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Yin H, Zhou Y, Li Z. Contradictory findings in the study of emotional false memory: a review on the inadvisability of controlling valence and arousal. Front Psychol 2024; 15:1380742. [PMID: 38863666 PMCID: PMC11165708 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1380742] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2024] [Accepted: 05/09/2024] [Indexed: 06/13/2024] Open
Abstract
Emotional false memories are the erroneous recollection of events accompanied by an emotional experience. In high-risk domains like psychotherapy and the legal system, emotional false memories are of particular importance. Despite the systematic research conducted on emotional false memories in recent years, findings remain contradictory. Some studies have suggested that negative emotion reduces false memories, while others have suggested that negative emotion increases false memories. Research has mainly employed words and pictures as experimental stimuli, and studies using both types of memory stimuli are reviewed here. From this examination, it emerged that the main reasons for contradictory findings are as follows: (1) different materials have varying effects on inducing false memories, with pictures demonstrating a memory advantage compared to words; (2) recall and recognition tests have been used interchangeably, leading to different false-memory effects depending on the memory test employed; and (3) different studies have adopted different levels of control over valence and arousal when manipulating emotional variables. Future studies should distinguish between the use of different memory materials, examine specific differences in recall and recognition tests, and measure the impact of specific emotions on false memory beyond the dimensions of valence and arousal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haochen Yin
- Key Laboratory of Applied Psychology, Chongqing Normal University, Chongqing, China
| | - Yizhou Zhou
- Key Laboratory of Applied Psychology, Chongqing Normal University, Chongqing, China
| | - Zuoshan Li
- Key Laboratory of Applied Psychology, Chongqing Normal University, Chongqing, China
- School of Teacher Education, Chongqing Normal University, Chongqing, China
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2
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Ikier S, Dönerkayalı C, Halıcı ÖS, Kaymak Gülseren ZA, Göksal H, Akbaş B. When is memory more reliable? Scientific findings, theories, and myths. APPLIED NEUROPSYCHOLOGY. ADULT 2024; 31:77-94. [PMID: 35944506 DOI: 10.1080/23279095.2022.2107928] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The question of whether human memory is reliable generated extensive research. Memory is open to reconstruction and false retrieval of unpresented information or unexperienced events. These can create problems in judgments and decisions that rely on memory accuracy. In the case of eyewitness testimony, these problems can result in injustice. Then again, memory is also reliable enough. Information acquisition, processing, and retrieval capacity of our memory made it possible to survive the course of evolution. Our memory also makes it possible to continue our daily lives, most of the time without major problems. In the present review, we suggest that the right question to ask may not be whether memory is reliable, but rather to ask when and under what circumstances memory is more reliable. The review's educational aim is to identify the conditions under which memory is more versus less reliable, and its theoretical aim is to discuss memory reliability. We reviewed the literature on situational, emotional, social, and individual difference variables that affect memory reliability, identified the conditions under which memory is more versus less reliable, summarized these outcomes as easy-to-reach items, and discussed them in the light of major theories. Our discussion also touched upon the differentiation of societal myths about the reliability of memory from scientific findings, since believing in memory myths can also affect the reliability of memory. Awareness of the specific circumstances under which memory is more reliable can lead to the consideration of how much memory can be trusted under those specific circumstances.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simay Ikier
- Department of Psychology, Bahçeşehir University, Istanbul, Turkey
| | | | | | | | - Hilal Göksal
- Department of Psychology, Bahçeşehir University, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Busenur Akbaş
- Department of Psychology, Bahçeşehir University, Istanbul, Turkey
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3
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Vaporova E, Zmyj N. Children's suggestibility for neutral arbitrary actions in the context of norm violations. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0286241. [PMID: 37228049 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0286241] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2022] [Accepted: 05/11/2023] [Indexed: 05/27/2023] Open
Abstract
This study investigated children's false memories for neutral arbitrary actions. Five- to six-year-olds (N = 32) were taught four arbitrary actions, each following specific rules. The children then watched a televised adult performing eight actions: the four familiar actions while violating one aspect of each rule script and four unfamiliar actions. Suggestive and non-suggestive questions about all witnessed actions were asked, followed by forced-choice test questions to measure the false memory effect. The likelihood of forming false memories was higher in the suggestive condition than in the non-suggestive condition. There was no effect of previously acquired knowledge about the rules of the actions and no interaction between rule knowledge and suggestion. The results are discussed in light of previous findings in related fields of false memory research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena Vaporova
- Educational Sciences and Psychology, Institute of Psychology, TU Dortmund University, Dortmund, Germany
| | - Norbert Zmyj
- Educational Sciences and Psychology, Institute of Psychology, TU Dortmund University, Dortmund, Germany
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Sharma PR, Wade KA, Jobson L. A systematic review of the relationship between emotion and susceptibility to misinformation. Memory 2023; 31:1-21. [PMID: 36093958 DOI: 10.1080/09658211.2022.2120623] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
Abstract
Inaccurate memory reports can have serious consequences within forensic and clinical settings, where emotion and misinformation are two common sources of memory distortion. Many studies have investigated how these factors are related; does emotion protect memory or leave it more vulnerable to the distorting effects of misinformation? The findings remain diffused. Thus, the present review aimed to clarify the relationship between emotion and susceptibility to misinformation. 39 eligible studies were reviewed. Results varied according to the type and dimension of emotion measured. Level of arousal may be unrelated to susceptibility to misinformation when retrieval occurs without delay; studies including delayed retrieval were limited. Stimuli valence may be associated with increased susceptibility to peripheral misinformation but unrelated to other misinformation. The following results were reported by limited studies: short-term distress and moderate levels of stress may decrease susceptibility, while anger and greater cortisol response to stress may increase susceptibility to misinformation. Source memory may also be unaffected by emotion. The results have important potential implications for forensic and clinical practice, for example by highlighting the value of enquiring witnesses' source memory. Methodological recommendations for future studies are made.
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Affiliation(s)
- Prerika R Sharma
- Turner Institute for Brain and Mental Health and School of Psychological Sciences, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Kimberley A Wade
- Department of Psychology, University of Warwick, Warwick, United Kingdom
| | - Laura Jobson
- Turner Institute for Brain and Mental Health and School of Psychological Sciences, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
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Zhang W, Cowan G, Colombo M, Gross J, Hayne H. Emotional content of the event but not mood influences false memory. APPLIED COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/acp.3872] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Weiwei Zhang
- Department of Psychology University of Otago Dunedin New Zealand
| | - Georgia Cowan
- Department of Psychology University of Otago Dunedin New Zealand
| | - Marea Colombo
- Department of Psychology University of Otago Dunedin New Zealand
| | - Julien Gross
- Department of Psychology University of Otago Dunedin New Zealand
| | - Harlene Hayne
- Department of Psychology University of Otago Dunedin New Zealand
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Rajagopalan J, Arshad F, Hoskeri RM, Nair VS, Hurzuk S, Annam H, Varghese F, Br R, Dhiren SR, Ganeshbhai PV, Kammammettu C, Komaravolu S, Thomas PT, Comas-Herrera A, Alladi S. Experiences of people with dementia and their caregivers during the COVID-19 pandemic in India: A mixed-methods study. DEMENTIA 2021; 21:214-235. [PMID: 34346238 PMCID: PMC8685595 DOI: 10.1177/14713012211035371] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Background The COVID-19 pandemic has unprecedented consequences for the management of chronic diseases such as dementia. However, limited evidence exists on the condition of persons with dementia and their caregivers during the pandemic in lower-middle-income countries (LMICs). The study aimed to provide insights into the experiences of persons with dementia and their families during the early phases of the pandemic in India. Methods This study adopted a mixed-method approach. One hundred and four persons with dementia and their caregivers were evaluated via telephone using validated instruments and a semi-structured interview guide. We used the quantitative data collected to establish a baseline, whereas qualitative data were analysed thematically. Results The study revealed that persons with dementia and their caregivers experienced difficulties during the pandemic, which included worsening of behaviour, problems in accessing care, disruptions in functional activities and struggles in enforcing infection prevention contributing to caregiver distress. An important finding that emerged was the unchanging reality of caregiving for families. The relative success of the public health response to the COVID-19 pandemic contrasted with the lack of awareness and formal support for dementia. Conclusions The COVID-19 pandemic has exposed the vulnerabilities of persons with dementia and their caregivers. This calls for a collaborative reframing of medical care and public health policies to address dementia care.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jayeeta Rajagopalan
- Strengthening Responses to Dementia in Developing Countries (STRiDE) India, National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences, Bangalore, India
| | - Faheem Arshad
- Department of Neurology, National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences, Bangalore, India
| | | | - Vasundharaa S Nair
- Department of Psychiatric Social Work, National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences, Bangalore, India
| | - Saadiya Hurzuk
- Strengthening Responses to Dementia in Developing Countries (STRiDE) India, Alzheimer's and Related Disorders Society of India, Hyderabad, India
| | - Harikrishna Annam
- Department of Neurology, National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences, Bangalore, India
| | - Feba Varghese
- Department of Neurology, National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences, Bangalore, India
| | - Renuka Br
- Dementia Science Programme, National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences, Bangalore, India
| | - Shah R Dhiren
- Department of Neurology, National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences, Bangalore, India
| | - Patel V Ganeshbhai
- Department of Neurology, National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences, Bangalore, India
| | | | - Shashidhar Komaravolu
- Alzheimer's and Related Disorders Society of India Hyderabad Deccan Chapter, Hyderabad, India
| | - Priya T Thomas
- Department of Psychiatric Social Work, National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences, Bangalore, India
| | - Adelina Comas-Herrera
- Care Policy and Evaluation Centre, 4905London School of Economics and Political Science (LSE), London, UK
| | - Suvarna Alladi
- Department of Neurology, National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences, Bangalore, India
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Moret-Tatay MDC, Pérez-Mengual N, Sáiz-Mauleón B, Lapuerta FB. How effective are 3D anaglyph stimuli? An analysis in emotional recognition. PSICO-USF 2021. [DOI: 10.1590/1413-8271202126nesp14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract The aim of this study was to examine the role of virtual environments in visual recognition. A classic and economically accessible technique was chosen: anaglyph. A battery of images that differed in their emotional charge was developed. The emotional valence of the new stimulus was evaluated using the SAM battery. 2D and anaglyph modalities were also tested. 32 subjects participated in the first study and 42 subjects in the recognition task. The results: i) Participants were more accurate in classic 2D environments compared to 3D, ii) participants were more efficient in the negative 3D condition compared to the rest of the emotional conditions in this category, while the neutral environment was the most efficient for 2D. It is suggested that coding information would be simpler for a 2D stimulus, however, effects as robust as emotional charge would manifest more clearly in a deeper presentation.
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Abstract
The effect of anger on acceptance of false details was examined using a three-phase misinformation paradigm. Participants viewed an event, were presented with schema-consistent and schema-irrelevant misinformation about it, and were given a surprise source monitoring test to examine the acceptance of the suggested material. Between each phase of the experiment, they performed a task that either induced anger or maintained a neutral mood. Participants showed greater susceptibility to schema-consistent than schema-irrelevant misinformation. Anger did not affect either recognition or source accuracy for true details about the initial event, but suggestibility for false details increased with anger. In spite of this increase in source errors (i.e., misinformation acceptance), both confidence in the accuracy of source attributions and decision speed for incorrect judgments also increased with anger. Implications are discussed with respect to both the general effects of anger and real-world applications such as eyewitness memory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Greenstein
- Department of Psychology and Philosophy, Framingham State University, Framingham, MA, USA.,Department of Psychology, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, USA
| | - Nancy Franklin
- Department of Psychology, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, USA
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Abstract
Patients with Alzheimer's Disease (AD) not only are suffering from amnesia but also are prone to memory distortions, such as experiencing detailed and vivid recollections of episodic events that have never been encountered (i.e., false memories). To describe and explain these distortions, we offer a review to synthesize current knowledge on false memory in AD into a framework allowing for better understanding of the taxonomy and phenomenology of false memories and of the cognitive mechanisms that may underlie false memory formation in AD. According to this review, certain phenomenological characteristics of memories (e.g., high emotional load, high vividness, or high familiarity) result in misattributions in AD. More specifically, this review proposes that generalized decline in cognitive control and inhibition in AD may result in difficulties in suppressing irrelevant information during memory monitoring, especially when irrelevant (i.e., false) information is characterized by high emotion, vividness, or familiarity. This review also proposes that binding deficits in AD decrease the ability to retrieve relevant contextual details, leading to source monitoring errors and false memories. In short, this review depicts how phenomenological characteristics of memories and failures of monitoring during retrieval contribute to the occurrence of false memory in AD.
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Moret-Tatay C, Rueda PM, Bernabé-Valero G, Gamermann D. Emotional Recognition in Schizophrenia: An Analysis of Response Components in Middle-Aged Adults. Psychiatr Q 2019; 90:543-552. [PMID: 31134418 DOI: 10.1007/s11126-019-09649-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Ageing seems to present a bias towards positive stimuli that might be reflected in response times. However, this process is more complex for middle-aged adults, and even more in schizophrenia. In order to examine this issue, an experimental study was carried out in which 48 participants were divided into two groups: an experimental group of 24 participants diagnosed with schizophrenia and a control group of 24 subjects with no disorders. The main objective of the study was to evaluate response time components according to the emotional valence of the stimulus, to test recognition and discrimination in both groups. A battery of 120 images from the International Affective Picture System (IAPS), representing positive, negative and neutral emotional valences, was employed. Response times were evaluated in terms of analysis of variance, as well as its inherent response times components. The results showed slower responses in the group with schizophrenia than in the control one. Moreover, a poorer performance was depicted in the latency components this group. Finally, a differential deficit pattern for emotion between groups was not found.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carmen Moret-Tatay
- Facultad de Psicología, Universidad Católica de Valencia San Vicente Mártir, Valencia, Spain.
| | - Paula Melero Rueda
- Facultad de Psicología, Universidad Católica de Valencia San Vicente Mártir, Valencia, Spain
| | - Gloria Bernabé-Valero
- Facultad de Psicología, Universidad Católica de Valencia San Vicente Mártir, Valencia, Spain
| | - Daniel Gamermann
- Department of Physics, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS).-Instituto de Física, Av. Bento Gonçalves 9500, Porto Alegre, RS, 90040-060, Brazil
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Gutchess A, Kensinger EA. Shared Mechanisms May Support Mnemonic Benefits from Self-Referencing and Emotion. Trends Cogn Sci 2018; 22:712-724. [PMID: 29886010 PMCID: PMC6652178 DOI: 10.1016/j.tics.2018.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2017] [Revised: 05/10/2018] [Accepted: 05/11/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
The literatures on episodic memory for self-referential and emotional information have proceeded relatively independently, and most studies examining the effects of age on these memory processes have been interpreted within domain-specific frameworks. However, there is increasing evidence for shared mechanisms that contribute to episodic memory benefits in these two domains. We review this evidence and propose a model that incorporates overlapping as well as domain-specific contributions to episodic memory encoding of self-referential and emotional material. We discuss the implications for understanding the relatively intact memory of older adults for these classes of stimuli, and conclude with suggestions for future research to test key tenets and extensions of this shared-process model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angela Gutchess
- Aging, Culture, and Cognition Laboratory, Department of Psychology, Brandeis University, Waltham, MA, USA; Equal contributions.
| | - Elizabeth A Kensinger
- Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience Laboratory, Department of Psychology, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA, USA; Equal contributions
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