h of fermentation by P. aeruginosa 4-3 in a feather medium at 40 °C, pH 8.0, keratinase was efficiently produced (295.28 ± 5.42 U/mL) with complete feather degradation (95.3 ± 1.5%). Moreover, the keratinase from P. aeruginosa 4-3 showed high optimal temperature (55 °C), good thermal stability, wide pH tolerance, and excellent organic solvent resistance. In addition, P. aeruginosa 4-3-derived aminopeptidases also exhibit excellent thermal stability and organic solvent tolerance. Encouragingly, the reaction of crude keratinase and aminopeptidase with feathers for 8 h resulted in a 78% degradation rate of feathers. These properties make P. aeruginosa 4-3 keratinase and aminopeptidase ideal proteases for potential applications in keratin degradation, as well as provide ideas for the synergistic degradation of keratin by multiple enzymes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xiao-Dong Pei
- College of Light Industry and Food Engineering, Guangxi University, Nanning, 530004, People's Republic of China
| | - Fan Li
- College of Light Industry and Food Engineering, Guangxi University, Nanning, 530004, People's Republic of China
| | - Shi-Yang Yue
- College of Light Industry and Food Engineering, Guangxi University, Nanning, 530004, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiao-Ni Huang
- College of Light Industry and Food Engineering, Guangxi University, Nanning, 530004, People's Republic of China
| | - Tian-Tian Gao
- College of Light Industry and Food Engineering, Guangxi University, Nanning, 530004, People's Republic of China
| | - Dao-Quan Jiao
- College of Light Industry and Food Engineering, Guangxi University, Nanning, 530004, People's Republic of China
| | - Cheng-Hua Wang
- College of Light Industry and Food Engineering, Guangxi University, Nanning, 530004, People's Republic of China.
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Akram F, Aqeel A, Shoaib M, Haq IU, Shah FI. Multifarious revolutionary aspects of microbial keratinases: an efficient green technology for future generation with prospective applications. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2022; 29:86913-86932. [PMID: 36271998 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-022-23638-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2022] [Accepted: 10/10/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Since the dawn of century, tons of keratin bio-waste is generated by the poultry industry annually, and they end up causing environmental havoc. Keratins are highly flexible fibrous proteins which exist in α- and β- forms and provide mechanical strength and stability to structural appendages. The finding of broad-spectrum protease, keratinase, from thermophilic bacteria and fungi, has provided an eco-friendly solution to hydrolyze the peptide bonds in highly recalcitrant keratinous substances such as nails, feathers, claws, and horns into valuable amino acids. Microorganisms produce these proteolytic enzymes by techniques of solid-state and submerged fermentation. However, solid-state fermentation is considered as a yielding approach for the production of thermostable keratinases. This review prioritized the molecular and biochemical properties of microbial keratinases, and the role of keratinases in bringing prodigious impact for the sustainable progress of the economy. It also emphasizes on the current development in keratinase production with the focus to improve the biochemical properties related to enzyme's catalytic activity and stability, and production of mutant and cloned microbial strains to improve the yield of keratinases. Recently, multitude molecular approaches have been employed to enhance enzyme's productivity, activity, and thermostability which makes them suitable for pharmaceutical industry and for the production of animal feed, organic fertilizers, biogas, clearing of animal hides, and detergent formulation. Hence, it can be surmised that microbial keratinolytic enzymes are the conceivable candidates for numerous commercial and industrial applications.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Fatima Akram
- Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Government College University, Lahore, 54000, Pakistan.
| | - Amna Aqeel
- Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Government College University, Lahore, 54000, Pakistan
| | - Minahil Shoaib
- Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Government College University, Lahore, 54000, Pakistan
| | - Ikram Ul Haq
- Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Government College University, Lahore, 54000, Pakistan
- Pakistan Academy of Science, Islamabad, Pakistan
| | - Fatima Iftikhar Shah
- Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Government College University, Lahore, 54000, Pakistan
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Asitok A, Ekpenyong M, Ben U, Antigha R, Ogarekpe N, Rao A, Akpan A, Benson N, Essien J, Antai S. Stochastic modeling and meta-heuristic multivariate optimization of bioprocess conditions for co-valorization of feather and waste frying oil toward prodigiosin production. Prep Biochem Biotechnol 2022:1-14. [PMID: 36269079 DOI: 10.1080/10826068.2022.2134891] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Serratia marcescens strain UCCM 00009 produced a mixture of gelatinase and keratinase to facilitate feather degradation but concomitant production of prodigiosin could make waste feather valorization biotechnologically more attractive. This article describes prodigiosin fermentation through co-valorization of waste feather and waste frying peanut oil by S. marcescens UCCM 00009 for anticancer, antioxidant, and esthetic applications. The stochastic conditions for waste feather degradation (WFD), modeled by multi-objective particle swarm-embedded-neural network optimization (ANN-PSO), revealed a gelatinase/keratinase ratio of 1.71 for optimal prodigiosin production and WFD. Luedeking-Piret kinetics revealed a non-exclusive, non-growth-associated prodigiosin yield of 9.66 g/L from the degradation of 88.55% waste feather within 96 h. The polyethylene glycol (PEG) 6000/Na+ citrate aqueous two-phase system-purified serratiopeptidase demonstrated gelatinolytic and keratinolytic activities that were stable for 240 h at 55 °C and pH 9.0. In vitro evaluations revealed that the prodigiosin inhibited methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus at IC50 of 4.95 µg/mL, the plant-pathogen, Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, at IC50 of 2.58 µg/mL, breast carcinoma at IC50 of 0.60 µg/mL and 2,2-diphenyl-1-picryl-hydrazyl hydrate (DPPH) free-radical at IC50 of 96.63 µg/mL). The pigment also demonstrated commendable textile dyeing potential of fiber and cotton fabrics. The technology promises cost-effective prodigiosin development through sustainable waste feather-waste frying oil co-management.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Atim Asitok
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Calabar, Calabar, Nigeria.,University of Calabar Collection of Microorganisms (UCCM), University of Calabar, Calabar, Nigeria
| | - Maurice Ekpenyong
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Calabar, Calabar, Nigeria.,University of Calabar Collection of Microorganisms (UCCM), University of Calabar, Calabar, Nigeria
| | - Ubong Ben
- Department of Physics, Faculty of Physical Sciences, University of Calabar, Calabar, Nigeria
| | - Richard Antigha
- Department of Physics, Faculty of Physical Sciences, University of Calabar, Calabar, Nigeria
| | - Nkpa Ogarekpe
- Department of Physics, Faculty of Physical Sciences, University of Calabar, Calabar, Nigeria
| | - Anitha Rao
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Calabar, Calabar, Nigeria.,University of Calabar Collection of Microorganisms (UCCM), University of Calabar, Calabar, Nigeria
| | - Anthony Akpan
- Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Cross River University of Technology, Calabar, Nigeria
| | - Nsikak Benson
- Department of Chemistry, College of Science and Technology, Covenant University, Ota, Nigeria
| | - Joseph Essien
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science, University of Uyo, Uyo, Nigeria
| | - Sylvester Antai
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Calabar, Calabar, Nigeria.,University of Calabar Collection of Microorganisms (UCCM), University of Calabar, Calabar, Nigeria
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Parametrically optimized feather degradation by Bacillus velezensis NCIM 5802 and delineation of keratin hydrolysis by multi-scale analysis for poultry waste management. Sci Rep 2022; 12:17118. [PMID: 36224206 PMCID: PMC9556542 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-21351-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2022] [Accepted: 09/26/2022] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Enormous amounts of keratinaceous waste make a significant and unexploited protein reserve that can be utilized through bioconversion into high-value products using microbial keratinases. This study was intended to assess the keratinase production from a newly isolated B. velezensis NCIM 5802 that can proficiently hydrolyze chicken feathers. Incubation parameters used to produce keratinase enzyme were optimized through the Response Surface Methodology (RSM) with chicken feathers as substrate. Optimization elevated the keratinase production and feather degradation by 4.92-folds (109.7 U/mL) and 2.5 folds (95.8%), respectively. Time-course profile revealed a direct correlation among bacterial growth, feather degradation, keratinase production and amino acid generation. Biochemical properties of the keratinase were evaluated, where it showed optimal activity at 60 °C and pH 10.0. The keratinase was inhibited by EDTA and PMSF, indicating it to be a serine-metalloprotease. Zymography revealed the presence of four distinct keratinases (Mr ~ 100, 62.5, 36.5 and 25 kDa) indicating its multiple forms. NMR and mass spectroscopic studies confirmed the presence of 18 free amino acids in the feather hydrolysates. Changes in feather keratin brought about by the keratinase action were studied by X-ray diffraction (XRD) and spectroscopic (FTIR, Raman) analyses, which showed a decrease in the total crystallinity index (TCI) (1.00-0.63) and confirmed the degradation of its crystalline domain. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) revealed the sequential structural changes occurring in the feather keratin during degradation. Present study explored the use of keratinolytic potential of the newly isolated B. velezensis NCIM 5802 in chicken feather degradation and also, unraveled the underlying keratin hydrolysis mechanism through various analyses.
Collapse
|
17
|
Design of 5′-UTR to Enhance Keratinase Activity in Bacillus subtilis. FERMENTATION-BASEL 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/fermentation8090426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Keratinase is an important industrial enzyme, but its application performance is limited by its low activity. A rational design of 5′-UTRs that increases translation efficiency is an important approach to enhance protein expression. Herein, we optimized the 5′-UTR of the recombinant keratinase KerZ1 expression element to enhance its secretory activity in Bacillus subtilis WB600 through Spacer design, RBS screening, and sequence simplification. First, the A/U content in Spacer was increased by the site-directed saturation mutation of G/C bases, and the activity of keratinase secreted by mutant strain B. subtilis WB600-SP was 7.94 times higher than that of KerZ1. Subsequently, the keratinase activity secreted by the mutant strain B. subtilis WB600-SP-R was further increased to 13.45 times that of KerZ1 based on the prediction of RBS translation efficiency and the multi-site saturation mutation screening. Finally, the keratinase activity secreted by the mutant strain B. subtilis WB600-SP-R-D reached 204.44 KU mL−1 by reducing the length of the 5′ end of the 5′-UTR, which was 19.70 times that of KerZ1. In a 5 L fermenter, the keratinase activity secreted by B. subtilis WB600-SP-R-D after 25 h fermentation was 797.05 KU mL−1, which indicated its high production intensity. Overall, the strategy of this study and the obtained keratinase mutants will provide a good reference for the expression regulation of keratinase and other industrial enzymes.
Collapse
|
18
|
Adeniyi A, Bello I, Mukaila T, Hammed A. A Review of Microbial Molecular Profiling during Biomass Valorization. BIOTECHNOL BIOPROC E 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s12257-022-0026-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
|
19
|
Li Q. Perspectives on Converting Keratin-Containing Wastes Into Biofertilizers for Sustainable Agriculture. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:918262. [PMID: 35794912 PMCID: PMC9251476 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.918262] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2022] [Accepted: 05/23/2022] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Keratin-containing wastes become pollution to the environment if they are not treated properly. On the other hand, these wastes can be converted into value-added products applicable to many fields. Organic fertilizers and biofertilizers are important for sustainable agriculture by providing nutrients to enhance the growth speed of the plant and production. Keratin-containing wastes, therefore, will be an important resource to produce organic fertilizers. Many microorganisms exhibit capabilities to degrade keratins making them attractive to convert keratin-containing wastes into valuable products. In this review, the progress in microbial degradation of keratins is summarized. In addition, perspectives in converting keratin into bio- and organic fertilizers for agriculture are described. With proper treatment, feather wastes which are rich in keratin can be converted into high-value fertilizers to serve as nutrients for plants, reduce environmental pressure and improve the quality of the soil for sustainable agriculture.
Collapse
|
20
|
Lee TY, Lee YS, Yeh RH, Chen KH, Chen KL. Bacillus amyloliquefaciens CU33 fermented feather meal-soybean meal product improves the intestinal morphology to promote the growth performance of broilers. Poult Sci 2022; 101:102027. [PMID: 35917672 PMCID: PMC9352539 DOI: 10.1016/j.psj.2022.102027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2022] [Revised: 06/13/2022] [Accepted: 06/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
This study is aimed to select optimum keratin degradation ability from Bacillus strains for feather meal-soybean meal fermentation, and favorably water content for the strain during fermentation of feather meal-soybean meal, and finally investigate the effects of the fermented feather meal-soybean meal product (FFSMP) on growth performance, carcass trait, clinical blood biochemistry, and intestinal morphology of broilers. Thirty-six bacteria strains from soil, sewage pool, and feather waste were screened and selected Bacillus subtilis var. natto N21 (N21), B. subtilis CU14 (CU14), and B. amyloliquefaciens CU33 (CU33) with better keratinase activity and feather-degrading rate. The result of trial 1 showed that the FFSMP produced by CU33 had the optimum physiochemical characterizations, amino acid composition and feeding performance for broilers. Hence the effects of water content (45, 50, 55, and 60%) on FFMSP fermentation of CU33 were investigated in trial 2. Result showed that pH value, counts of Bacillus-like bacteria, γ-PGA, viscosity, surfactin yield and odor all significantly increased according to the water content (P < 0.05). The protease activity reached significantly highest in the 55% and 60% water content groups (P < 0.01). The broilers performance of 55% and 60% water content group were significantly higher than control group (P < 0.05) in weight gain (WG), feed intake (b) at 0 to 21-d-old and the WG, feed conversion ratio (FCR), and production efficiency factor at 0 to 35-d-old, and could reach the similar growth performance as fish meal group (P > 0.05). The fermentation groups significantly decreased urea nitrogen (P < 0.05) and increased creatinine (P < 0.05) in the blood. The fermentation groups also significantly decreased the crypt depth in the duodenum (P < 0.05) and increased villus height to crypt depth ratio of the duodenum (P < 0.05). In conclusion, CU33 shows the best degradation rate for feather and keratinase activity, and the FFSMP with a water content of 50% to 60% during fermentation is suggested. Diets supplemented with 5% FFSMP can promote the growth of broilers by improving the morphology of the duodenum and achieve the feeding effect of high-quality fish meal.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tsung-Yu Lee
- Nutrition Division, Council of Agriculture-Livestock Research Institute, Taiwan; Ph.D. Program of Agriculture Science, National Chiayi University, Taiwan
| | - Yueh-Sheng Lee
- Ph.D. Program of Agriculture Science, National Chiayi University, Taiwan; Department of Animal Science, National Chiayi University, Taiwan
| | - Ruei-Han Yeh
- Animal Products Processing Division, Council of Agriculture-Livestock Research Institute, Taiwan
| | - Kuan-Hsin Chen
- Department of Animal Science, National Chiayi University, Taiwan
| | - Kuo-Lung Chen
- Department of Animal Science, National Chiayi University, Taiwan.
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Valorization of Livestock Keratin Waste: Application in Agricultural Fields. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:ijerph19116681. [PMID: 35682267 PMCID: PMC9180014 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph19116681] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2022] [Revised: 05/25/2022] [Accepted: 05/27/2022] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Livestock keratin waste is a rich source of protein. However, the unique structure of livestock keratin waste makes its valorization a great challenge. This paper reviews the main methods for the valorization of livestock keratin waste, which include chemical, biological, and other novel methods, and summarizes the main agricultural applications of keratin-based material. Livestock keratin waste is mainly used as animal feed and fertilizer. However, it has promising potential for biosorbents and in other fields. In the future, researchers should focus on the biological extraction and carbonization methods of processing and keratin-based biosorbents for the soil remediation of farmland.
Collapse
|
22
|
Sharma C, Timorshina S, Osmolovskiy A, Misri J, Singh R. Chicken Feather Waste Valorization Into Nutritive Protein Hydrolysate: Role of Novel Thermostable Keratinase From Bacillus pacificus RSA27. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:882902. [PMID: 35547122 PMCID: PMC9083118 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.882902] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2022] [Accepted: 03/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Microbial keratinases exhibit a momentous role in converting keratin biowastes into exceedingly valuable protein supplements. This study reports a novel, highly stable keratinase from Bacillus pacificus RSA27 for the production of pure peptides rich in essential amino acids from chicken feathers. Purified keratinase showed a specific activity of 38.73 U/mg, 2.58-fold purification, and molecular weight of 36 kDa. Kinetic studies using a chicken feather as substrate report Km and Vmax values of 5.69 mg/ml and 142.40 μg/ml/min, respectively, suggesting significant enzyme-substrate affinity/biocatalysis. Identification and in silico structural-functional analysis of keratinase discovered the presence of distinct amino acid residues and their positions. Besides, keratinase possesses a high-affinity calcium-binding site (Asp128, Leu162, Asn164, Ile166, and Val168) and a catalytic triad of Asp119, His151, and Ser308, known attributes of serine protease (subtilisin family). Furthermore, a scale-up to 5 L fermenter revealed complete feather hydrolysis (94.5%) within 24 h with high activity (789 U/ml) and total amino acid of 153.97 μmol/ml. Finally, cytotoxicity evaluation of protein hydrolysate resulted in negligible cytotoxic effects (1.02%) on the mammalian hepatoblastoma cell line, signifying its potential biotechnological applications.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chhavi Sharma
- Amity Institute of Microbial Technology, Amity University, Noida, India
| | - Svetlana Timorshina
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia
| | - Alexander Osmolovskiy
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia
| | - Jyoti Misri
- Division of Animal Science, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi, India
| | - Rajni Singh
- Amity Institute of Microbial Technology, Amity University, Noida, India
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Isolation of Bacillus sp. A5.3 Strain with Keratinolytic Activity. BIOLOGY 2022; 11:biology11020244. [PMID: 35205110 PMCID: PMC8869582 DOI: 10.3390/biology11020244] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2021] [Revised: 01/26/2022] [Accepted: 02/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Simple Summary In this study, we described keratinolytic properties of a strain of Bacillus (sp. A5.3) isolated from sites of feather waste accumulation. The proteolytic enzymes secreted by Bacillus sp. A5.3 are serine proteases, are alkaline enzymes, have a wide substrate specificity, and have high thermal stability. Bacillus sp. A5.3 effectively hydrolyzes feathers and can be used in feather-processing technologies and as a source of alkaline and thermostable proteases and keratinases. Abstract Environmental safety and economic factors necessitate a search for new ways of processing poultry farm feathers, which are 90% β-keratin and can be used as a cheap source of amino acids and peptones. In this study, feather-decomposing bacteria were isolated from a site of accumulation of rotten feathers and identified as Bacillus. Among them, the Bacillus sp. A5.3 isolate showed the best keratinolytic properties. Scanning electron microscopy indicated that Bacillus sp. A5.3 cells closely adhere to the feather surface while degrading the feather. It was found that Bacillus sp. A5.3 secretes thermostable alkaline proteolytic and keratinolytic enzymes. Zymographic analysis of the enzymatic extract toward bovine serum albumin, casein, gelatin, and β-keratin revealed the presence of proteases and keratinases with molecular weights 20–250 kDa. The proteolytic and keratinolytic enzymes predominantly belong to the serine protease family. Proteome analysis of the secreted proteins by nano-HPLC coupled with Q-TOF mass spectrometry identified 154 proteins, 13 of which are proteases and peptidases. Thus, strain Bacillus sp. A5.3 holds great promise for use in feather-processing technologies and as a source of proteases and keratinases.
Collapse
|
24
|
ZININA O, MERENKOVA S, REBEZOV M. Analysis of modern approaches to the processing of poultry waste and by-products: prospects for use in industrial sectors. FOOD SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 2022. [DOI: 10.1590/fst.03222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Maksim REBEZOV
- Vasily Matveyevich Gorbatov Federal Research Center for Food Systems, Russian Federation
| |
Collapse
|
25
|
Mutations in the regulatory regions result in increased streptomycin resistance and keratinase synthesis in Bacillus thuringiensis. Arch Microbiol 2021; 203:5387-5396. [PMID: 34390357 DOI: 10.1007/s00203-021-02525-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2021] [Revised: 08/09/2021] [Accepted: 08/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Keratinases are a group of proteases of great industrial significance. To take full advantage of Bacillus species as an inherent superior microbial producer of proteases, we performed the ribosome engineering to improve the keratinase synthesis capacity of the wild-type Bacillus thuringiensis by inducing streptomycin resistance. Mutant Bt(Str-O) was identified as a stable keratinase overproducer. Comparative characterization of the two strains revealed that, although the resistance to Streptomycin increased by eight-fold in MIC, the mutant's resistance to other commonly used antibiotics was not affected. Furthermore, the mutant exhibited an enhanced keratinase synthesis (1.5-fold) when cultured in a liquid LB medium. In the whole feather degradation experiment, the mutant could secret twofold keratinase into the medium, reaching 640 U/mL per 107 CFU. By contrast, no significant differences were found in the scanning electron microscopic analysis and spore formation experiment. To understand the genetic factors causing these phenotypic changes, we cloned and analyzed the rpsL gene. No mutation was observed. We subsequently determined the genome sequences of the two strains. Comparing the rpsL gene revealed that the emergence of streptomycin resistance was not necessarily dependent on the mutation(s) in the generally recognized "hotspot." Genome-wide analysis showed that the phenotypic changes of the mutant were the collective consequence of the genetic variations occurring in the regulatory regions and the non-coding RNA genes. This study demonstrated the importance of genetic changes in regulatory regions and the effectiveness of irrational ribosome engineering in creating prokaryotic microbial mutants without sufficient genetic information.
Collapse
|
26
|
Arya PS, Yagnik SM, Rajput KN, Panchal RR, Raval VH. Understanding the Basis of Occurrence, Biosynthesis, and Implications of Thermostable Alkaline Proteases. Appl Biochem Biotechnol 2021; 193:4113-4150. [PMID: 34648116 DOI: 10.1007/s12010-021-03701-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2021] [Accepted: 10/04/2021] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
The group of hydrolytic enzymes synonymously known as proteases is predominantly most favored for the class of industrial enzymes. The present work focuses on the thermostable nature of these proteolytic enzymes that occur naturally among mesophilic and thermophilic microbes. The broad thermo-active feature (40-80 °C), ease of cultivation, maintenance, and bulk production are the key features associated with these enzymes. Detailing of contemporary production technologies, and controllable operational parameters including the purification strategies, are the key features that justify their industrial dominance as biocatalysts. In addition, the rigorous research inputs by protein engineering and enzyme immobilization studies add up to the thermo-catalytic features and application capabilities of these enzymes. The work summarizes key features of microbial proteases that make them numero-uno for laundry, biomaterials, waste management, food and feed, tannery, and medical as well as pharmaceutical industries. The quest for novel and/or designed and engineered thermostable protease from unexplored sources is highly stimulating and will address the ever-increasing industrial demands.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Prashant S Arya
- Department of Microbiology and Biotechnology, School of Sciences, Gujarat University, Ahmedabad, 380009, India
| | - Shivani M Yagnik
- Department of Microbiology and Biotechnology, School of Sciences, Gujarat University, Ahmedabad, 380009, India
| | - Kiransinh N Rajput
- Department of Microbiology and Biotechnology, School of Sciences, Gujarat University, Ahmedabad, 380009, India
| | - Rakeshkumar R Panchal
- Department of Microbiology and Biotechnology, School of Sciences, Gujarat University, Ahmedabad, 380009, India
| | - Vikram H Raval
- Department of Microbiology and Biotechnology, School of Sciences, Gujarat University, Ahmedabad, 380009, India.
| |
Collapse
|
27
|
Application of recombinant hyperthermostable keratinase for degradation of chicken feather waste. BIOCATALYSIS AND AGRICULTURAL BIOTECHNOLOGY 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bcab.2021.102146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
|
28
|
Al-shaibani MM, Radin Mohamed RMS, Sidik NM, Enshasy HAE, Al-Gheethi A, Noman E, Al-Mekhlafi NA, Zin NM. Biodiversity of Secondary Metabolites Compounds Isolated from Phylum Actinobacteria and Its Therapeutic Applications. Molecules 2021; 26:molecules26154504. [PMID: 34361657 PMCID: PMC8347454 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26154504] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2021] [Revised: 07/14/2021] [Accepted: 07/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/08/2022] Open
Abstract
The current review aims to summarise the biodiversity and biosynthesis of novel secondary metabolites compounds, of the phylum Actinobacteria and the diverse range of secondary metabolites produced that vary depending on its ecological environments they inhabit. Actinobacteria creates a wide range of bioactive substances that can be of great value to public health and the pharmaceutical industry. The literature analysis process for this review was conducted using the VOSviewer software tool to visualise the bibliometric networks of the most relevant databases from the Scopus database in the period between 2010 and 22 March 2021. Screening and exploring the available literature relating to the extreme environments and ecosystems that Actinobacteria inhabit aims to identify new strains of this major microorganism class, producing unique novel bioactive compounds. The knowledge gained from these studies is intended to encourage scientists in the natural product discovery field to identify and characterise novel strains containing various bioactive gene clusters with potential clinical applications. It is evident that Actinobacteria adapted to survive in extreme environments represent an important source of a wide range of bioactive compounds. Actinobacteria have a large number of secondary metabolite biosynthetic gene clusters. They can synthesise thousands of subordinate metabolites with different biological actions such as anti-bacterial, anti-parasitic, anti-fungal, anti-virus, anti-cancer and growth-promoting compounds. These are highly significant economically due to their potential applications in the food, nutrition and health industries and thus support our communities' well-being.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Muhanna Mohammed Al-shaibani
- Micro-Pollutant Research Centre (MPRC), Faculty of Civil Engineering and Built Environment, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia, Parit Raja 86400, Johor, Malaysia;
- Center for Diagnostic, Therapeutic and Investigative Studies, Faculty of Health Sciences, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur 50300, Malaysia;
| | - Radin Maya Saphira Radin Mohamed
- Micro-Pollutant Research Centre (MPRC), Faculty of Civil Engineering and Built Environment, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia, Parit Raja 86400, Johor, Malaysia;
- Correspondence: (R.M.S.R.M.); (N.M.S.); (A.A.-G.)
| | - Nik Marzuki Sidik
- Faculty of Agro-Based Industry, Universiti Malaysia Kelantan, Jeli 17600, Kelantan, Malaysia
- Correspondence: (R.M.S.R.M.); (N.M.S.); (A.A.-G.)
| | - Hesham Ali El Enshasy
- Institute of Bioproducts Development (IBD), Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM), Skudai 81310, Johor, Malaysia;
- City of Scientific Research and Technology Applications (SRTA), 21934 New Burg Al Arab, Alexandria, Egypt
| | - Adel Al-Gheethi
- Micro-Pollutant Research Centre (MPRC), Faculty of Civil Engineering and Built Environment, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia, Parit Raja 86400, Johor, Malaysia;
- Correspondence: (R.M.S.R.M.); (N.M.S.); (A.A.-G.)
| | - Efaq Noman
- Applied Microbiology Department, Faculty of Applied Sciences, Taiz University, Taiz 6803, Yemen;
| | - Nabil Ali Al-Mekhlafi
- Atta-ur-Rahman Institute for Natural Product Discovery, UiTM, Puncak Alam Campus, Bandar Puncak Alam 42300, Selangor, Malaysia;
- Biochemical Technology Program, Department of Chemistry Faculty of Applied Science, Thamar University, Thamar P.O. Box 87246, Yemen
| | - Noraziah Mohamad Zin
- Center for Diagnostic, Therapeutic and Investigative Studies, Faculty of Health Sciences, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur 50300, Malaysia;
| |
Collapse
|
29
|
Cavello I, Bezus B, Cavalitto S. The keratinolytic bacteria Bacillus cytotoxicus as a source of novel proteases and feather protein hydrolysates with antioxidant activities. J Genet Eng Biotechnol 2021; 19:107. [PMID: 34292436 PMCID: PMC8298642 DOI: 10.1186/s43141-021-00207-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2021] [Accepted: 07/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Argentina's geothermal areas are niches of a rich microbial diversity. In 2020, species of Bacillus cytotoxicus were isolated for the first time from these types of pristine natural areas. Bacillus cytotoxicus strains demonstrated the capability to grow and degrade chicken feathers with the concomitant production of proteases with keratinolytic activity, enzymes that have multitude of industrial applications. The aim of this research was to study the production of the proteolytic enzymes and its characterization. Also, feather protein hydrolysates produced during fermentation were characterized. RESULTS Among the thermotolerant strains isolated from the Domuyo geothermal area (Neuquén province, Argentina), Bacillus cytotoxicus LT-1 and Oll-15 were selected and put through submerged cultures using feather wastes as sole carbon, nitrogen, and energy source in order to obtain proteolytic enzymes and protein hydrolysates. Complete degradation of feathers was achieved after 48 h. Zymograms demonstrated the presence of several proteolytic enzymes with an estimated molecular weight between 50 and > 120 kDa. Optimum pH and temperatures of Bacillus cytotoxicus LT-1 crude extract were 7.0 and 40 °C, meanwhile for Oll-15 were 7.0 and 50 °C. Crude extracts were inhibited by EDTA and 1,10 phenanthroline indicating the presence of metalloproteases. Feather protein hydrolysates showed an interesting antioxidant potential measured through radical-scavenging and Fe3+-reducing activities. CONCLUSION This work represents an initial approach on the study of the biotechnological potential of proteases produced by Bacillus cytotoxicus. The results demonstrated the importance of continuous search for new biocatalysts with new characteristics and enzymes to be able to cope with the demands in the market.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ivana Cavello
- Centro de Investigación y Desarrollo en Fermentaciones Industriales. Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Universidad Nacional de la Plata (CINDEFI, CCT La Plata-CONICET, UNLP), Calle 47 y 115, (B1900ASH), La Plata, Argentina.
| | - Brenda Bezus
- Centro de Investigación y Desarrollo en Fermentaciones Industriales. Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Universidad Nacional de la Plata (CINDEFI, CCT La Plata-CONICET, UNLP), Calle 47 y 115, (B1900ASH), La Plata, Argentina
| | - Sebastián Cavalitto
- Centro de Investigación y Desarrollo en Fermentaciones Industriales. Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Universidad Nacional de la Plata (CINDEFI, CCT La Plata-CONICET, UNLP), Calle 47 y 115, (B1900ASH), La Plata, Argentina
| |
Collapse
|
30
|
Li Q. Structure, Application, and Biochemistry of Microbial Keratinases. Front Microbiol 2021; 12:674345. [PMID: 34248885 PMCID: PMC8260994 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.674345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2021] [Accepted: 05/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Keratinases belong to a class of proteases that are able to degrade keratins into amino acids. Microbial keratinases play important roles in turning keratin-containing wastes into value-added products by participating in the degradation of keratin. Keratin is found in human and animal hard tissues, and its complicated structures make it resistant to degradation by common proteases. Although breaking disulfide bonds are involved in keratin degradation, keratinase is responsible for the cleavage of peptides, making it attractive in pharmaceutical and feather industries. Keratinase can serve as an important tool to convert keratin-rich wastes such as feathers from poultry industry into diverse products applicable to many fields. Despite of some progress made in isolating keratinase-producing microorganisms, structural studies of keratinases, and biochemical characterization of these enzymes, effort is still required to expand the biotechnological application of keratinase in diverse fields by identifying more keratinases, understanding the mechanism of action and constructing more active enzymes through molecular biology and protein engineering. Herein, this review covers structures, applications, biochemistry of microbial keratinases, and strategies to improve its efficiency in keratin degradation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Qingxin Li
- Guangdong Provincial Engineering Laboratory of Biomass High Value Utilization, Institute of Bioengineering, Guangdong Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, China
| |
Collapse
|
31
|
Keratinases Produced by Aspergillus stelliformis, Aspergillus sydowii, and Fusarium brachygibbosum Isolated from Human Hair: Yield and Activity. J Fungi (Basel) 2021; 7:jof7060471. [PMID: 34200943 PMCID: PMC8230521 DOI: 10.3390/jof7060471] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2021] [Revised: 06/04/2021] [Accepted: 06/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Twenty fungal strains belonging to 17 species and isolated from male scalp hair were tested for their capacity to hydrolyze keratinous material from chicken feather. The identification of the three most efficient species was confirmed by sequencing of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region of rDNA. Activities of fungal keratinases produced by Aspergillus stelliformis (strain AUMC 10920), A. sydowii (AUMC 10935), and Fusarium brachygibbosum (AUMC 10937) were 113, 120, and 130 IU mg−1 enzymes, respectively. The most favorable conditions were at pH 8.0 and 50 °C. Keratinase activity was markedly inhibited by EDTA and metal ions Ca+2, Co+2, Ni+2, Cu+2, Fe+2, Mg+2, and Zn+2, with differences between the fungal species. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study on the activity of keratinase produced by A. stelliformis, A. sydowii, and F. brachygibbosum. F. brachygibbosum keratinase was the most active, but the species is not recommended because of its known phytopathogenicty. Aspergillus sydowii has many known biotechnological solutions and here we add another application of the species, as producer of keratinases. We introduce A. stelliformis as new producer of active fungal keratinases for biotechnological solutions, such as in the management of keratinous waste in poultry industry.
Collapse
|
32
|
Shalaby MM, Samir R, Goma FAZM, Rammadan MA. Enhanced fusidic acid transdermal delivery achieved by newly isolated and optimized Bacillus cereus Keratinase. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2021; 30:e00620. [PMID: 33996524 PMCID: PMC8099499 DOI: 10.1016/j.btre.2021.e00620] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2020] [Accepted: 04/14/2021] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
The expanding interest in bioremediation of poorly degradable wastes has led to the discovery of many microbial enzymes capable of degrading recalcitrant substances such as keratinaceous wastes that are produced in vast quantities on daily basis. Such enzymes don't only work as a bioremediation tool but also have multiple beneficial applications. Hence, environmental samples were collected from sewage water, soils, animal bodies and feces in order to isolate keratinase producing organisms. Keratinolytic isolates were isolated from sewage water; soils; animal bodies; animal feces, and identified both traditionally and molecularly through 16S-rRNA sequencing to be Bacillus cereus strain. Produced keratinase was purified by centrifugation, ammonium sulfate precipitation, and HPLC, then assayed using Azokeratine based analysis. keratinase quantification yielded a 420 ± 1.63 U/mL. Optimum production was obtained at 40 °C, pH 7, 3 days incubation, 0.5 % substrate, 0.4 g/l magnesium ion, 2% v/v inoculum, 0.5 g/l NaCl, 0.4 g/l K2HPO4, and 0.3 g/l KH2PO4. Production was increased by 1.9 fold after acclimatization to reach 809 ± 2.49 U/mL in only 2 days. Thermal and pH stability testing revealed the effectiveness of the isolated keratinase over a wide range of temperatures at neutral pH. Finally, isolated keratinase enhanced fusidic acid topical penetration to treat induced deep skin bacterial infection in mice. A 1.4 fold decrease in treatment period and a 2 log cycle reduction in the viable count of Staphylococcus aureus were noticed in keratinase/fusidic acid treated mice compared to mice treated with fusidic acid alone. This study shed some light on a simple keratinase production optimization technique and suggested a promising medical application of this enzyme as a drug delivery agent.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mohab M Shalaby
- Microbiology & Immunology Department, Faculty of pharmacy, Egyptian Russian University, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Reham Samir
- Microbiology & Immunology Department, Faculty of pharmacy, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Fatma Al-Zahraa M Goma
- Microbiology & Immunology Department, Faculty pharmacy (Girls) - Al-Azhar University, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Mohammed A Rammadan
- Microbiology & Immunology Department, Faculty of pharmacy, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt
| |
Collapse
|
33
|
Matkawala F, Nighojkar S, Kumar A, Nighojkar A. Microbial alkaline serine proteases: Production, properties and applications. World J Microbiol Biotechnol 2021; 37:63. [PMID: 33730214 DOI: 10.1007/s11274-021-03036-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2020] [Accepted: 03/09/2021] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Proteolytic enzymes hold a pivotal position in numerous industrial processes where hydrolysis of protein molecules is required under precise conditions. The emerging trend of biotechnological applications in recent years has witnessed a renewed interest in alkaline serine proteases extending their utility in detergent, leather, textile, food and pharmaceutical industries. A variety of microorganisms have been reported to produce alkaline serine proteases on a large scale, however, extensive research to find an alkaline serine protease with desirable characteristics such as significant catalytic efficiency, expanded stability and broad substrate specificity is still ongoing. Although submerged fermentation dominates the commercial enzyme production, recent reports have emphasized on solid state fermentation technology which can reduce major cost associated with the enzyme production. In the present review, recent research on alkaline serine proteases along with their novel properties and production using solid state fermentation have been discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Fatema Matkawala
- Maharaja Ranjit Singh College of Professional Sciences, Khandwa Rd., Indore, 452001, India
| | - Sadhana Nighojkar
- Mata Gujri College of Professional Studies, A.B. Road, Indore, 452001, India
| | - Anil Kumar
- School of Biotechnology, Devi Ahilya University, Khandwa Road, Indore, 452001, India
| | - Anand Nighojkar
- Maharaja Ranjit Singh College of Professional Sciences, Khandwa Rd., Indore, 452001, India.
| |
Collapse
|
34
|
Blecher AS, Scheun J, Ganswindt A. Degradation of Temminck's pangolin ( Smutsia temminckii) scales with a keratinase for extraction of reproductive steroid hormones. MethodsX 2021; 8:101229. [PMID: 34434752 PMCID: PMC8374191 DOI: 10.1016/j.mex.2021.101229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2020] [Accepted: 01/08/2021] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Hormone monitoring in keratinous tissues has become increasingly popular. The insoluble keratin materials are generally pulverised before hormone extraction; however, this is difficult for thicker keratin structures like baleen plates or hooves. A new method, involving the use of keratinase, allows enzymatic digestion of keratin and hormone analysis in the resulting suspension. Pangolins are unique mammals covered in keratinous scales, which are one of the reasons these animals are extensively trafficked. This study aimed to investigate the suitability of Temminck's pangolin scales as hormone matrix for quantifying reproductive steroids. A protocol was developed to digest scales with a keratinase before measuring hormone concentrations. This method can be used to investigate the reproductive endocrinology of Temminck's pangolins but may also be extended to the other extant pangolin species.•Keratinase digests Temminck's pangolin scales and reproductive steroid metabolite concentrations are measurable in the resulting suspension.•Isopropanol is an ideal washing solvent for scales to remove surface contaminants and scale sample mass should be standardised to allow comparisons.•Any section of a scale and scales from any pangolin body region can be used as samples for hormone quantification.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Arantxa S. Blecher
- Mammal Research Institute, Department of Zoology and Entomology, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, University of Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Juan Scheun
- Mammal Research Institute, Department of Zoology and Entomology, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, University of Pretoria, South Africa
- Biodiversity Research Services, National Zoological Gardens, South Africa
- Department of Life and Consumer Sciences, University of South Africa, South Africa
| | - André Ganswindt
- Mammal Research Institute, Department of Zoology and Entomology, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, University of Pretoria, South Africa
- Biodiversity Research Services, National Zoological Gardens, South Africa
| |
Collapse
|
35
|
Nnolim NE, Nwodo UU. Microbial keratinase and the bio-economy: a three-decade meta-analysis of research exploit. AMB Express 2021; 11:12. [PMID: 33411032 PMCID: PMC7790984 DOI: 10.1186/s13568-020-01155-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2020] [Accepted: 12/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Microbial keratinase research has been on an upward trajectory due to the robustness and efficiency of the enzyme toward various green technological processes that promote economic development and environmental sustainability. A compendium of research progression and advancement within the domain was achieved through a bibliometric study to understand the trend of research productivity, scientific impacts, authors' involvement, collaboration networks, and the advancement of knowledge gaps for future research endeavours. A three-decade (1990 to 2019) scholarly published articles were retrieved from the web of science database using a combination of terms "keratinas* or keratinolytic proteas* or keratinolytic enzym*", and subsequently analyzed for bibliometric indicators. A collection of 330 peer-reviewed, research, articles were retrieved for the survey period and authored by 1063 researchers with collaboration index of 3.27. Research productivity was most in 2013 with total research output of 28 articles. The top three authors' keywords were keratinase, keratin and protease with a respective frequency of 188, 26 and 22. India, China and Brazil ranked top in terms of keratinase research outputs and total citation with respective article productivity (total citations) of 85 (1533), 57 (826), and 36 (764). This study evaluated the trend of keratinase research outputs, scientific impact, collaboration networks and biotechnology innovations. It has the potentials to influence positively decision making on future research direction, collaborations and development of products for the bio-economy.
Collapse
|
36
|
Efficiency of polymer/salt aqueous two-phase electrophoresis system for recovery of extracellular Kytococcus sedentarius TWHKC01 keratinase. Process Biochem 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.procbio.2020.10.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
|
37
|
Role of Fungi in Bioremediation of Soil Contaminated with Persistent Organic Compounds. Fungal Biol 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-67561-5_14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
|
38
|
Nnolim NE, Udenigwe CC, Okoh AI, Nwodo UU. Microbial Keratinase: Next Generation Green Catalyst and Prospective Applications. Front Microbiol 2020; 11:580164. [PMID: 33391200 PMCID: PMC7775373 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2020.580164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2020] [Accepted: 11/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The search for novel renewable products over synthetics hallmarked this decade and those of the recent past. Most economies that are prospecting on biodiversity for improved bio-economy favor renewable resources over synthetics for the potential opportunity they hold. However, this field is still nascent as the bulk of the available resources are non-renewable based. Microbial metabolites, emphasis on secondary metabolites, are viable alternatives; nonetheless, vast microbial resources remain under-exploited; thus, the need for a continuum in the search for new products or bio-modifying existing products for novel functions through an efficient approach. Environmental distress syndrome has been identified as a factor that influences the emergence of genetic diversity in prokaryotes. Still, the process of how the change comes about is poorly understood. The emergence of new traits may present a high prospect for the industrially viable organism. Microbial enzymes have prominence in the bio-economic space, and proteases account for about sixty percent of all enzyme market. Microbial keratinases are versatile proteases which are continuously gaining momentum in biotechnology owing to their effective bio-conversion of recalcitrant keratin-rich wastes and sustainable implementation of cleaner production. Keratinase-assisted biodegradation of keratinous materials has revitalized the prospects for the utilization of cost-effective agro-industrial wastes, as readily available substrates, for the production of high-value products including amino acids and bioactive peptides. This review presented an overview of keratin structural complexity, the potential mechanism of keratin biodegradation, and the environmental impact of keratinous wastes. Equally, it discussed microbial keratinase; vis-à-vis sources, production, and functional properties with considerable emphasis on the ecological implication of microbial producers and catalytic tendency improvement strategies. Keratinase applications and prospective high-end use, including animal hide processing, detergent formulation, cosmetics, livestock feed, and organic fertilizer production, were also articulated.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nonso E. Nnolim
- SAMRC Microbial Water Quality Monitoring Centre, University of Fort Hare, Alice, South Africa
- Applied and Environmental Microbiology Research Group (AEMREG), Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Fort Hare, Alice, South Africa
| | - Chibuike C. Udenigwe
- School of Nutrition Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Anthony I. Okoh
- SAMRC Microbial Water Quality Monitoring Centre, University of Fort Hare, Alice, South Africa
- Applied and Environmental Microbiology Research Group (AEMREG), Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Fort Hare, Alice, South Africa
| | - Uchechukwu U. Nwodo
- SAMRC Microbial Water Quality Monitoring Centre, University of Fort Hare, Alice, South Africa
- Applied and Environmental Microbiology Research Group (AEMREG), Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Fort Hare, Alice, South Africa
| |
Collapse
|
39
|
Arthroderma tuberculatum and Arthroderma multifidum Isolated from Soils in Rook ( Corvus frugilegus) Colonies as Producers of Keratinolytic Enzymes and Mineral Forms of N and S. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2020; 17:ijerph17249162. [PMID: 33302453 PMCID: PMC7763491 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17249162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2020] [Revised: 12/01/2020] [Accepted: 12/01/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Keratinolytic fungi representing the genus Arthroderma that were isolated from the soils of a rook (Corvus frugilegus) colony were used as biological agents for the disposal of waste feathers. The aim of this study was to assess the abilities of Arthroderma tuberculatum and Arthroderma multifidum fungi with a varied inflow of keratin matter to biodegrade waste feathers. The evaluation was based on the determination of feather mass loss, the activity of keratinolytic enzymes, and the content of mineral N and S forms. It was found that the activity of protease released by the fungi contributed to an increase in the level of soluble proteins and peptides and the concentration of ammonium ions, as well as alkalization of the culture medium. Keratinase activity was significantly correlated with sulfate release, especially in A. tuberculatum cultures. The strains of A. tuberculatum fungi isolated from the soil with the highest supply of organic matter, i.e., strains III, IV, and V, had the lowest enzymatic activity, compared to the A. multifidum strains, but they released mineral nitrogen and sulfur forms that are highly important for fertilization, as well as nutritionally important peptides and amino acids. A. tuberculatum strains can be used for the management of waste feathers that can be applied in agricultural practice.
Collapse
|
40
|
Akram F, Haq IU, Jabbar Z. Production and characterization of a novel thermo- and detergent stable keratinase from Bacillus sp. NKSP-7 with perceptible applications in leather processing and laundry industries. Int J Biol Macromol 2020; 164:371-383. [PMID: 32682971 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2020.07.146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2020] [Revised: 07/12/2020] [Accepted: 07/13/2020] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Keratinase has the ability to degrade the recalcitrant keratinous wastes that cannot be degraded by conventional proteases. The present study describes a novel hyperstable keratinolytic enzyme from Bacillus sp. NKSP-7, which has excellent efficiency of keratin-feather biodegradation, washing and dehairing. The production of extracellular keratinase was improved by 3.02-fold through optimization of various parameters. Purified keratinase (25 kDa) showed optimal activity at 65 °C and pH 7.5, and displayed stability over a range of pH (5.5-9.5) and temperature (20-60 °C) for 8 h. No conspicuous effect was perceived with various chemicals and organic solvents, however, the catalytic efficiency was enhanced in the presence of Ca2+, Cd2+, Na+, Mn2+, sodium sulfite, and β-mercaptoethanol. The enzyme was completely inhibited by phenylmethanesulfonyl fluoride (PMSF), suggesting that this keratinase belongs to serine protease family. It displayed prodigious stability and compatibility to salinity and commercial detergents. Enzyme exhibited great substrate specificity but high affinity was observed with keratin-rich substrates. Crude and purified keratinase revealed perceptible potential for destaining of blood-stained fabric (10 min), and dehairing of hide (8 h) without any damage. All these auspicious features make this enzyme a promising candidate for various industrial applications, especially in keratin-waste management, detergent formulations and leather processing.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Fatima Akram
- Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, GC University, Lahore 54000, Pakistan.
| | - Ikram Ul Haq
- Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, GC University, Lahore 54000, Pakistan
| | - Zuriat Jabbar
- Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, GC University, Lahore 54000, Pakistan
| |
Collapse
|
41
|
Microbial enzymes catalyzing keratin degradation: Classification, structure, function. Biotechnol Adv 2020; 44:107607. [PMID: 32768519 PMCID: PMC7405893 DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2020.107607] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2020] [Revised: 07/29/2020] [Accepted: 07/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Keratin is an insoluble and protein-rich epidermal material found in e.g. feather, wool, hair. It is produced in substantial amounts as co-product from poultry processing plants and pig slaughterhouses. Keratin is packed by disulfide bonds and hydrogen bonds. Based on the secondary structure, keratin can be classified into α-keratin and β-keratin. Keratinases (EC 3.4.-.- peptide hydrolases) have major potential to degrade keratin for sustainable recycling of the protein and amino acids. Currently, the known keratinolytic enzymes belong to at least 14 different protease families: S1, S8, S9, S10, S16, M3, M4, M14, M16, M28, M32, M36, M38, M55 (MEROPS database). The various keratinolytic enzymes act via endo-attack (proteases in families S1, S8, S16, M4, M16, M36), exo-attack (proteases in families S9, S10, M14, M28, M38, M55) or by action only on oligopeptides (proteases in families M3, M32), respectively. Other enzymes, particularly disulfide reductases, also play a key role in keratin degradation as they catalyze the breakage of disulfide bonds for better keratinase catalysis. This review aims to contribute an overview of keratin biomass as an enzyme substrate and a systematic analysis of currently sequenced keratinolytic enzymes and their classification and reaction mechanisms. We also summarize and discuss keratinase assays, available keratinase structures and finally examine the available data on uses of keratinases in practical biorefinery protein upcycling applications.
Collapse
|
42
|
Su C, Gong JS, Qin J, Li H, Li H, Xu ZH, Shi JS. The tale of a versatile enzyme: Molecular insights into keratinase for its industrial dissemination. Biotechnol Adv 2020; 45:107655. [PMID: 33186607 DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2020.107655] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2020] [Revised: 10/30/2020] [Accepted: 11/02/2020] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Keratinases are unique among proteolytic enzymes for their ability to degrade recalcitrant insoluble proteins, and they are of critical importance in keratin waste management. Over the past few decades, researchers have focused on discovering keratinase producers, as well as producing and characterizing keratinases. The application potential of keratinases has been investigated in the feed, fertilizer, leathering, detergent, cosmetic, and medical industries. However, the commercial availability of keratinases is still limited due to poor productivity and properties, such as thermostability, storage stability and resistance to organic reagents. Advances in molecular biotechnology have provided powerful tools for enhancing the production and functional properties of keratinase. This critical review systematically summarizes the application potential of keratinase, and in particular certain newly discovered catalytic capabilities. Furthermore, we provide comprehensive insight into mechanistic and molecular aspects of keratinases including analysis of gene sequences and protein structures. In addition, development and current advances in protein engineering of keratinases are summarized and discussed, revealing that the engineering of protein domains such as signal peptides and pro-peptides has become an important strategy to increase production of keratinases. Finally, prospects for further development are also proposed, indicating that advanced protein engineering technologies will lead to improved and additional commercial keratinases for various industrial applications.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chang Su
- Key Laboratory of Carbohydrate Chemistry and Biotechnology, Ministry of Education, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, PR China
| | - Jin-Song Gong
- Key Laboratory of Carbohydrate Chemistry and Biotechnology, Ministry of Education, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, PR China.
| | - Jiufu Qin
- Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Biosustainability, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Heng Li
- Key Laboratory of Carbohydrate Chemistry and Biotechnology, Ministry of Education, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, PR China
| | - Hui Li
- Key Laboratory of Carbohydrate Chemistry and Biotechnology, Ministry of Education, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, PR China
| | - Zheng-Hong Xu
- National Engineering Laboratory for Cereal Fermentation Technology, School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, PR China; Jiangsu Provincial Research Center for Bioactive Product Processing Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, PR China
| | - Jin-Song Shi
- Key Laboratory of Carbohydrate Chemistry and Biotechnology, Ministry of Education, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, PR China.
| |
Collapse
|
43
|
Sharma I, Kango N. Production and characterization of keratinase by Ochrobactrum intermedium for feather keratin utilization. Int J Biol Macromol 2020; 166:1046-1056. [PMID: 33157140 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2020.10.260] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2020] [Accepted: 10/31/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
A newly isolated bacterium producing 55.5 U/mL keratinase on feather meal minimal medium was identified as Ochrobactrum intermedium. Optimization of process parameters by one-variable-at-a-time (OVAT) approach (substrate concentration 0.5% w/v, inoculum size 5% w/v, pH 7.0, 200 rpm for 96 h at 40 °C) resulted in 2.1-fold increase in keratinase secretion (117 U/mL). Keratinase was optimally active at pH 9.0 and 40 °C and was stable at pH 9.0 and 60 °C for 120 min. Calcium ions enhanced keratinase activity (158%) significantly, while it was strongly inhibited by both PMSF and EDTA, indicating it to be a metallo-serine protease. Keratinase degraded native chicken feathers efficiently resulting in 97.9% weight loss along with release of 745.5 μg/mL soluble proteins and 4196.69 μg/mL amino acids. Feather hydrolysate generated by NKIS 1 exhibited significant anti-oxidant and free-radical scavenging activity (90.46%). The present study revealed that O. intermedium NKIS 1 has potential applications in the biodegradation of chicken feathers and the value-addition of poultry waste.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Isha Sharma
- Department of Microbiology, Dr. Harisingh Gour Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Sagar, M.P. 470003, India
| | - Naveen Kango
- Department of Microbiology, Dr. Harisingh Gour Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Sagar, M.P. 470003, India.
| |
Collapse
|
44
|
González V, Vargas-Straube MJ, Beys-da-Silva WO, Santi L, Valencia P, Beltrametti F, Cámara B. Enzyme Bioprospection of Marine-Derived Actinobacteria from the Chilean Coast and New Insight in the Mechanism of Keratin Degradation in Streptomyces sp. G11C. Mar Drugs 2020; 18:E537. [PMID: 33126528 PMCID: PMC7693968 DOI: 10.3390/md18110537] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2020] [Revised: 10/13/2020] [Accepted: 10/17/2020] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Marine actinobacteria are viewed as a promising source of enzymes with potential technological applications. They contribute to the turnover of complex biopolymers, such as pectin, lignocellulose, chitin, and keratin, being able to secrete a wide variety of extracellular enzymes. Among these, keratinases are a valuable alternative for recycling keratin-rich waste, which is generated in large quantities by the poultry industry. In this work, we explored the biocatalytic potential of 75 marine-derived actinobacterial strains, focusing mainly on the search for keratinases. A major part of the strains secreted industrially important enzymes, such as proteases, lipases, cellulases, amylases, and keratinases. Among these, we identified two streptomycete strains that presented great potential for recycling keratin wastes-Streptomyces sp. CHA1 and Streptomyces sp. G11C. Substrate concentration, incubation temperature, and, to a lesser extent, inoculum size were found to be important parameters that influenced the production of keratinolytic enzymes in both strains. In addition, proteomic analysis of culture broths from Streptomyces sp. G11C on turkey feathers showed a high abundance and diversity of peptidases, belonging mainly to the serine and metallo-superfamilies. Two proteases from families S08 and M06 were highly expressed. These results contributed to elucidate the mechanism of keratin degradation mediated by streptomycetes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Valentina González
- Laboratorio de Microbiología Molecular y Biotecnología Ambiental, Departamento de Química y Centro de Biotecnología Daniel Alkalay Lowitt, Universidad Técnica Federico Santa María, Valparaíso 2340000, Chile; (V.G.); (M.J.V.-S.)
| | - María José Vargas-Straube
- Laboratorio de Microbiología Molecular y Biotecnología Ambiental, Departamento de Química y Centro de Biotecnología Daniel Alkalay Lowitt, Universidad Técnica Federico Santa María, Valparaíso 2340000, Chile; (V.G.); (M.J.V.-S.)
| | - Walter O. Beys-da-Silva
- Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS 90610-000, Brazil; (W.O.B.-d.-S.); (L.S.)
| | - Lucélia Santi
- Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS 90610-000, Brazil; (W.O.B.-d.-S.); (L.S.)
| | - Pedro Valencia
- Laboratorio de Biocatálisis y Procesamiento de Alimentos, Departamento de Ingeniería Química y Ambiental, Universidad Técnica Federico Santa María, Valparaíso 2340000, Chile;
| | | | - Beatriz Cámara
- Laboratorio de Microbiología Molecular y Biotecnología Ambiental, Departamento de Química y Centro de Biotecnología Daniel Alkalay Lowitt, Universidad Técnica Federico Santa María, Valparaíso 2340000, Chile; (V.G.); (M.J.V.-S.)
| |
Collapse
|
45
|
Larvae of the Clothing Moth Tineola bisselliella Maintain Gut Bacteria that Secrete Enzyme Cocktails to Facilitate the Digestion of Keratin. Microorganisms 2020; 8:microorganisms8091415. [PMID: 32937935 PMCID: PMC7563610 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms8091415] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2020] [Revised: 09/05/2020] [Accepted: 09/10/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The evolutionary success of insects is promoted by their association with beneficial microbes that enable the utilization of unusual diets. The synanthropic clothing moth Tineola bisselliella provides an intriguing example of this phenomenon. The caterpillars of this species have adapted to feed on keratin-rich diets such as feathers and wool, which cannot be digested by most other animals and are resistant to common digestive enzymes. Inspired by the hypothesis that this ability may be conferred by symbiotic microbes, we utilized a simple assay to detect keratinase activity and a method to screen gut bacteria for candidate enzymes, which were isolated from feather-fed larvae. The isolation of DNA from keratin-degrading bacterial strains followed by de novo genome sequencing resulted in the identification of a novel bacterial strain related to Bacillus sp. FDAARGOS_235. Genome annotation identified 20 genes with keratinase domains. Proteomic analysis of the culture supernatant from this gut bacterium grown in non-nutrient buffer supplemented with feathers revealed several candidate enzymes potentially responsible for keratin degradation, including a thiol-disulfide oxidoreductase and multiple proteases. Our results suggest that the unusual diet of T. bisselliella larvae promotes their association with keratinolytic microorganisms and that the ability of larvae to feed on keratin can at least partially be attributed to bacteria that produce a cocktail of keratin-degrading enzymes.
Collapse
|
46
|
Nnolim NE, Mpaka L, Okoh AI, Nwodo UU. Biochemical and Molecular Characterization of a Thermostable Alkaline Metallo-Keratinase from Bacillus sp. Nnolim-K1. Microorganisms 2020; 8:microorganisms8091304. [PMID: 32867042 PMCID: PMC7565512 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms8091304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2020] [Revised: 07/14/2020] [Accepted: 07/21/2020] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Keratinases are considerably gaining momentum in green technology because of their endowed robustness and multifaceted application potentials, such as keratinous agro-wastes valorization. Therefore, the production of novel keratinases from relatively nonpathogenic bacteria grown in agro-wastes formulated medium is cost-effective, and also imperative for the sustainability of thriving bioeconomy. In this study, we optimized keratinase production by Bacillus sp. Nnolim-K1 grown in chicken feather formulated medium. The produced keratinase (KerBNK1) was biochemically characterized and also, the keratinase-encoding gene (kerBNK1) was amplified and sequenced. The optimal physicochemical conditions for extracellular keratinase production determined were 0.8% (w/v) xylose, 1.0% (w/v) feather, and 3.0% (v/v) inoculum size, pH 5.0, temperature (25 °C) and agitation speed (150 rpm). The maximum keratinase activity of 1943.43 ± 0.0 U/mL was achieved after 120 h of fermentation. KerBNK1 was optimally active at pH and temperature of 8.0 and 60 °C, respectively; with remarkable pH and thermal stability. KerBNK1 activity was inhibited by ethylenediamine tetra-acetic acid and 1,10-phenanthroline, suggesting a metallo-keratinase. The amplified kerBNK1 showed a band size of 1104 bp and the nucleotide sequence was submitted to the GenBank with accession number MT268133. Bacillus sp. Nnolim-K1 and the keratinase displayed potentials that demand industrial and biotechnological exploitations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nonso E. Nnolim
- SAMRC Microbial Water Quality Monitoring Centre, University of Fort Hare, Alice 5700, South Africa; (L.M.); (A.I.O.); (U.U.N.)
- Applied and Environmental Microbiology Research Group (AEMREG), Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Fort Hare, Private Bag X1314, Alice 5700, South Africa
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +274-0602-2693
| | - Lindelwa Mpaka
- SAMRC Microbial Water Quality Monitoring Centre, University of Fort Hare, Alice 5700, South Africa; (L.M.); (A.I.O.); (U.U.N.)
- Applied and Environmental Microbiology Research Group (AEMREG), Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Fort Hare, Private Bag X1314, Alice 5700, South Africa
| | - Anthony I. Okoh
- SAMRC Microbial Water Quality Monitoring Centre, University of Fort Hare, Alice 5700, South Africa; (L.M.); (A.I.O.); (U.U.N.)
- Applied and Environmental Microbiology Research Group (AEMREG), Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Fort Hare, Private Bag X1314, Alice 5700, South Africa
| | - Uchechukwu U. Nwodo
- SAMRC Microbial Water Quality Monitoring Centre, University of Fort Hare, Alice 5700, South Africa; (L.M.); (A.I.O.); (U.U.N.)
- Applied and Environmental Microbiology Research Group (AEMREG), Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Fort Hare, Private Bag X1314, Alice 5700, South Africa
| |
Collapse
|
47
|
Exoproduction and characterization of a detergent-stable alkaline keratinase from Arthrobacter sp. KFS-1. Biochimie 2020; 177:53-62. [PMID: 32835736 DOI: 10.1016/j.biochi.2020.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2020] [Revised: 07/31/2020] [Accepted: 08/06/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Arthrobacter sp. KFS-1 previously isolated from a dump site was used to produce keratinase in basal medium. The physico-chemical conditions were optimized to enhance the keratinase production, and biochemical properties of the enzyme were also evaluated. Arthrobacter sp. KFS-1 optimally produced keratinase in a basal medium that contained 1.0 g/L xylose, 2.5-5.0 g/L chicken feather; with initial pH, incubation temperature and agitation speed of 6.0, 30 °C and 200 rpm, respectively. Maximum keratinase activity of 1559.09 ± 29.57 U/mL was achieved at 96 h of fermentation; while optimal thiol concentration of 665.13 ± 38.73 μM was obtained at 144 h. Furthermore, the enzyme was optimally active at pH 8.0 and 60 °C. The enzyme activity was inhibited by ethylene diamine tetraacetic acid and 1,10-phenanthroline, but not affected by phenylmethylsulfonyl floride. In addition, the crude enzyme retained 55%, 63%, 80%, 81% and 90% of the original activity after respective pretreatment with some commercial detergents (Maq, Omo, Surf, Sunlight and Ariel). Moreso, the enzyme showed remarkable stability in the presence of reducing agents, surfactants, and organic solvents. Arthrobacter sp. KFS-1 significantly produced keratinase which exhibited excellent stability in presence of chemical agents and commercial laundry detergents; hence, suggesting its industrial application potentials especially in detergent formulation.
Collapse
|
48
|
Biochemical characterization of an alkaline surfactant-stable keratinase from a new keratinase producer, Bacillus zhangzhouensis. Extremophiles 2020; 24:693-704. [PMID: 32617734 DOI: 10.1007/s00792-020-01187-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/29/2020] [Accepted: 06/26/2020] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
A new keratinase producer, Bacillus sp. BK111, isolated from a poultry feather was identified as Bacillus zhangzhouensis, which is the first report for its keratinolytic activity. The keratinase production was optimized, followed by the enzyme purification and characterization using biochemical assays. A 2.34-fold increase was observed in the enzyme production under optimized conditions. The enzyme was characterized as a serine protease with 42 kDa molecular weight, stable in a wide range of temperature and pH with maximum keratinolytic activity at 60 °C and pH 9.5. The enzyme had a wide range of different substrates with the best performance on the feather meal substrate. Metal ions of Ca2+, K+, Na+ and Mn2+ enhanced the enzyme activity. The enzyme showed a great deal of stability in the presence of ethanol, methanol, acetone, 2-propanol, dimethyl sulfoxide, Tween-80 and Triton X-100. Dithiothreitol (DTT), as a reducing agent, caused a twofold increase in keratinolytic activity. The half-life of the enzyme at optimum temperature was calculated to be 125 min and the ratio of keratinolytic:caseinolytic for the enzyme was 0.8. Our results showed the remarkable features of the enzyme that make it suitable for biotechnological usages.
Collapse
|
49
|
Gonzalo M, Espersen R, Al‐Soud WA, Cristiano Falco F, Hägglund P, Sørensen SJ, Svensson B, Jacquiod S. Azo dying of α-keratin material improves microbial keratinase screening and standardization. Microb Biotechnol 2020; 13:984-996. [PMID: 32110845 PMCID: PMC7264887 DOI: 10.1111/1751-7915.13541] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2019] [Revised: 01/17/2020] [Accepted: 01/17/2020] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Microbial conversion through enzymatic reactions has received a lot of attention as a cost-effective and environmentally friendly way to recover amino acids and short peptides from keratin materials. However, accurate assessment of microbial keratinase activity is not straightforward, and current available methods lack sensitivity and standardization. Here, we suggest an optimized Azokeratin assay, with substrate generated directly from azo-dyed raw keratin material. We introduced supernatant filtration in the protocol for optimal stopping of keratinase reactions instead of the widely used trichloroacetic acid (TCA), as it generated biases and impacted the sensitivity. We furthermore suggest a method for standardization of keratinase activity signals using proteinase K, a well-known keratinase, as a reference enabling reproducibility between studies. Lastly, we evaluated our developed method with several bacterial isolates through benchmarking against a commercial assay (Keratin Azure). Under different setups, the Azokeratin method was more sensitive than commonly used Keratin Azure-based assays (3-fold). We argue that this method could be applied with any type of keratin substrate, enabling more robust and sensitive results which can be used for further comparison with other studies, thus representing an important progress within the field of microbial keratin degradation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Milena Gonzalo
- Section of MicrobiologyUniversity of CopenhagenDK‐2100CopenhagenDenmark
- Present address:
Interactions Arbres/Micro‐organismesINRA/Univ. de LorraineChampenouxFrance
| | - Roall Espersen
- Department of Biotechnology and BiomedicineTechnical University of DenmarkDK‐2800LyngbyDenmark
| | - Waleed A. Al‐Soud
- Section of MicrobiologyUniversity of CopenhagenDK‐2100CopenhagenDenmark
| | - Francesco Cristiano Falco
- Department of Chemical and Biochemical EngineeringTechnical University of DenmarkDK‐2800LyngbyDenmark
| | - Per Hägglund
- Department of Biotechnology and BiomedicineTechnical University of DenmarkDK‐2800LyngbyDenmark
- Present address:
Department of Biomedical SciencesPanum Institute 12.6University of CopenhagenCopenhagenDenmark
| | - Søren J. Sørensen
- Section of MicrobiologyUniversity of CopenhagenDK‐2100CopenhagenDenmark
| | - Birte Svensson
- Department of Biotechnology and BiomedicineTechnical University of DenmarkDK‐2800LyngbyDenmark
| | - Samuel Jacquiod
- Section of MicrobiologyUniversity of CopenhagenDK‐2100CopenhagenDenmark
- Present address:
AgroécologieAgroSup DijonINRAEUniv. BourgogneUniv. Bourgogne Franche‐ComtéF‐21000DijonFrance
| |
Collapse
|
50
|
Sustainable production, biochemical and molecular characterization of thermo-and-solvent stable alkaline serine keratinase from novel Bacillus pumilus AR57 for promising poultry solid waste management. Int J Biol Macromol 2020; 163:135-146. [PMID: 32615225 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2020.06.219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2020] [Revised: 06/21/2020] [Accepted: 06/24/2020] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
The increasing amount of recalcitrant keratinous wastes generated from the poultry industry poses a serious threat to the environment. Keratinase have gained much attention to convert these wastes into valuable products. Ever since primitive feathers first appeared on dinosaurs, microorganisms have evolved to degrade this most recalcitrant keratin. In this study, we identified a promising keratinolytic bacterial strain for bioconversion of poultry solid wastes. A true keratinolytic bacterium was isolated from the slaughterhouse soil and was identified and designated as Bacillus pumilus AR57 by 16S rRNA sequencing. For enhanced keratinase production and rapid keratin degradation, the media components and substrate concentration were optimized through shake flask culture. White chicken feather (1% w/v) was found to be the good substrate concentration for high keratinase production when supplemented with simple medium ingredients. The biochemical characterization reveals astounding results which makes the B. pumilus AR57 keratinase as a novel and unique protease. Optimum activity of the crude enzyme was exhibited at pH 9 and 45 °C. The crude extracellular keratinase was characterized as thermo-and-solvent (DMSO) stable serine keratinase. Bacillus pumilus AR57 showed complete degradation (100%) of white chicken feather (1% w/v) within 18 h when incubated in modified minimal medium supplemented with DMSO (1% v/v) at 150 rpm at 37 °C. Keratinase from modified minimal medium supplemented with DMSO exhibits a half-life of 4 days. Whereas, keratinase from the modified minimal medium fortified with white chicken feather (1% w/v) was stable for 3 h only. Feather meal produced by B. pumilus AR57 was found to be rich in essential amino acids. Hence, we proposed B. pumilus AR57 as a potential candidate for the future application in eco-friendly bioconversion of poultry waste and the keratinase could play a pivotal role in the detergent industry. While feather meal may serve as an alternative to produce animal feed and biofertilizers.
Collapse
|