Bilosomes as a novel carrier for the cutaneous delivery for dapsone as a potential treatment of acne: preparation, characterization and in vivo skin deposition assay

Neuroprotective efficiency of celecoxib vesicular bilosomes for the management of lipopolysaccharide-induced Alzheimer in mice employing 23 full factorial design

The aim of this study was to develop and evaluate bilosomes loaded with Celecoxib (CXB) for the efficient treatment of Alzheimer. The thin-film hydration approach was utilized in the formulation of CXB bilosomes (CXB-BLs). The study used a 23-factorial design to investigate the impact of several formulation variables. Three separate parameters were investigated: bile salt type (X1), medication amount (X2), and lipid-bile salt ratio (X3). The dependent responses included entrapment efficiency (Y1: EE %), particle size (Y2: PS), and zeta potential (Y3: ZP). The formulation factors were statistically optimized using the Design-Expert® program. The vesicles demonstrated remarkable CXB encapsulation efficiency, ranging from 94.16 ± 1.91 to 98.38 ± 0.85%. The vesicle sizes ranged from 241.8 ± 6.74 to 352 ± 2.34 nm. The produced formulations have high negative zeta potential values, indicating strong stability. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) revealed that the optimized vesicles had a spherical form. CXB release from BLs was biphasic, with the release pattern following Higuchi's model. In vivo studies confirmed the efficiency of CXB-BLs in management of lipopolysaccharide-induced Alzheimer as CXB-BLs ameliorated cognitive dysfunction, decreased acetylcholinesterase (AChE), and inhibited neuro-inflammation and neuro-degeneration through reducing Toll-like receptor (TLR4), and Interleukin-1β (IL-1β) levels. The findings suggested that the created CXB-BLs could be a potential drug delivery strategy for Alzheimer's treatment.

Intranasal bilosomes in thermosensitive hydrogel: advancing desvenlafaxine succinate delivery for depression management

Depression, the second biggest cause of disability worldwide, is widespread. Many antidepressant medications, including Desvenlafaxine Succinate (D.V.S.), function by elevating neurotransmitter levels at the synapse through the inhibition of reabsorption by neurons. However, the effectiveness of these treatments is often limited by their inability to reach the brain using conventional administration methods. Bilosome-stabilized nanovesicles containing bile salts have drawn much interest because of their adaptability and versatility in various applications. This study aimed to address this issue by formulating intranasal bilosomes incorporated into a mucoadhesive in situ gel to deliver D.V.S. directly to the brain for depression treatment. The desvenlafaxine-loaded bilosomes were developed using a thin film hydration method based on the l-optimal design. They were intended to provide a more convenient route of administration for antidepressants, enhancing bioavailability and brain targeting through intranasal delivery. The study assessed the optimized bilosomes for particle size (311.21 ± 0.42 nm), Zeta potential (-37.35 ± 0.43)and encapsulation efficiency (99.53 ± 0.41%) and further evaluated them in ex vivo and in vivo pharmacokinetics studies. Pharmacokinetic data reveal enhanced brain uptake compared to a free drug. A statistically optimized bilosome formulation was determined. The intranasal administration of mucoadhesive in situ gel containing desvenlafaxine succinate-loaded bilosomes facilitated direct nose-to-brain drug delivery, improving brain bioavailability.

Magnetic targeting of lornoxicam/SPION bilosomes loaded in a thermosensitive in situ hydrogel system for the management of osteoarthritis: Optimization, in vitro, ex vivo, and in vivo studies in rat model via modulation of RANKL/OPG

Osteoarthritis is a bone and joint condition characterized pathologically by articular cartilage degenerative damage and can develop into a devastating and permanently disabling disorder. This investigation aimed to formulate the anti-inflammatory drug lornoxicam (LOR) into bile salt-enriched vesicles loaded in an in situ forming hydrogel as a potential local treatment of osteoarthritis. This was achieved by formulating LOR-loaded bilosomes that are also loaded with superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs) for intra-muscular (IM) administration to improve joint targeting and localization by applying an external magnet to the joint. A 31.22 full factorial design was employed to develop the bilosomal dispersions and the optimized formula including SPION (LSB) was loaded into a thermosensitive hydrogel. Moreover, in vivo evaluation revealed that the IM administration of LSB combined with the application of an external magnet to the joint reversed carrageen-induced suppression in motor activity and osteoprotegerin by significantly reducing the elevations in mitogen-activated protein kinases, extracellular signal-regulated kinase, and receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa beta/osteoprotegerin expressions. In addition, the histopathological evaluation of knee joint tissues showed a remarkable improvement in the injured joint tissues. The results proved that the developed LSB could be a promising IM drug delivery system for osteoarthritis management.

Review on novel targeted enzyme drug delivery systems: enzymosomes

The goal of this review is to present enzymosomes as an innovative means for site-specific drug delivery. Enzymosomes make use of an enzyme's special characteristics, such as its capacity to accelerate the reaction rate and bind to a particular substrate at a regulated rate. Enzymosomes are created when an enzyme forms a covalent linkage with a liposome or lipid vesicle surface. To construct enzymosomes with specialized activities, enzymes are linked using acylation, direct conjugation, physical adsorption, and encapsulation techniques. By reducing the negative side effects of earlier treatment techniques and exhibiting efficient medication release, these cutting-edge drug delivery systems improve long-term sickness treatments. They could be a good substitute for antiplatelet medication, gout treatment, and other traditional medicines. Recently developed supramolecular vesicular delivery systems called enzymosomes have the potential to improve drug targeting, physicochemical characteristics, and ultimately bioavailability in the pharmaceutical industry. Enzymosomes have advantages over narrow-therapeutic index pharmaceuticals as focusing on their site of action enhances both their pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic profiles. Additionally, it reduces changes in normal enzymatic activity, which enhances the half-life of an enzyme and accomplishes enzyme activity on specific locations.

Emerging Trends in Bilosomes as Therapeutic Drug Delivery Systems

In recent years, there has been a notable surge in the utilization of stabilized bile acid liposomes, chemical conjugates, complexes, mixed micelles, and other drug delivery systems derived from bile acids, often referred to as bilosomes. The molecular structure and interactions of these amphiphilic compounds provide a distinctive and captivating subject for investigation. The enhanced stability of new generation bilosomes inside the gastrointestinal system results in the prevention of drug degradation and an improvement in mucosal penetration. These characteristics render bilosomes to be a prospective nanocarrier for pharmaceutical administration, prompting researchers to investigate their potential in other domains. This review paper discusses bilosomes that have emerged as a viable modality in the realm of drug delivery and have significant promise for use across several domains. Moreover, this underscores the need for additional investigation and advancement in order to comprehensively comprehend the prospective uses of bilosomes and their effectiveness in the field of pharmaceutical administration. This review study explores the current scholarly attention on bilosomes as prospective carriers for drug delivery. Therapeutic areas where bilosomes have shown outstanding performance in terms of drug delivery are outlined in the graphical abstract.

Metformin Loaded Zein Polymeric Nanoparticles to Augment Antitumor Activity against Ehrlich Carcinoma via Activation of AMPK Pathway: D-Optimal Design Optimization, In Vitro Characterization, and In Vivo Study

Metformin (MET), an antidiabetic drug, is emerging as a promising anticancer agent. This study was initiated to investigate the antitumor effects and potential molecular targets of MET in mice bearing solid Ehrlich carcinoma (SEC) as a model of breast cancer (BC) and to explore the potential of zein nanoparticles (ZNs) as a carrier for improving the anticancer effect of MET. ZNs were fabricated through ethanol injection followed by probe sonication method. The optimum ZN formulation (ZN8) was spherical and contained 5 mg zein and 30 mg sodium deoxycholate with a small particle size and high entrapment efficiency percentage and zeta potential. A stability study showed that ZN8 was stable for up to three months. In vitro release profiles proved the sustained effect of ZN8 compared to the MET solution. Treatment of SEC-bearing mice with ZN8 produced a more pronounced anticancer effect which was mediated by upregulation of P53 and miRNA-543 as well as downregulation of NF-κB and miRNA-191-5p gene expression. Furthermore, ZN8 produced a marked elevation in pAMPK and caspase-3 levels as well as a significant decrease in cyclin D1, COX-2, and PGE2 levels. The acquired findings verified the potency of MET-loaded ZNs as a treatment approach for BC.

Hypericin emulsomes combined with hollow microneedles as a non-invasive photodynamic platform for rheumatoid arthritis treatment

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a joint-destructive autoimmune disease that severely affects joint function. Despite the variability of treatment protocols, all of them are associated with severe side effects that compromise patient compliance. The main aim of the current study is to prepare localized effective RA treatment with reduced side effects by combining nanoencapsulation, photodynamic therapy (PDT) and hollow microneedles (Ho-MNs) to maximize the pharmacological effects of hypericin (HYP). To attain this, HYP-loaded emulsomes (EMLs) were prepared, characterized and administered through intradermal injection using AdminPen™ Ho-MNs combined with PDT in rats with an adjuvant-induced RA model. The prepared EMLs had a spherical shape and particle size was about 93.46 nm with an absolute entrapment efficiency. Moreover, confocal imaging indicated the interesting capability of Ho-MNs to deposit the HYP EMLs to a depth reaching 1560 µm into the subcutaneous tissue. In vivo, study results demonstrated that the group treated with HYP EMLs through Ho-MNs combined with PDT had no significant differences in joint diameter, TNF-α, IL1, HO-1, NRF2 and SD levels compared with the negative control group. Similarly, rats treated with the combination of HYP EMLs, Ho-MNs and PDT showed superior joint healing efficacy compared with the groups treated with HYP EMLs in dark, HYP ointment or HYP in microneedles in histopathological examination. These findings highlight the promising potential of photoactivated HYP EMLs when combined with Ho-MNs technology for RA management. The presented therapeutic EMLs-MNs platform could serve as a powerful game-changer in the development of future localized RA treatments.

Bile salt-enriched vs. non-enriched nanoparticles: comparison of their physicochemical characteristics and release pattern

Bile salts were first used in the preparation of nanoparticles due to their stabilizing effects. As time went by, they attracted much attention and were increasingly employed in fabricating nanoparticles. It is well accepted that the physicochemical properties of nanoparticles are influential factors in their permeation, distribution, elimination and degree of effectiveness as well as toxicity. The review of articles shows that the use of bile salts in the structure of nanocarriers may cause significant changes in their physicochemical properties. Hence, having information about the effect of bile salts on the properties of nanoparticles could be valuable in the design of optimal carriers. Herein, we review studies in which bile salts were used in preparing liposomes, niosomes and other nanocarriers. Furthermore, the effects of bile salts on entrapment efficiency, particle size, polydispersity index, zeta potential, release profile and stability of nanoparticles are pointed out. Finally, we debate how to take advantage of bile salts potential for preparing desirable nanocarriers.

Niosome as a promising tool for increasing the effectiveness of anti-inflammatory compounds

Niosomes are drug delivery systems with widespread applications in pharmaceutical research and the cosmetic industry. Niosomes are vesicles of one or more bilayers made of non-ionic surfactants, cholesterol, and charge inducers. Because of their bilayer characteristics, similar to liposomes, niosomes can be loaded with lipophilic and hydrophilic cargos. Therefore, they are more stable and cheaper in preparation than liposomes. They can be classified into four categories according to their sizes and structures, namely small unilamellar vesicles (SUVs), large unilamellar vesicles (LUVs,), multilamellar vesicles (MLVs), and multivesicular vesicles (MVVs). There are many methods for niosome preparation, such as thin-film hydration, solvent injection, and heating method. The current study focuses on the preparation methods and pharmacological effects of niosomes loaded with natural and chemical anti-inflammatory compounds in kinds of literature during the past decade. We found that most research was carried out to load anti-inflammatory agents like non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) into niosome vesicles. The studies revealed that niosomes could improve anti-inflammatory agents' physicochemical properties, including solubility, cellular uptake, stability, encapsulation, drug release and liberation, efficiency, and oral bioavailability or topical absorption. See also the graphical abstract(Fig. 1).

Cross-Linked Alginate Dialdehyde/Chitosan Hydrogel Encompassing Curcumin-Loaded Bilosomes for Enhanced Wound Healing Activity

The current study aimed to fabricate curcumin-loaded bilosomal hydrogel for topical wound healing purposes, hence alleviating the poor aqueous solubility and low oral bioavailability of curcumin. Bilosomes were fabricated via the thin film hydration technique using cholesterol, Span® 60, and two different types of bile salts (sodium deoxycholate or sodium cholate). Bilosomes were verified for their particle size (PS), polydispersity index (PDI), zeta potential (ZP), entrapment efficiency (EE%), and in vitro drug release besides their morphological features. The optimum formulation was composed of cholesterol/Span® 60 (molar ratio 1:10 w/w) and 5 mg of sodium deoxycholate. This optimum formulation was composed of a PS of 246.25 ± 11.85 nm, PDI of 0.339 ± 0.030, ZP of -36.75 ± 0.14 mv, EE% of 93.32% ± 0.40, and the highest percent of drug released over three days (96.23% ± 0.02). The optimum bilosomal formulation was loaded into alginate dialdehyde/chitosan hydrogel cross-linked with calcium chloride. The loaded hydrogel was tested for its water uptake capacity, in vitro drug release, and in vivo studies on male Albino rats. The results showed that the loaded hydrogel possessed a high-water uptake percent at the four-week time point (729.50% ± 43.13) before it started to disintegrate gradually; in addition, it showed sustained drug release for five days (≈100%). In vivo animal testing and histopathological studies supported the superiority of the curcumin-loaded bilosomal hydrogel in wound healing compared to the curcumin dispersion and plain hydrogel, where there was a complete wound closure attained after the three-week period with a proper healing mechanism. Finally, it was concluded that curcumin-loaded bilosomal hydrogel offered a robust, efficient, and user-friendly dosage form for wound healing.

Novel Vesicular Bilosomal Delivery Systems for Dermal/Transdermal Applications

The application of therapeutically active molecules through the dermal/transdermal route into the skin has evolved as an attractive formulation strategy in comparison to oral delivery systems for the treatment of various disease conditions. However, the delivery of drugs across the skin is limited due to poor permeability. Dermal/transdermal delivery is associated with ease of accessibility, enhanced safety, better patient compliance, and reduced variability in plasma drug concentrations. It has the ability to bypass the first-pass metabolism, which ultimately results in steady and sustained drug levels in the systemic circulation. Vesicular drug delivery systems, including bilosomes, have gained significant interest due to their colloidal nature, improved drug solubility, absorption, and bioavailability with prolonged circulation time for a large number of new drug molecules. Bilosomes are novel lipid vesicular nanocarriers comprising bile salts, such as deoxycholic acid, sodium cholate, deoxycholate, taurocholate, glycocholate or sorbitan tristearate. These bilosomes are associated with high flexibility, deformability, and elasticity attributed to their bile acid component. These carriers are advantageous in terms of improved skin permeation, increased dermal and epidermal drug concentration, and enhanced local action with reduced systemic absorption of the drug, resulting in reduced side effects. The present article provides a comprehensive overview of the biopharmaceutical aspects of dermal/transdermal bilosome delivery systems, their composition, formulation techniques, characterization methods, and applications.

Nanotechnology-Based Approaches for Cosmeceutical and Skin Care: A Systematic Review

Cosmeceuticals have gained great importance and are among the top-selling products used for skin care. Because of changing lifestyles, climate, and increasing pollution, cosmeceuticals are utilized by every individual, thereby making cosmeceuticals a fruitful field for research and the economy. Cosmeceuticals provide incredibly pleasing aesthetic results by fusing the qualities of both cosmetics and medicinal substances. Cosmeceuticals are primarily utilized to improve the appearance of skin by making it smoother, moisturized, and wrinkle-free, in addition to treating dermatological conditions, including photoaging, burns, dandruff, acne, eczema, and erythema. Nanocosmeceuticals are cosmetic products that combine therapeutic effects utilizing nanotechnology, allowing for more precise and effective target-specific delivery of active ingredients, and improving bioavailability.

A comprehensive review on recent nanosystems for enhancing antifungal activity of fenticonazole nitrate from different routes of administration

This review aims to comprehensively highlight the recent nanosystems enclosing Fenticonazole nitrate (FTN) and to compare between them regarding preparation techniques, studied factors and responses. Moreover, the optimum formulae were compared in terms of in vitro, ex vivo and in vivo studies in order to detect the best formula. FTN is a potent antifungal imidazole compound that had been used for treatment of many dangerous fungal infections affecting eye, skin or vagina. FTN had been incorporated in various innovative nanosystems in the recent years in order to achieve significant recovery such as olaminosomes, novasomes, cerosomes, terpesomes and trans-novasomes. These nanosystems were formulated by various techniques (ethanol injection or thin film hydration) utilizing different statistical designs (Box-Behnken, central composite, full factorial and D-optimal). Different factors were studied in each nanosystem regarding its composition as surfactant concentrations, surfactant type, amount of oleic acid, cholesterol, oleylamine, ceramide, sodium deoxycholate, terpene concentration and ethanol concentration. Numerous responses were studied such as percent entrapment efficiency (EE%), particle size (PS), poly-dispersity index (PDI), zeta potential (ZP), and in vitro drug release. Selection of the optimum formula was based on numerical optimization accomplished by Design-Expert® software taking in consideration the largest EE %, ZP (as absolute value) and in vitro drug release and lowest PS and PDI. In vitro comparisons were done employing different techniques such as Transmission electron microscopy, pH determination, effect of gamma sterilization, elasticity evaluation and docking study. In addition to, ex vivo permeation, in vivo irritancy test, histopathological, antifungal activity and Kinetic study.

Unlocking the Potential of Bilosomes and Modified Bilosomes: a Comprehensive Journey into Advanced Drug Delivery Trends

Vesicular drug delivery systems have revolutionized the pharmaceutical field, offering a promising path for achieving targeted and sustained drug delivery. The oral, transdermal, and ocular routes of administration offer optimal ease in attaining desired therapeutic outcomes. However, conventional treatment strategies are all plagued with several challenges, such as poor skin permeability, ocular barriers, and gastrointestinal (GIT) degradation leading to vesicular disruption with the release of the encapsulated drug before reaching the targeted site of action. In recent years, bilosomes-stabilized nanovesicles containing bile salts have received considerable attention due to their versatility and adaptability for diverse applications. These bilayered vesicles enhance the solubility of lipophilic drugs and improve formulation stability in the gastrointestinal tract. They exhibit ultra-deformable properties, improving stratum corneum permeability, making them ideal candidates for oral and transdermal drug delivery. In addition, bilosomes find utility in topical drug delivery, making them applicable for ocular administration. Over the past decade, extensive research has highlighted bilosomes' potential as superior vesicular carriers surpassing liposomes and niosomes. Advances in this field have led to the development of modified bilosomes, such as probilosomes and surface-modified bilosomes, further enhancing their capabilities and therapeutic potential. Thus, the present review provides a comprehensive summary of bilosomes, modified bilosomes, surface modifications with their mechanism of action, formulation components, preparation methods, patents, and a wide array of recent pharmaceutical applications in oral, transdermal, and ocular drug delivery. The enhanced properties of bilosomes offer promising prospects for targeted and effective drug delivery, providing potential solutions for addressing various therapeutic challenges.

Non-invasive management of rheumatoid arthritis using hollow microneedles as a tool for transdermal delivery of teriflunomide loaded solid lipid nanoparticles

Conventional RA treatments required prolonged therapy courses that have been accompanied with numerous side effects impairing the patient's quality of life. Therefore, microneedles combined with nanotechnology emerged as a promising alternative non-invasive, effective and self-administrating treatment option. Hence, the main aim of this study is to reduce the side effects associated with systemic teriflunomide administration through its encapsulation in solid lipid nanoparticles (TER-SLNs) and their administration through transdermal route using AdminPen™ hollow microneedles array in the affected joint area directly. In vitro characterization studies were conducted including particle size, zeta potential, encapsulation efficiency and in vitro drug release. Also, ex vivo insertion properties of AdminPen™ hollow microneedles array was carried out. Besides, in vivo evaluation in rats with antigen induced arthritis model were also conducted by assessment of joint diameter, histopathological examination of the dissected joints and testing the levels of TNF-α, IL1B, IL7, MDA, MMP 3, and NRF2 at the end of the experiment. The selected TER-SLNs formulation was about 155.3 nm with negative surface charge and 96.45 % entrapment efficiency. TER-SLNs had a spherical shape and provided sustained release for nearly 96 h. In vivo results demonstrated that nanoencapsulation along with the use of hollow microneedles had a significant influence in improving TER anti-arthritic effects compared with TER suspension with no significant difference from the negative control group.

Taif Rose Oil Ameliorates UVB-Induced Oxidative Damage and Skin Photoaging in Rats via Modulation of MAPK and MMP Signaling Pathways

Short-wave UVB (ultraviolet B) causes rapid oxidative damage to the skin. Rose water is obtained mainly from the petals of Rosa damascena Mill. (Rosaceae) and used traditionally to hydrate dry skin and reduce signs of aging. This work aimed at evaluating the possible protective potential of the prepared eco-friendly Taif rose oil nanoemulsion (ROSE-NANO) against UVB-induced photoaging in adult male Wistar rats. Taif rose oil (ROSE) was obtained from R. damascene by classical steam distillation and formulated in emulgel (100 mg/g). In addition, the oil was formulated in ROSE-NANO-loaded emulgel (50 and 100 mg/g) to enhance the effect of ROSE. All prepared formulas were tested topically for their potential protective effect in UV-induced skin photoaging. The obtained results demonstrated that application of ROSE-NANO-loaded emulgel resulted in superior antiaging potency over ROSE emulgel based on histological studies as well as biochemical evaluations via amendment in CAT and SOD activities, decreasing the concentration of the inflammatory markers and preventing collagen fragmentation through reduction of MMP-9 content in fibroblasts. Moreover, a significant decrease in mRNA expression of NF-KB, JNK, ERK1/2, and p38 MAPK genes was observed. In conclusion, the current study provides scientific evidence for the traditional use of rose oil in skin aging. Moreover, the NANO formula showed promising efficacy as a skin photoprotector against UV-induced oxidative damage and skin aging.

Recent Advances in the Development of Liquid Crystalline Nanoparticles as Drug Delivery Systems

Due to their distinctive structural features, lyotropic nonlamellar liquid crystalline nanoparticles (LCNPs), such as cubosomes and hexosomes, are considered effective drug delivery systems. Cubosomes have a lipid bilayer that makes a membrane lattice with two water channels that are intertwined. Hexosomes are inverse hexagonal phases made of an infinite number of hexagonal lattices that are tightly connected with water channels. These nanostructures are often stabilized by surfactants. The structure's membrane has a much larger surface area than that of other lipid nanoparticles, which makes it possible to load therapeutic molecules. In addition, the composition of mesophases can be modified by pore diameters, thus influencing drug release. Much research has been conducted in recent years to improve their preparation and characterization, as well as to control drug release and improve the efficacy of loaded bioactive chemicals. This article reviews current advances in LCNP technology that permit their application, as well as design ideas for revolutionary biomedical applications. Furthermore, we have provided a summary of the application of LCNPs based on the administration routes, including the pharmacokinetic modulation property.

Budesonide-Loaded Bilosomes as a Targeted Delivery Therapeutic Approach Against Acute Lung Injury in Rats

Budesonide (BUD), a glucocorticoids drug, inhibits all steps in the inflammatory response. It can reduce and treat inflammation and other symptoms associated with acute lung injury such as COVID-19. Loading BUD into bilosomes could boost its therapeutic activity, and lessen its frequent administration and side effects. Different bilosomal formulations were prepared where the independent variables were lipid type (Cholesterol, Phospholipon 80H, L-alpha phosphatidylcholine, and Lipoid S45), bile salt type (Na cholate and Na deoxycholate), and drug concentration (10, 20 mg). The measured responses were: vesicle size, entrapment efficiency, and release efficiency. One optimum formulation (composed of cholesterol, Na cholate, and 10 mg of BUD) was selected and investigated for its anti-inflammatory efficacy in vivo using Wistar albino male rats. Randomly allocated rats were distributed into four groups: The first: normal control group and received intranasal saline, the second one acted as the acute lung injury model received intranasal single dose of 2 mg/kg potassium dichromate (PD). Whereas the third and fourth groups received the market product (Pulmicort® nebulising suspension 0.5 mg/ml) and the optimized formulation (0.5 mg/kg; intranasal) for 7 days after PD instillation, respectively. Results showed that the optimized formulation decreased the pro-inflammatory cytokines TNF-α, and TGF-β contents as well as reduced PKC content in lung. These findings suggest the potentiality of BUD-loaded bilosomes for the treatment of acute lung injury with the ability of inhibiting the pro-inflammatory cytokines induced COVID-19.

Antimicrobial phyto-photodynamic activity inducing by polyphenol-supported Methylene Blue co-loaded into multifunctional bilosomes: Advanced hybrid nanoplatform in the skin infections treatment?

Widespread skin infections caused primarily by bacteria and yeast, pose a growing threat to healthcare systems. Phyto-photodynamic antimicrobial therapy is a promising treatment strategy with a few mild side effects for both superficial and deeper skin infections. The combination of natural plant products (polyphenols) with conventional photosensitizers makes it possible to improve the outcome of skin infections. In the present study, nanoengineered self-assembling bilosomes were used as a nanoplatform to deliver two compounds with different solubility, i.e., curcumin applied as a hydrophobic phytochemical compound and Methylene Blue used as a hydrophilic photosensitizer. Compared with the encapsulation of Methylene Blue alone, the double-loaded bilosomes (curcumin-supported Methylene Blue) showed higher efficiency in generating reactive oxygen species. Importantly, in our study, we also confirmed that bioinspired bilosomes prevent the rapid photobleaching of Methylene Blue, thereby enhancing its photoactivity. The post-irradiation antimicrobial action was tested against two pathogens - the Gram-positive bacterium (Staphylococcus aureus) and yeast (Candida albicans). The irradiation was provided after 10, 20, and 30 min, at a specific wavelength (λ = 640 nm) corresponding to 63, 126, and 189 J cm^-2 energy fluences. The most effective reduction in the microbial cells number was found 30 min post-irradiation and was 99.994% for double-loaded bilosomes compared to 99.989% killing S. aureus for bilosomes with Methylene Blue alone. For C. albicans fungal cells, the mortality was 99.669% in the presence of a Methylene Blue and curcumin mixture compared to 98.229% of those killed without the addition of curcumin. The overall results of our contribution provide evidence that curcumin in combination with MB enhances the photo-eradication efficiency of S. aureus and C. albicans planktonic cultures. Thus, the mixture of the phytochemicals with photosensitizers and their encapsulation in multifunctional bilosomes may contribute to the development of innovative antimicrobial phyto-photodynamic therapy in the future.

Formulation of Miconazole-Loaded Chitosan-Carbopol Vesicular Gel: Optimization to In Vitro Characterization, Irritation, and Antifungal Assessment

Miconazole nitrate (MN) is a poorly water-soluble and antifungal drug used for fungal infections. The present research work was designed to develop topical MN-loaded bilosomes (BSs) for the improvement of therapeutic efficacy. MZBSs were prepared by using the thin-film hydration method and further optimized by using the Box-Behnken statistical design (BBD). The optimized miconazole bilosome (MZBSo) showed nano-sized vesicles, a low polydispersity index, a high entrapment efficiency, and zeta potential. Further, MZBSo was incorporated into the gel using carbopol 934P and chitosan polymers. The selected miconazole bilosome gel (MZBSoG2) demonstrated an acceptable pH (6.4 ± 0.1), viscosity (1856 ± 21 cP), and spreadability (6.6 ± 0.2 cm²). Compared to MZBSo (86.76 ± 3.7%), MZBSoG2 showed a significantly (p < 0.05) slower drug release (58.54 ± 4.1%). MZBSoG2 was found to be a non-irritant because it achieved a score of zero (standard score) in the HET-CAM test. It also exhibited significant antifungal activity compared to pure MZ against Candida albicans and Aspergillus niger. The stability study results showed no significant changes after stability testing under accelerated conditions. MZ-loaded gels could serve as effective alternative carriers for improving therapeutic efficacy.

Review on Different Vesicular Drug Delivery Systems (VDDSs) and Their Applications

BACKGROUND

Colloidal dispersions, also known as vesicular drug delivery systems (VDDSs), are highly ordered assemblies composed of one or more concentric bilayers formed by the self-assembly of amphiphilic building blocks in the presence of water.

OBJECTIVE

VDDSs are important to target the entrapped drugs at specific sites inside the body, control the drug release, enhance the drug bioavailability, and reduce undesired side effects.

METHODS

There are different types of VDDSs suitable for the entrapment of both hydrophilic and lipophilic drugs. According to the patent composition, VDDSs are classified into lipid-based and nonlipid- based VDDSs.

RESULTS

There are different types of VDDSs which include liposomes, ethosomes, transferosomes, ufasomes, colloidosomes, cubosomes, niosomes, bilosomes, aquasomes, etc. Conclusion: This review article aims to address the different types of VDDSs, their advantages and disadvantages, and their therapeutic applications.

Novel Siprulina platensis Bilosomes for Combating UVB Induced Skin Damage

The recent interest in bioactive compounds from natural sources has led to the evolution of the skin care industry. Efforts to develop biologically active ingredients from natural sources have resulted in the emergence of enhanced skin care products. Spirulina (SPR), a nutritionally enriched cyanobacteria-type microalga, is rich in nutrients and phytochemicals. SPR possesses antioxidant, immunomodulatory, and anti-inflammatory activities. Spirulina-loaded bilosomes (SPR-BS), a novel antiaging drug delivery system, were designed for the first time by incorporation in a lecithin−bile salt-integrated system for bypassing skin delivery obstacles. The optimized BS had good entrapment efficiency, small particle size, optimal zeta potential, and sustained drug release pattern. Blank and SPR-loaded BS formulations were safe, with a primary irritancy index of <2 based on the Draize test. In vivo tests were conducted, and photoprotective antiaging effects were evaluated visually and biochemically by analyzing antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-wrinkling markers following ultraviolet (UV) B irradiation. Results of biochemical marker analysis and histopathological examination confirmed the superior antiaging effect of SPR-BS compared with SPR. Thus, SPR-loaded BS is a promising nanoplatform for SPR delivery, can be used for treating UV-induced skin damage, and offers maximum therapeutic outcomes.

Development of surface modified bilosomes for the oral delivery of quercetin: optimization, characterization in-vitro antioxidant, antimicrobial, and cytotoxicity study

Quercetin (QT) is a flavonoid that exhibits anti-oxidant and chemo-preventive activity. This research work aimed to develop surface-modified bilosomes (BS) of QT. The BS was prepared by the solvent evaporation method and optimized by the Box-Behnken design. The optimized QT-BS (QT-BS3opt) displayed vesicle size (143.51 nm), PDI (0.256), zeta potential (-15.4 mV), and entrapment efficiency (89.52%). Further, the optimized QT-BS formulation was coated with chitosan (CS). The XRD diffractogram of CS-QT-BS3opt1 did not exhibit extensive peaks of QT, revealing that QT is properly encapsulated in the polymer matrix. The QT-BS3opt and CS-QT-BS3opt1 exhibited sustained-release (86.62 ± 3.23% and 69.32 ± 2.57%, respectively) up to 24 h with the Korsmeyer-Peppas kinetic model (R² =0.9089). CS-QT-BS3opt1 exhibited significantly (P < .05) high flux, i.e. 4.20-fold more than pure QT dispersion and 1.27-fold higher than QT-BS3opt. CS-QT-BS3opt1 showed significantly greater bio-adhesion (76.43 ± 2.42%) than QT-BS3opt (20.82 ± 1.45%). The antioxidant activity showed that QT from CS-QT-BS3opt1 has more remarkable (P < .05) antioxidant activity at each concentration than pure QT. The CS-QT-BS3opt1 exhibited 1.61-fold higher cytotoxicity against MFC7 and 1.44-fold higher cytotoxicity against MDA-MB-231 than pure QT. The CS-QT-BS3opt1 displayed a significantly greater antimicrobial potential against E. coli than against S. aureus. From all these findings, it could be concluded that surface-modified QT-BS might be an effective approach for increasing the efficacy of QT in the treatment of certain ailments.

Pitavastatin-loaded bilosomes for oral treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma: a repurposing approach

Albeit its established efficacy as an anti-hyperlipidemic agent, pitavastatin (PIT) has been shown to have other various therapeutic effects. One of these effects is the anti-cancer activity against hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). This effect has been evaluated in this study for the first time via its oral delivery loaded in bilosomes both in vitro in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) cell line; HepG2 and in vivo in an Ehrlich ascites carcinoma (EAC) model. Moreover, the impact of surface modification of bilosomes with lactoferrin (LF) as an active targeting ligand for HCC was investigated. Bilosomes were prepared by thin-film hydration and different molar phospholipid to bile salt ratios were used to optimize the bilosomal formulation. The molar phospholipid to bile salt ratio was adjusted to 4:1 at pH 7.4. LF-coated bilosomes possessed a particle size, PDI, entrapment efficiency, and zeta potential of 112.28 nm ± 6.35, 0.229 ± 0.06, 90.56% ± 3.22, and −7.86 mV ± 1.13, respectively. LF-coated bilosomes also increased permeation of PIT when tested on Caco-2 cells by 3.1-folds (compared to uncoated ones or free PIT solution). It also improved the cytotoxicity of HepG2 spheroids 44-folds more than PIT-free solution. RT-PCR analysis showed that LF-coated PIT-loaded bilosomes caused an improvement (2-fold increase) in the apoptotic potential of PIT mediated by caspase-3. In conclusion, the optimized LF-coated PIT-loaded bilosomes were cytotoxic to HCC with improved hepatocytes permeation and cellular uptake. Thus, the proposed formula could be a promising treatment for HCC.

Highly water-soluble dapsone nanocrystals: Towards innovative preparations for an undermined drug

Dapsone (DAP)is a dual-function drug substance; however, its limited water solubility may impair its bioavailability. Drug nanocrystals are an alternative to overcome this limitation. Herein, a DAP nanosuspension was prepared using adesign space approach aiming to investigate the influence of raw material properties and process parameters on the critical quality attributes of the drugnanocrystals. Optimized nanocrystals with 206.3 ± 6.7 nm using povacoat™ as stabilizer were made. The nanoparticles were characterized by dynamic light scattering, laser diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, differential scanning calorimetry, X-ray powder diffraction, and saturation solubility. Compared to the raw material, the nanocrystals were 250-times smaller. Meanwhile, its crystalline state remained basically unchanged even after milling and drying. The nanosuspension successfully maintained its physical stability inlong-termandaccelerated stability studiesover, 4 and 3 months. Furthermore, toxicity studiesshowed low a toxicity at a20 mg/kg. As expected for nanocrystals, the size reduction improvedsaturation solubility3.78 times in water. An attempt to scale up from lab to pilot scale resulted nanocrystals of potential commercial quality. In conclusion, the present study describes the development of dapsone nanocrystals for treating infectious and inflammatory diseases. The nanocrystal formuation can be scaled up for commercial use.

Permeation enhancers loaded bilosomes for improved intestinal absorption and cytotoxic activity of doxorubicin

The clinical utility of doxorubicin is compromised due to dose related toxic side effects and limited oral bioavailability with no oral formulation being marketed. Enhancement of intestinal absorption and magnification of cytotoxicity can overcome these limitations. Accordingly, the objective was to probe penetration enhancers, bilosomes and their combinations for enhanced intestinal absorption and improved cytotoxicity of doxorubicin. Piperine and dipyridamole were tested as enhancers alone or encapsulated in bilosomes comprising Span60, cholesterol and bile salts. Bilosomes were nanosized spherical vesicles with negative zeta potential and were able to entrap doxorubicin with efficiency ranging from 45.3 % to 53 %. Intestinal absorption studies utilized in-situ rabbit intestinal perfusion which revealed site dependent doxorubicin absorption correlating with regional distribution of efflux transporters. Co-perfusion with the enhancer increased intestinal absorption with further augmentation after bilosomal encapsulation. The latter increased the % fraction absorbed by 4.5-6 and 1.8-2.5-fold from jejuno-ileum and colon, respectively, depending on bilosomes composition. Additionally, doxorubicin cytotoxicity against breast cancer cells (MCF-7) was significantly improved after bilosomal encapsulation and the recorded doxorubicin IC₅₀ value was reduced from 13.3 μM to 0.1 μM for the best formulation. The study introduced bilosomes encapsulating absorption enhancers as promising carriers for enhanced cytotoxicity and oral absorption of doxorubicin.

Vardenafil-Loaded Bilosomal Mucoadhesive Sponge for Buccal Delivery: Optimization, Characterization, and In Vivo Evaluation

Vardenafil (VDF) is a relatively new phosphodiesterase-5 inhibitor that has limited oral bioavailability (≈15%). The objective of this study was to develop bilosome-based mucoadhesive buccal sponge for augmenting the oral bioavailability of VDF. VDF-loaded bilosomes were fabricated and optimized using a Box-Behnken design. The optimized VDF-loaded bilosomal formulation was assessed for surface morphology, particle size, thermal characteristics, and in vitro release. Afterwards, the optimized bilosomal formulation was incorporated into a cellulose-based matrix to obtain buccal sponge, which was evaluated for ex vivo permeation studies, in vivo oral bioavailability, and in vivo serum concentration of cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP). The mean particle size and entrapment efficiency (%) of optimized bilosome formulation were 282.6 ± 9.5 nm and 82.95 ± 3.5%, respectively. In vitro release studies at pH 6.8 emphasized the potential of optimized bilosomal formulation to sustain VDF release for 12 h. Ex vivo permeation study using sheep buccal mucosa indicated significant enhancement in penetration of VDF from bilosomal buccal sponge compared to plain VDF gel. Pharmacokinetic study in Albino rats showed ~5 fold increase in relative bioavailability with bilosomal buccal sponge, compared to VDF suspension. In addition, VDF-loaded bilosomal buccal sponge triggered higher serum levels of cGMP, a biomarker of VDF in vivo efficacy, compared to oral VDF suspension. To sum up, bilosomes might represent a potential nanocarrier for buccal delivery of VDF, enhancing its oral bioavailability and therapeutic efficacy.

Development and Evaluation of Novel Leflunomide SPION Bioemulsomes for the Intra-Articular Treatment of Arthritis

Systemic treatments for rheumatoid arthritis are associated with many side effects. This study aimed to minimize the side effects associated with the systemic administration of leflunomide (LEF) by formulating LEF-loaded emulsomes (EMLs) for intra-articular administration. Additionally, EMLs were loaded with supramagnetic nanoparticles (SPIONs) to enhance joint localization, where a magnet was placed on the joint area after intra-articular administration. Full in vitro characterization, including colloidal characteristics, entrapment efficiency, and in vitro release were conducted besides the in vivo evaluation in rats with adjuvant-induced arthritis. In vivo study included joint diameter measurement, X-ray radiographic analysis, RT-PCR analysis, Western blotting, ELISA for inflammatory markers, and histopathological examination of dissected joints. The particle size and entrapment efficiency of the selected LEF SPION EMLs were 198.2 nm and 83.7%, respectively. The EMLs exhibited sustained release for 24 h. Moreover, in vivo evaluation revealed LEF SPION EMLs to be superior to the LEF suspension, likely due to the increase in LEF solubility by nanoencapsulation that improved the pharmacological effects and the use of SPION that ensured the localization of EMLs in the intra-articular cavity upon administration.

Self-assembled bilosomes with stimuli-responsive properties as bioinspired dual-tunable nanoplatform for pH/temperature-triggered release of hybrid cargo

The rapid development of colloid chemistry has raised the possibility of using nanocarriers for the targeted delivery and the controlled drug release at predictable locations to reduce side effects and enhance therapeutic efficacy. In the present work, we focused on the influence of temperature and pH upon in vitro controlled phytochemical/dye-release from a modified bilosome. Drug molecules can affect the properties of nanocarriers, so the effect of encapsulated bioactive compounds on nanoparticle structure has been investigated. The self-assembly process of bioinspired components (i.e., phospholipids, bile salts, and cholesterol), and biocompatible polymeric triblock materials, made it possible to receive structures with a size below 100 nm, demonstrated good capacity for active cargo encapsulation. Differential scanning calorimetry studies showed the possibility of the payloads' interaction with the bilosomes structure. A highly lipophilic compound, such as curcumin, can weaken hydrophobic interactions between the acyl chains of phospholipids, leading to a more flexible membrane. The in vitro release profiles have proved that both solubilities of the therapeutic substances and various environmental conditions affect the release rate of the hybrid cargo. Overall, the obtained double-loaded bilosomes represent a promising bioinspired nanoplatform for oral, intravenous, and topical drug delivery in future biomedical applications.

Clove Oil Endorsed Transdermal Flux of Dronedarone Hydrochloride Loaded Bilosomal Nanogel: Factorial Design, In vitro Evaluation and Ex vivo Permeation

The goal of this study was to develop a bilosomal gel formulation to enhance transdermal permeability of dronedarone hyrdrochloride (DRN) which suffers from poor oral absorption and limited bioavailability. To overcome this obstacle, bilosomes were successfully prepared using 2³ full-factorial design. Span®40, cholesterol, sodium deoxycholate (bile salt), clove oil (permeability enhancer), and either Tween® 60 or Tween® 80 (edge activator) were used in bilosome preparation by ethanol injection method. In this design, independent variables were X1, edge activator type; X2, edge activator amount (mg); and X3, permeability enhancer concentration (% w/v). Optimal formula (B2) of the highest desirability of (0.776) demonstrated minimum vesicle size (VS) of 312.4 ± 24.42 nm, maximum absolute value of zeta potential (ZP) - 36.17 ± 2.57 mV, maximum entrapment efficiency (EE %) of 80.95 ± 3.01%, maximum deformability Index (DI) of 8.24 ± 1.26 g and maximum drug flux after 12 h (J₁₂) of 21.23 ± 1.54 µg/cm² h upon ex vivo permeation study. After 12 h, 70.29 ± 6.46% of DRN was released from B2. TEM identification of B2 showed spherical shaped nanosized vesicles which were physically stable for 3 months at different temperatures. B2 was incorporated into carboxymethylcellulose gel base for easiness of dermal application. B2 gel demonstrated good physical properties, non-Newtonian psuedoplastic flow, and enhanced release (57.0 ± 8.68% of DRN compared to only 13.3 ± 1.2% released from drug suspension after 12 h) and enhanced skin permeation.

Diversifying the skin cancer-fighting worthwhile frontiers: How relevant are the itraconazole/ascorbyl palmitate nanovectors?

Fighting malignant neoplasms via repurposing existing drugs could be a welcome move for prosperous cancer remediations. In the current work, nanovehiculation and optimization of the repositioned itraconazole (ITZ) utilizing ascorbyl palmitate (AP) aspasomes would be an auspicious approach. Further, the optimized aspasomes were incorporated in a cream and tracked for skin deposition. The in vivo efficacy of aspasomal cream on mice subcutaneous Ehrlich carcinoma model was also assessed. The optimized aspasomes revealed nano size (67.83 ± 6.16 nm), negative charge (-79.40 ± 2.23 mV), > 95% ITZ entrapment and high colloidal stability. AP yielded substantial antioxidant capacity and pushed the ITZ cytotoxicity forward against A431 cells (IC₅₀ = 5.3±0.27 μg/mL). An appealing privilege was the aspasomal cream that corroborated spreadability, contemplated skin permeation and potentiated in vivo anticancer competence, reflected in 62.68% reduction in the tumor weight. Such synergistic tumor probes set the foundation for futuristic clinical translation and commercialization.

Preparation and Characterization of a Novel Mucoadhesive Carvedilol Nanosponge: A Promising Platform for Buccal Anti-Hypertensive Delivery

Carvedilol (CRV) is a non-selective third generation beta-blocker used to treat hypertension, congestive heart failure and angina pectoris. Oral administration of CRV showed poor bioavailability (25%), which might be ascribed to its extensive first-pass metabolism. Buccal delivery is known to boost drugs bioavailability. The aim of this study is to investigate the efficacy of bilosomes-based mucoadhesive carvedilol nanosponge for enhancing the oral bioavailability of CRV. The bilosomes were prepared, optimized and characterized for particle size, surface morphology, encapsulation efficiency and ex-vivo permeation studies. Then, the optimized formula was incorporated into a carboxymethyl cellulose/hydroxypropyl cellulose (CMC/HPC) composite mixture to obtain buccal nanosponge enriched with CRV bilosomes. The optimized bilosome formula (BLS9), showing minimum vesicle size, maximum entrapment, and highest cumulative in vitro release, exhibited a spherical shape with 217.2 nm in diameter, 87.13% entrapment efficiency, and sustained drug release for up to 24 h. In addition, ex-vivo drug permeation across sheep buccal mucosa revealed enhanced drug permeation with bilosomal formulations, compared to aqueous drug suspension. Consecutively, BLS9 was incorporated in a CMC/HPC gel and lyophilized for 24 h to obtain bilosomal nanosponge to enhance CRV buccal delivery. Morphological analysis of the prepared nanosponge revealed improved swelling with a porosity of 67.58%. The in vivo assessment of rats indicated that CRV-loaded nanosponge efficiently enhanced systolic/diastolic blood pressure, decreased elevated oxidative stress, improved lipid profile and exhibited a potent cardio-protective effect. Collectively, bilosomal nanosponge might represent a plausible nanovehicle for buccal delivery of CRV for effective management of hypertension.

D-optimal mixture design for optimization of topical dapsone niosomes: in vitro characterization and in vivo activity against Cutibacterium acnes

This study aimed to illustrate the use of D-optimal mixture design (DOMD) for optimization of an enhancer containing Dapsone niosomal formula for acne topical treatment. Mixture components (MixCs) studied were: Span 20, Cholesterol, and Cremophor RH. Different responses were measured. Optimized formula (OF) was selected to minimize particle size and maximize absolute zeta potential and entrapment efficiency. Optimized formula gel (OF-gel) was prepared and characterized. OF-gel in vivo skin penetration using confocal laser scanning microscopy and activity against Cutibacterium acnes in acne mouse model were studied. Based on DOMD results analysis, adequate models were derived. Piepel and contour plots were plotted accordingly to explain how alteration in MixCs L-pseudo values affected studied responses and regions for different responses’ values. The OF had suitable predicted responses which were in good correlation with the actually measured ones. The OF-gel showed suitable characterization and in vivo skin penetration up to the dermis layer. In vivo acne mouse-model showed that OF-gel-treated group (OF-gel-T-gp) had significantly better recovery (healing) criteria than untreated (UT-gp) and Aknemycin^®-treated (A-T-gp) groups. This was evident in significantly higher reduction of inflammation percent observed in OF-gel-T-gp than both UT-gp and A-T-gp. Better healing in OF-gel-T-gp compared with other groups was also verified by histopathological examination. Moreover, OF-gel-T-gp and A-T-gp bacterial loads were non-significantly different from each other but significantly lower than UT-gp. Thus, DOMD was an adequate statistical tool for optimization of an appropriate enhancer containing Dapsone niosomal formula that proved to be promising for topical treatment of acne.

A Brain-Targeted Approach to Ameliorate Memory Disorders in a Sporadic Alzheimer’s Disease Mouse Model via Intranasal Luteolin-Loaded Nanobilosomes

Impaired memory and cognitive function are the main features of Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Unfortunately, currently available treatments cannot cure or delay AD progression. Moreover, the blood–brain barrier hampers effective delivery of treatment to the brain. Therefore, we aimed to evaluate the impact of intranasally delivered luteolin on AD using bile-salt-based nano-vesicles (bilosomes). Different bilosomes were prepared using 23-factorial design. The variables were defined by the concentration of surfactant, the molar ratio of cholesterol:phospholipid, and the concentration of bile salt. Results demonstrated optimized luteolin-loaded bilosomes with particle size (153.2 ± 0.98 nm), zeta potential (−42.8 ± 0.24 mV), entrapment efficiency% (70.4 ± 0.77%), and % drug released after 8 h (80.0 ± 1.10%). In vivo experiments were conducted on an AD mouse model via intracerebroventricular injection of 3 mg/kg streptozotocin. We conducted behavioral, biochemical marker, histological, and immune histochemistry assays after administering a luteolin suspension or luteolin bilosomes (50 mg/kg) intranasally for 21 consecutive days. Luteolin bilosomes improved short-term and long-term spatial memory. They also exhibited antioxidant properties and reduced levels of proinflammatory mediators. They also suppressed both amyloid β aggregation and hyperphosphorylated Tau protein levels in the hippocampus. In conclusion, luteolin bilosomes are an effective, safe, and non-invasive approach with superior cognitive function capabilities compared to luteolin suspension.

Evaluation of Metformin Hydrochloride Tailoring Bilosomes as an Effective Transdermal Nanocarrier

Introduction

Metformin hydrochloride (metformin HCL), a first-line drug treating diabetes type II, was known to cause severe gastritis, so seeking a non-oral dosage form was the new trend. Bilosomes are bilayer nano-vesicles of non-ionic surfactants embodying bile salts. In our study, bilosomes were investigated as an acceptable novel carrier for active targeting transdermal delivery of metformin HCL, circumventing its side effects.

Methods

Twelve bilosome formulations were prepared with solvent evaporation method with slight modification according to a 3¹.2² full factorial design, and the optimized formulation was determined using Design -Expert 13 software (Stat-Ease, Inc., Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA) studying the effect of surfactant and bile salt types on the entrapment efficiency (EE), vesicle size (VS), polydispersity index (PDI), zeta potential (ZP), percentage of drug released within 24 h (R), and flux of drug permeated within 6 h (Jss) of vesicles. In addition, the optimized formulation was further evaluated to Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), deformability index (DI), and transmission electron microscope (TEM) to ensure bilosomes formation, elasticity, and spherical shape, respectively.

Results

The resulting vesicles publicized EE from 56.21% to 94.21%, VS from 183.64 to 701.8 nm, PDI values oscillating between 0.33 and 0.53, ZP (absolute value) from 29 to 44.2 mV, biphasic release profile within 24 h from 60.62 and up to 75.28%, and permeation flux enhancement (198.79–431.91 ng cm ⁻² h⁻¹) in comparison with the non-formulated drug (154.26 ng cm ⁻² h⁻¹). Optimized formulation was found to be F8 with EE = 79.49%, VS = 237.68 nm, ZP = 40.9 mV, PDI = 0.325, R = 75.28%, Jss = 333.45 ng cm⁻² h⁻¹ and DI = 6.5 with spherical self-closed non-aggregated vesicles and non-superimposed bands of its components in the FTIR.

Conclusion

Overall results showed that bilosome incorporation of metformin HCL improved permeation and offered a new nano-carrier for active transdermal delivery.

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A Comprehensive Review of Therapeutic Approaches Available for the Treatment of Dermatitis

BACKGROUND

Dermatitis or eczema is a prevalent skin disorder worldwide and is also very common as a pediatric inflammatory skin disorder. Its succession gets worse with the multiple comorbidities which exhibit mechanisms that are poorly understood. Its management further becomes a challenge due to the limited effective treatment options available. However, the Novel Drug Delivery Systems (NDDS) along with new targeting strategies can easily bypass the issues associated with dermatitis management. If we compare the active constituents against phytoconstituents effective against dermatitis then phytoconstituents can be perceived to be more safe and gentle.

OBJECTIVE

Administration of NDDS of plant extract or actives displays improved absorption behavior, which helps them to permeate through lipid-rich biological membrane leading to increased bioavailability. The newer efficient discoveries related to eczema can face various exploitations. This can be intervened by the subjection of patent rights, which not only safeguard the novel works of individual(s) but also give them the opportunity to share details of their inventions with people globally.

CONCLUSION

The present review focuses on the available research about the use of nanoformulations in the topical delivery. It further elaborates the use of different animal models as the basis to characterize the different features of dermatitis. The review also highlights the recent nanoformulations which have the ability to amplify the delivery of active agents through their incorporation in transfersomes, ethosomes, niosomes or phytosomes, etc.

Multicompartment systems: A putative carrier for combined drug delivery and targeting

In this review, we discuss recent developments in multicompartment systems commonly referred to as vesosomes, as well as their method of preparation, surface modifications, and clinical potential. Vesosomal systems are able to entrap more than one drug moiety and can be customized for site-specific delivery. We focus in particular on the possible reticuloendothelial system (RES) - mediated accumulation of vesosomes, and their application in tumor targeting, as areas for further investigation.

Azelaic acid and Melaleuca alternifolia essential oil co-loaded vesicular carrier for combinational therapy of acne

Aim: Azelaic acid (AzA), a comedolytic, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory anti-melanogenic agent, prescribed against acne vulgaris is safe on skin. Its combination with another widely used anti-acne agent, tea tree oil (EO) whose delivery is limited by volatility, instability and lipophilicity constraints was attempted. Method: Solvent injection was used to prepare AzA-EO integrated ethosomes. Result: Ethosomes were transformed into carbopol hydrogel, which exhibited pseudo-plastic properties with appreciable firmness, work of shear, stickiness and work of adhesion. The hydrogel showed better permeation and retention characteristics vis-a-vis commercial formulation (AzidermTM), when evaluated in Wistar rat skin. Further, ethosome hydrogel composite was better tolerated with no side effects. Conclusion: The findings suggests that the aforementioned strategy could be a potential treatment used for acne management.

Harnessing of Doxylamine Succinate/Pyridoxine Hydrochloride-Dual Laden Bilosomes as a Novel Combinatorial Nanoparadigm for Intranasal Delivery: In Vitro Optimization and In Vivo Pharmacokinetic Appraisal

The present work is concerned with tailoring and appraisal of a novel nano-cargo; bilosomes (BLS) dual laded with doxylamine succinate (DAS) and pyridoxine hydrochloride (PDH), the first treatment option against gestational nausea and vomiting, for intranasal delivery. This bifunctional horizon could surmount constraints of orally-commercialized platforms both in dosage regimen and pharmacokinetic profile. For accomplishing this purpose, DAS/PDH-BLS were elaborated integrating phospholipid, sodium cholate and cholesterol applying thin-film hydration method based on Box-Behnken design. Utilizing Design-Expert® software, the effect of formulation variables on BLS physicochemical features alongside the optimal formulation selection were investigated. Then, the optimum DAS/PDH-BLS formulation was incorporated into a thermally-triggered in situ gelling base. The in vivo pharmacokinetic studies were explored in rats for intranasal DAS/PDH-BLS in situ gel compared with analogous intranasal free in situ gel and oral solution. The optimized BLS disclosed vesicle size of 243.23 nm, ζ potential of -31.33 mV, entrapment efficiency of 59.18 and 41.63%, accumulative % release within 8 h of 63.30 and 85.52% and accumulative permeated amount over 24 h of 347.92 and 195.4 µg/cm² for DAS/PDH, respectively. Following intranasal administration of the inspected BLS in situ gel, pharmacokinetic studies revealed a 1.64- and 2.3-fold increment in the relative bioavailability of DAS and a 1.7- and 3.73-fold increase for PDH compared to the intranasal free in situ gel and oral solution, respectively besides significantly extended mean residence times for both drugs. Thus, the intranasally exploited DAS/PDH-BLS could be deemed as a promising hybrid nanoplatform with fruitful pharmacokinetics and tolerability traits.

Superparamagnetic iron oxide loaded chitosan coated bilosomes for magnetic nose to brain targeting of resveratrol

The objective of this study was to improve effectiveness of resveratrol (RES) through brain targeting by the intranasal olfactory mucosa for the treatment Alzheimer's disease (AD). To attain this, chitosan coated bilosomes (non ionic surfactant vesicles stabilized by bile salts, loaded with RES and superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs) were prepared and incorporated into sodium alginate/PVP wafers. In vitro characterization of bilosomes including colloidal characteristics, entrapment efficiency and in vitro release was carried out. Hydration capacity, porosity percentage, morphology and in vitro release for selected wafer formulation were also investigated. Particle size of selected bilosomes, CS coated bilosome and SPION bilosomes was 208, 238 and 243 nm, respectively and they provided sustained RES release for 24 h. Both formulations were loaded in wafers and intra-nasally administered in mice with lipopolysaccharide induced AD model. Neurobehavioral tests, AD markers analysis, RT-PCR, western blotting and histopathological evaluation of the dissected brains were carried out. Results revealed the superiority of SPION bilosomes over conventional bilosomes and RES suspension in improving cognitive and memory functions, reduction of pro-inflammatory markers levels and down regulation of expression of NF-κB and P38. This may be attributed to enhanced RES therapeutic effects upon nanoencapsulation, loading into wafers, nasal administration and enhanced targeting the application of an external magnetic field.

Liver Targeting of Daclatasvir via Tailoring Sterically Stabilized Bilosomes: Fabrication, Comparative In Vitro/In Vivo Appraisal and Biodistribution Studies

INTRODUCTION

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is a significant public health concern that threatens millions of individuals worldwide. Daclatasvir (DAC) is a promising direct-acting antiviral approved for treating HCV infection around the world. The goal of this study was to encapsulate DAC into novel polyethylene glycol (PEG) decorated bilosomes (PEG-BILS) to achieve enhanced drug delivery to the liver.

METHODS

DAC-loaded BILS were primed by a thin film hydrating technique. The study of the impact of various formulation variables on the properties of BILS and selection of the optimal formulation was generated using Design-Expert® software. The optimum preparation was then pegylated via the incorporation of PEG-6-stearate (5% w/w, with respect to the lipid phase).

RESULTS

The optimum PEG-BILS formulation, containing PL:SDC ratio (5:1), 5 mg cholesterol, and 30 min sonication, yielded spherical vesicles in the nanoscale (200±15.2 nm), elevated percent of entrapment efficiency (95.5±7.77%), and a sustained release profile of DAC with 35.11±2.3% release. In vivo and drug distribution studies revealed an enhanced hepatocellular delivery of DAC-loaded PEG-BILS compared to DAC-unPEG-BILS and DAC suspension, where DAC-PEG-BILS achieved 1.19- and 1.54 times the AUC0-24 of DAC-unPEG-BILS and DAC suspension, respectively. Compared with DAC-unPEG-BILS and DAC suspension, DAC-PEG-BILS delivered about 2 and 3 times higher DAC into the liver, respectively.

CONCLUSION

The innovative encapsulation of DAC-PEG-BILS has a great potential for liver targeting.

Ultra-deformable liposomes containing terpenes (terpesomes) loaded fenticonazole nitrate for treatment of vaginal candidiasis: Box-Behnken design optimization, comparative ex vivo and in vivo studies

Fenticonazole nitrate (FTN) is a potent antifungal drug adopted in the treatment of vaginal candidiasis. It has inadequate aqueous solubility hence, novel ultra-deformable liposomes 'Terpesomes' (TPs) were developed that might prevail over FTN poor solubility besides TPs might abstain the obstacles of mucus invasion. TPs were assembled by thin-film hydration then optimized by Box Behnken design utilizing terpenes ratio (X₁), sodium deoxycholate amount (X₂), and ethanol concentration (X₃) as independent variable, whereas their impact was inspected for entrapment efficiency (Y₁), particle size (Y₂), and polydispersity index (Y₃). Design Expert^® was bestowed to select the optimal TP for more studies. The optimal TP had entrapment efficiency of 62.18 ± 1.39%, particle size of 310.00 ± 8.16 nm, polydispersity index of 0.20 ± 0.10, and zeta potential of -10.19 ± 0.2.00 mV. Elasticity results were greater in the optimal TP related to classical bilosomes. Further, ex vivo permeation illustrated tremendous permeability from the optimal TP correlated to classical bilosomes, and FTN suspension. Besides, in vivo assessment displayed significant inhibition effect in rats from FTN-TPs gel compared to FTN gel. The antifungal potency with undermost histopathological variation was detected in rats treated with FTN-TPs gel. Overall, the acquired findings verified the potency of utilizing FTN-TPs gel for treatment of vaginal candidiasis.

Tailoring of Retinyl Palmitate-Based Ethosomal Hydrogel as a Novel Nanoplatform for Acne Vulgaris Management: Fabrication, Optimization, and Clinical Evaluation Employing a Split-Face Comparative Study

AIM

Retinyl palmitate (RP), the most stable vitamin A derivative, is used to treat photoaging and other skin disorders. The need to minimize the adverse effects of topical drug administration has led to an enhanced interest in loading RP on ethosomes for topical drug delivery. The aim of the current study was to prepare and compare the performance of RP decorated ethosomal hydrogel with tretinoin cream in the treatment of acne vulgaris as an approach to improve drug efficacy and decrease its side effects.

METHODS

RP-loaded ethosomes were prepared using the injection sonication technique. A Box-Behnken design using Design Expert® software was used for the optimization of formulation variables. Particle size, zeta potential (ZP), entrapment efficiency percent (EE%), % drug release, and permeation over 24 h of different formulations were determined. The optimal formulation was incorporated into a hydrogel. Finally, the efficacy and tolerability of the optimized RP ethosomal hydrogel were clinically evaluated for acne treatment using a split-face comparative clinical study.

RESULTS

The optimized ethosomal RP showed particle size of 195.8±5.45 nm, ZP of -62.1±2.85 mV, EE% of 92.63±4.33%, drug release % of 96.63±6.81%, and drug permeation % of 85.98 ±4.79%. Both the optimized RP ethosomal hydrogel and tretinoin effectively reduced all types of acne lesions (inflammatory, non-inflammatory, and total lesions). However, RP resulted in significantly lower non-inflammatory and total acne lesion count than the marketed tretinoin formulation. Besides, RP-loaded ethosomes showed significantly improved tolerability compared to marketed tretinoin with no or minimal skin irritation symptoms.

CONCLUSION

RP ethosomal hydrogel is considerably effective in controlling acne vulgaris with excellent skin tolerability. Therefore, it represents an interesting alternative to conventional marketed tretinoin formulation for topical acne treatment.

Development and Optimization of Terpene-Enriched Vesicles (Terpesomes) for Effective Ocular Delivery of Fenticonazole Nitrate: In vitro Characterization and in vivo Assessment

Objective

The aim of the current study was to load fenticonazole nitrate, a slightly water-soluble antifungal agent, into terpene-enriched phospholipid vesicles (terpesomes) as a potential delivery system for the management of ocular fungal infection.

Methods

Thin film hydration method was used to prepare terpesomes according to a 3² full factorial design to inspect the effect of several variables on vesicles’ features. The investigated factors were terpenes type (X₁) and terpenes amount (X₂) while the dependent responses were encapsulation efficiency percent (Y₁), particle size (Y₂) and polydispersity index (Y₃). Design Expert^® program was used to chose the best achieved formula. The selected terpesomes were further optimized via incorporation of a positive charge inducer (stearylamine) to enhance adhesion to the negatively charged mucus covering the eye surface. The in vivo performance of the optimized fenticonazole nitrate-loaded terpesomes relative to drug suspension was evaluated by measuring the antifungal activity (against Candida albicans) retained in the tear's fluid at different time intervals after ocular application in albino rabbits.

Results

The optimized terpesomes showed spherical vesicles with entrapment efficiency of 79.02±2.35%, particle size of 287.25±9.55 nm, polydispersity index of 0.46±0.01 and zeta potential of 36.15±1.06 mV. The in vivo study demonstrated significantly higher ocular retention of the optimized fenticonazole nitrate-loaded terpesomes relative to the drug suspension. Moreover, the histopathological studies proved the safety and biocompatibility of the prepared terpesomes.

Conclusion

The obtained results verified the potential of the terpesomes for safe and effective ocular delivery of fenticonazole nitrate.