Anthocyanins/anthocyanidins and colorectal cancer: What is behind the scenes?

A Narrative Review: Immunometabolic Interactions of Host-Gut Microbiota and Botanical Active Ingredients in Gastrointestinal Cancers

The gastrointestinal tract is where the majority of gut microbiota settles; therefore, the composition of the gut microbiota and the changes in metabolites, as well as their modulatory effects on the immune system, have a very important impact on the development of gastrointestinal diseases. The purpose of this article was to review the role of the gut microbiota in the host environment and immunometabolic system and to summarize the beneficial effects of botanical active ingredients on gastrointestinal cancer, so as to provide prospective insights for the prevention and treatment of gastrointestinal diseases. A literature search was performed on the PubMed database with the keywords "gastrointestinal cancer", "gut microbiota", "immunometabolism", "SCFAs", "bile acids", "polyamines", "tryptophan", "bacteriocins", "immune cells", "energy metabolism", "polyphenols", "polysaccharides", "alkaloids", and "triterpenes". The changes in the composition of the gut microbiota influenced gastrointestinal disorders, whereas their metabolites, such as SCFAs, bacteriocins, and botanical metabolites, could impede gastrointestinal cancers and polyamine-, tryptophan-, and bile acid-induced carcinogenic mechanisms. GPRCs, HDACs, FXRs, and AHRs were important receptor signals for the gut microbial metabolites in influencing the development of gastrointestinal cancer. Botanical active ingredients exerted positive effects on gastrointestinal cancer by influencing the composition of gut microbes and modulating immune metabolism. Gastrointestinal cancer could be ameliorated by altering the gut microbial environment, administering botanical active ingredients for treatment, and stimulating or blocking the immune metabolism signaling molecules. Despite extensive and growing research on the microbiota, it appeared to represent more of an indicator of the gut health status associated with adequate fiber intake than an autonomous causative factor in the prevention of gastrointestinal diseases. This study detailed the pathogenesis of gastrointestinal cancers and the botanical active ingredients used for their treatment in the hope of providing inspiration for research into simpler, safer, and more effective treatment pathways or therapeutic agents in the field.

Dietary Flavonoids Consumption and Health: An Umbrella Review

SCOPE

The current evidence between dietary flavonoids consumption and multiple health outcomes is inadequate and inconclusive. To summarize and evaluate the evidence for dietary flavonoids consumption and multiple health outcomes, an umbrella review of meta-analyses and systematic reviews is conducted.

METHODS AND RESULTS

PubMed, Ovid-EMBASE, and the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews are searched up to January 2024. The study includes a total of 32 articles containing 24 unique health outcomes in this umbrella review. Meta-analyses are recalculated by using a random effects model. Separate analyses are performed based on the kind of different flavonoid subclasses. The study finds some unique associations such as flavonol and gastric cancer, isoflavone and uterine fibroids and endometrial cancer, total flavonoids consumption and lung cancer, ovarian cancer, and prostate cancer. Overall, the study confirms the negative associations between dietary flavonoids consumption and type 2 diabetes mellitus, cardiovascular diseases, breast cancer, colorectal cancer, lung cancer, and mortality, while positive associations are observed for prostate cancer and uterine fibroids.

CONCLUSION

Although dietary flavonoids are significantly associated with many outcomes, firm generalizable conclusions about their beneficial or harmful effects cannot be drawn because of the low certainty of evidence for most of outcomes. More well-designed primary studies are needed.

Black rice diet alleviates colorectal cancer development through modulating tryptophan metabolism and activating AHR pathway

Consumption of dietary fiber and anthocyanin has been linked to a lower incidence of colorectal cancer (CRC). This study scrutinizes the potential antitumorigenic attributes of a black rice diet (BRD), abundantly rich in dietary fiber and anthocyanin. Our results demonstrate notable antitumorigenic effects in mice on BRD, indicated by a reduction in both the size and number of intestinal tumors and a consequent extension in life span, compared to control diet-fed counterparts. Furthermore, fecal transplants from BRD-fed mice to germ-free mice led to a decrease in colonic cell proliferation, coupled with maintained integrity of the intestinal barrier. The BRD was associated with significant shifts in gut microbiota composition, specifically an augmentation in probiotic strains Bacteroides uniformis and Lactobacillus. Noteworthy changes in gut metabolites were also documented, including the upregulation of indole-3-lactic acid and indole. These metabolites have been identified to stimulate the intestinal aryl hydrocarbon receptor pathway, inhibiting CRC cell proliferation and colorectal tumorigenesis. In summary, these findings propose that a BRD may modulate the progression of intestinal tumors by fostering protective gut microbiota and metabolite profiles. The study accentuates the potential health advantages of whole-grain foods, emphasizing the potential utility of black rice in promoting health.

Berries vs. Disease: Revenge of the Phytochemicals

Secondary metabolites and phytochemicals in plant-based diets are known to possess properties that inhibit the development of several diseases including a variety of cancers of the aerodigestive tract. Berries are currently of high interest to researchers due to their high dietary source of phytochemicals. Black raspberries (BRB), Rubus occidentalis, are of special interest due to their rich and diverse composition of phytochemicals. In this review, we present the most up-to-date preclinical and clinical data involving berries and their phytochemicals in the chemoprevention of a variety of cancers and diseases. BRBs possess a variety of health benefits including anti-proliferative properties, anti-inflammatory activity, activation of pro-cell-death pathways, modulation of the immune response, microbiome modulation, reduction in oxidative stress, and many more. However, little has been done in both preclinical and clinical settings on the effects of BRB administration in combination with other cancer therapies currently available for patients. With the high potential for BRBs as chemopreventive agents, there is a need to investigate their potential in combination with other treatments to improve therapeutic efficacy.

Health from Brazilian Amazon food wastes: Bioactive compounds, antioxidants, antimicrobials, and potentials against cancer and oral diseases

Brazilian Amazon contains over 30,000 plant species and foods rich in bioactive compounds such as terpenes, phenolic acids, alkaloids, and flavonoids, of potential health benefits (antioxidant, antimicrobial, antiparasitic, anticancer, gastroprotection, prebiotic effects, among others). The existence of residues from non-edible parts of plants (leaves, roots, stems, branches, barks) or fruit wastes (peel, bagasse, seeds) in the agri-food industry and its supply chain is an important challenge in food loss and waste management. In this critical review several Amazon species, focusing on extracts/essential oils from nonedible parts or wastes, were analyzed in terms of phytochemicals, biological activity, and underlying mechanisms. We hope this review emphasizes the importance of Amazon's sustainability initiatives on population health due to the potential shown against cancer, infectious diseases, and prevention of oral diseases. It is urgent to think about the conversion of amazon food wastes and co-products into high-added-value raw materials to develop novel drugs, food packaging systems, or nutraceutical foods.

From waste to the gut: Can blackcurrant press cake be a new functional ingredient? Insights on in vivo microbiota modulation, oxidative stress, and inflammation

Blackcurrant press cake (BPC) is a source of anthocyanins, and this study evaluated the bioactivity and gut microbiota modulation of blackcurrant diets with or without 1,2 dimethylhydrazine (DMH)-induced colon carcinogenesis in rats. In colon cancer-induced rats (CRC), BPC at the highest dosages increased pro-inflammatory parameters and the expression of anti-apoptotic cytokines, accentuating colon cancer initiation by aberrant crypts and morphological changes. Fecal microbiome analysis showed that BPC altered the composition and function of the gut microbiome. This evidence suggests that high doses of BPC act as a pro-oxidant, accentuating the inflammatory environment and CRC progression.

The preventive and therapeutic effects of anthocyanins on colorectal cancer: A comprehensive review based on up-to-date experimental studies

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is the second most lethal and the third most diagnosed type of cancer worldwide. More than 75% of CRC cases are sporadic and lifestyle-related. Risk factors include diet, physical inactivity, genetics, smoking, alcohol, changes in the intestinal microbiota, and inflammation-related diseases such as obesity, diabetes, and inflammatory bowel diseases. The limits of conventional treatments (surgery, chemotherapy, radiotherapy), as demonstrated by the side effects and resistance of many CRC patients, are making professionals search for new chemopreventive alternatives. In this context, diets rich in fruits and vegetables or plant-based products, which contain high levels of phytochemicals, have been postulated as complementary therapeutic options. Anthocyanins, phenolic pigments responsible for the vivid colors of most red, purple, and blue fruits and vegetables, have been shown protective effects on CRC. Berries, grapes, Brazilian fruits, and vegetables such as black rice and purple sweet potato are examples of products rich in anthocyanins, which have been able to reduce cancer development by modulating signaling pathways associated with CRC. Therefore, this review has as main objective to present and discuss the potential preventive and therapeutic effects of anthocyanins present in fruits and vegetables, in plant extracts, or in their pure form on CRC, taking into account up-to-date experimental studies (2017-2023). Additionally, a highlight is given towards the mechanisms of action of anthocyanins on CRC.

Wnt/β-Catenin Signaling Pathway in the Development and Progression of Colorectal Cancer

The Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway is a growth control pathway involved in various biological processes as well as the development and progression of cancer. Colorectal cancer (CRC) is one of the most common malignancies in the world. The hyperactivation of Wnt signaling is observed in almost all CRC and plays a crucial role in cancer-related processes such as cancer stem cell (CSC) propagation, angiogenesis, epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), chemoresistance, and metastasis. This review will discuss how the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway is involved in the carcinogenesis and progression of CRC and related therapeutic approaches.

Modulation of the Dipole Potential of Model Lipid Membranes with Phytochemicals: Molecular Mechanisms, Structure-Activity Relationships, and Implications in Reconstituted Ion Channels

Phytochemicals, such as flavonoids, stilbenoids, alkaloids, terpenoids, and related compounds, have a wide range of useful pharmacological properties which cannot be ascribed to binding to a single peptide or protein target alone. Due to the relatively high lipophilicity of phytochemicals, the lipid membrane is thought to mediate their effects via changes in the properties of the lipid matrix, in particular, by modulating the transmembrane distribution of the electrical potential and, consequently, the formation and functioning of the ion channels reconstituted in the lipid bilayers. Therefore, biophysical studies on the interactions between plant metabolites and model lipid membranes are still of interest. This review represents an attempt to provide a critical analysis of a variety of studies on altering membranes and ion channels with phytochemicals via disturbing the potential drop at the membrane-aqueous solution interface. Critical structural motifs and functioning groups in the molecules of plant polyphenols (alkaloids and saponins are identified) and the possible mechanisms of dipole potential modulation with phytochemicals are discussed.

Methylation, Hydroxylation, Glycosylation and Acylation Affect the Transport of Wine Anthocyanins in Caco-2 Cells

Anthocyanins are substances with multiple physiological activities widely present in red wine, but the influence of structure (methylation, hydroxylation, acylation, glycosylation) on the transport remains ill-defined. In the present study, Caco-2 monolayers were used as an in vitro model of the absorptive intestinal epithelium to transport different types of anthocyanin samples. Results showed that both methylation and acetylation promote the level of transport. Monoglycoside standard exhibited higher transport amount and rate compared to diglycoside standard while the transport level of the monoglycoside mixture was unexpectedly lower than that of the diglycoside mixture. Caco-2 monolayers appeared to be more capable of transporting the single standard than the mixed standard. Meanwhile, the transport of anthocyanins in Caco-2 cell model showed time- and concentration-dependent trends. Anthocyanin treatment had a greater effect on sodium-dependent glucose transporter 1 (SGLT1) mRNA expression than glucose transporter 2 (GLUT2), and significantly down-regulated the protein expression of SGLT1. Although the low bioavailability of anthocyanins requires much more research, further evidence of the role of structure is provided.

Pt3R5G inhibits colon cancer cell proliferation through inducing ferroptosis by down-regulating SLC7A11

AIMS

Colon cancer (CC) is a prevalent malignancy worldwide and is one of the most easily altered cancers by dietary regulation. Petunidin 3-O-[rhamnopyranosyl-(trans-p-coumaroyl)]-5-O-(β-D-glucopyranoside) (Pt3R5G) isolated and purified from Lycium ruthenicum Murray, which exhibits highly efficient antioxidant activity and specific anticancer effects, is the flavonoids compound. We aimed to study the effect of Pt3R5G on CC cells and elucidate the potential underlying mechanisms.

MAIN METHODS

Cell proliferation was measured by the 3-(4,5-dimethyl-2-thiazolyl)-2,5-diphenyl-2H-tetrazolium bromide (MTT) and colony formation assays. Cell cycle, cell apoptosis and reactive oxygen species (ROS) analysis were performed by flow cytometry. RNA-sequencing was performed to elucidate the potential underlying mechanisms. The lipid peroxidation level of cells was detected by malondialdehyde (MDA) assay. The mitochondrial morphology of cells was inspected using a transmission electron microscope. Additionally, we overexpressed SLC7A11 to perform rescue experiments. In vivo, xenograft mice assay was performed to verify the effect of Pt3R5G on the growth of colon cancer.

KEY FINDINGS

Pt3R5G reduced the cell activity by blocking the cell cycle in G0/G1 phase, inducing the apoptosis and ferroptosis in RKO cells. The overexpressed of SLC7A11, a significantly down-regulated expression gene caused by Pt3R5G, rescued the cell proliferation inhibition and ferroptosis process. Furthermore, Pt3R5G inhibited tumor growth in nude mice. Our study suggests that Pt3R5G inhibits RKO cell proliferation through mainly reducing ferroptosis by down-regulated SLC7A11.

SIGNIFICANCE

As a potential therapeutic drug, Pt3R5G showed efficient anticancer activity through a variety of pathways.

What Role Does Pyroptosis Play in Cancer?

Background

Pyroptosis has been attracting much attention recently. We have briefly compared its differences and similarities with other programmed deaths and the process of its study. With further exploration of the caspase family, including caspase-1/3/4/5/8/11, new insights into the molecular pathways of action of pyroptosis have been gained. It is also closely related to the development of many cancers, which at the same time provides us with new ideas for the treatment of cancer.

Scope of Review

We describe what is known regarding the impact of pyroptosis on anticancer immunity and give insight into the potential of harnessing pyroptosis as a tool and applying it to novel or existing anticancer strategies.

Major Conclusions

Pyroptosis, a caspase-dependent cell death, causes pore formation, cell swelling, rupture of the plasma membrane, and release of all intracellular contents. The role of pyroptosis in cancer is an extremely complex issue. There is growing evidence that tumor pyroptosis has anti-tumor and pro-tumor roles. It should be discussed in different cancer periods according to the characteristics of cancer occurrence and development. In cancer treatment, pyroptosis provides us with some potential new targets. For the existing drugs, the study of pyroptosis also helps us make better use of existing drugs for anticancer treatment. Immunotherapy is a hot research direction in the field of cancer treatment.

Wnt signaling in colorectal cancer: pathogenic role and therapeutic target

Background

The Wnt signaling pathway is a complex network of protein interactions that functions most commonly in embryonic development and cancer, but is also involved in normal physiological processes in adults. The canonical Wnt signaling pathway regulates cell pluripotency and determines the differentiation fate of cells during development. The canonical Wnt signaling pathway (also known as the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway) is a recognized driver of colon cancer and one of the most representative signaling pathways. As a functional effector molecule of Wnt signaling, the modification and degradation of β-catenin are key events in the Wnt signaling pathway and the development and progression of colon cancer. Therefore, the Wnt signaling pathway plays an important role in the pathogenesis of diseases, especially the pathogenesis of colorectal cancer (CRC).

Objective

Inhibit the Wnt signaling pathway to explore the therapeutic targets of colorectal cancer.

Methods

Based on studying the Wnt pathway, master the biochemical processes related to the Wnt pathway, and analyze the relevant targets when drugs or inhibitors act on the Wnt pathway, to clarify the medication ideas of drugs or inhibitors for the treatment of diseases, especially colorectal cancer.

Results

Wnt signaling pathways include: Wnt/β-catenin or canonical Wnt signaling pathway, planar cell polarity (Wnt-PCP) pathway and Wnt-Ca²⁺ signaling pathway. The Wnt signaling pathway is closely related to cancer cell proliferation, stemness, apoptosis, autophagy, metabolism, inflammation and immunization, microenvironment, resistance, ion channel, heterogeneity, EMT/migration/invasion/metastasis. Drugs/phytochemicals and molecular preparations for the Wnt pathway of CRC treatment have now been developed. Wnt inhibitors are also commonly used clinically for the treatment of CRC.

Conclusion

The development of drugs/phytochemicals and molecular inhibitors targeting the Wnt pathway can effectively treat colorectal cancer clinically.

Reactive Oxygen Species Bridge the Gap between Chronic Inflammation and Tumor Development

According to numerous animal studies, adverse environmental stimuli, including physical, chemical, and biological factors, can cause low-grade chronic inflammation and subsequent tumor development. Human epidemiological evidence has confirmed the close relationship between chronic inflammation and tumorigenesis. However, the mechanisms driving the development of persistent inflammation toward tumorigenesis remain unclear. In this study, we assess the potential role of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and associated mechanisms in modulating inflammation-induced tumorigenesis. Recent reports have emphasized the cross-talk between oxidative stress and inflammation in many pathological processes. Exposure to carcinogenic environmental hazards may lead to oxidative damage, which further stimulates the infiltration of various types of inflammatory cells. In turn, increased cytokine and chemokine release from inflammatory cells promotes ROS production in chronic lesions, even in the absence of hazardous stimuli. Moreover, ROS not only cause DNA damage but also participate in cell proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis by modulating several transcription factors and signaling pathways. We summarize how changes in the redox state can trigger the development of chronic inflammatory lesions into tumors. Generally, cancer cells require an appropriate inflammatory microenvironment to support their growth, spread, and metastasis, and ROS may provide the necessary catalyst for inflammation-driven cancer. In conclusion, ROS bridge the gap between chronic inflammation and tumor development; therefore, targeting ROS and inflammation represents a new avenue for the prevention and treatment of cancer.

Prebiotic effects of goji berry in protection against inflammatory bowel disease

The prevalence of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is increasing, which is concerning because IBD is a known risk factor for the development of colorectal cancer. Emerging evidence highlights environmental factors, particularly dietary factors and gut microbiota dysbiosis, as pivotal inducers of IBD onset. Goji berry, an ancient tonic food and a nutraceutical supplement, contains a range of phytochemicals such as polysaccharides, carotenoids, and polyphenols. Among these phytochemicals, L. barbarum polysaccharides (LBPs) are the most important functional constituents, which have protective effects against oxidative stress, inflammation, and neurodegeneration. Recently, the beneficial effects of goji berry and associated LBPs consumption were linked to prebiotic effects, which can prevent dysbiosis associated with IBD. This review assessed pertinent literature on the protective effects of goji berry against IBD focusing on the gut microbiota and their metabolites in mediating the observed beneficial effects.

An Insight into Anti-Inflammatory Activities and Inflammation Related Diseases of Anthocyanins: A Review of Both In Vivo and In Vitro Investigations

Anthocyanin is a type of flavonoid pigment widely present in fruits and vegetables. It can not only be used as natural pigment, but also has a variety of health functions, for instance, anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-tumor, and neuroprotective activities. Persistent proinflammatory status is a major factor in the development, progression, and complications of chronic diseases. Not surprisingly, there are thus many food ingredients that can potentially affect inflammation related diseases and many studies have shown that anthocyanins play an important role in inflammatory pathways. In this paper, the inflammation related diseases (such as, obesity, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and cancer) of anthocyanins are introduced, and the anti-inflammatory effect of anthocyanins is emphatically introduced. Moreover, the anti-inflammatory mechanism of anthocyanins is elaborated from the aspects of NF-κB, toll like receptor, MAPKs, NO, and ROS and the main efficacy of anthocyanins in inflammation and related diseases is determined. In conclusion, this review aims to get a clear insight into the role of anthocyanins in inflammation related diseases.

Cyanidin-3-O-glucoside and its metabolite protocatechuic acid ameliorate 2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4,5-b]pyridine (PhIP) induced cytotoxicity in HepG2 cells by regulating apoptotic and Nrf2/p62 pathways

The present study investigated the protective effects and mechanism of action of cyanidin-3-O-glucoside (C3G) and its major metabolite protocatechuic acid (PCA) against 2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4,5-b]pyridine (PhIP) induced cytotoxicity in HepG2 cells. The results demonstrated that C3G and PCA dose-dependently suppressed PhIP-induced mutation in Salmonella typhimurium TA98, and inhibited PhIP-induced cytotoxicity and apoptosis in HepG2 cells. Western blot analysis indicated that C3G and PCA minimized PhIP-induced cell damage by reversing the abnormal expression of Bax/Bcl-2, Cytochrome c, cleaved Caspase-3, XIAP, Nrf2, HO-1, LC3 and p62 involved in intrinsic apoptotic and Nrf2/p62 pathways. Molecular docking results revealed that C3G and PCA were able to interfere with Nrf2 signaling and apoptotic cascade through binding to Keap1 and Bcl-2. Moreover, the protective effect of C3G was stronger than that of PCA. These findings suggested that dietary consumption of food sources rich in C3G can fight against the health risks of heterocyclic aromatic amines.

Overview of the Antioxidant and Anti-Inflammatory Activities of Selected Plant Compounds and Their Metal Ions Complexes

Numerous plant compounds and their metal-ion complexes exert antioxidative, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, and other beneficial effects. This review highlights the different bioactivities of flavonoids, chromones, and coumarins and their metal-ions complexes due to different structural characteristics. In addition to insight into the most studied antioxidative properties of these compounds, the first part of the review provides a comprehensive overview of exogenous and endogenous sources of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species, oxidative stress-mediated damages of lipids and proteins, and on protective roles of antioxidant defense systems, including plant-derived antioxidants. Additionally, the review covers the anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial activities of flavonoids, chromones, coumarins and their metal-ion complexes which support its application in medicine, pharmacy, and cosmetology.

Grape Seed Proanthocyanidins play the roles of radioprotection on Normal Lung and radiosensitization on Lung Cancer via differential regulation of the MAPK Signaling Pathway

Radiation-induced lung injury (RILI) is a common serious complication and dose-limiting factor caused by radiotherapy for lung cancer. This study was to investigate radioprotective effects of grape seed proanthocyanidins (GSP) on normal lung as well as radiosensitizing effects on lung cancer. In vitro, we demonstrated radioprotective effects of GSP on normal alveolar epithelial cells (MLE-12 and BEAS/2B) and radiosensitizing effects on lung cancer cells (LLC and A549). In vivo, we confirmed these two-way effects in tumor-bearing mice. The results showed that GSP inhibited tumor growth, and played a synergistic killing effect with radiotherapy on lung cancer. Meanwhile, GSP reduced radiation damage to normal lung tissues. The two-way effects related to the differential regulation of the MAPK signaling pathway by GSP on normal lung and lung cancer. Moreover, GSP regulated secretion of cytokines IL-6 and IFN-γ and expression of p53 and Ki67 on normal lung and lung cancer. Our findings suggest that GSP is expected to be an ideal radioprotective drug for lung cancer patients who are treated with radiotherapy.

Anthocyanins, Microbiome and Health Benefits in Aging

The percentage of individuals over the age of 60 is projected to reach 22% by 2050; chronic diseases associated with aging can present challenges for these individuals. Anthocyanins and the gut microbiome have each been studied as independent influencers of health. Both these factors have shown to have a positive effect on cardiovascular and bone health in individuals, as well as on the prevention or treatment of certain forms of cancers. Anthocyanins have shown to modulate the composition of the gut microbiome and may have overlapping mechanisms in the prevention and treatment of cardiovascular disease, cancer, neurodegenerative disorders and aging-associated bone loss. These health outcomes are responsible for the hospitalization and deaths of millions of Americans every year and they cost the United States billions of dollars each year to maintain, prevent and treat. Alternative methods of treatment and prevention are desired since conventional methods (surgical and pharmacological methods, physical therapy, etc.) can be costly and have significant side effects; evidence suggests that anthocyanins and the gut microbiome may be potential avenues for this. This review evaluates the findings of existing literature on the role of anthocyanins and the gut microbiome on health and their potential as a natural therapeutic agent or a target organ to provide an alternative to the conventional methods of disease prevention and treatment.

Colored Corn: An Up-Date on Metabolites Extraction, Health Implication, and Potential Use

Colored (orange, pink, red, purple, and blue) corn strongly attracted attention on its healthy properties mainly due to its anthocyanin and carotenoid composition which is also responsible for its pigmentation. The present review summarized the recent updates on the extraction and chemical characterization of the main plant secondary metabolites present in colored seeds, kernel, cob, husk, and silk. The main approaches used to stabilize the extracts have been discussed as well as their food and non-food uses. Both in vitro and in vivo (animal models) studies on the different effects (antibacterial, antimutagenic, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory activities, effects on metabolic syndrome, diabetes, glucose and lipidic metabolism, and neuroprotection) of pigmented extracts on animal and human health have been summarized.

Cyanidin-3-O-glucoside represses tumor growth and invasion in vivo by suppressing autophagy via inhibition of the JNK signaling pathways

Black bean seed coat extract (BBSCE) contains a high amount of bioactive compounds which can reduce the risk of cancers, but the underlying mechanism remains poorly understood in vivo. Here using a Drosophila model of a malignant tumor, wherein the activated oncogene Raf (Raf^GOF) cooperates with loss-of-function mutations in the conserved tumor suppressor scribble (scrib^-/-), we investigated the antitumor mechanism of BBSCE and its main active component cyanidin-3-O-glucoside (C3G) in vivo. The results showed that supplementation of either BBSCE or C3G inhibited the tumor growth and invasion of Raf^GOFscrib^-/- and extended their survival in a dose dependent manner. Strikingly, the activation of both autonomous and non-autonomous autophagy in tumor flies was significantly reduced by C3G treatment. A further study indicated that C3G exhibited an antitumor effect in vivo by blocking autophagy both in tumor cells and in its microenvironment by inhibiting the JNK pathway. Interestingly, the efficacy of chloroquine (CQ, an autophagy inhibitor used as an antitumor agent) combined with C3G is much better than either C3G or CQ treatment alone. C3G may be combined with CQ to treat cancers and to provide a theoretical basis for functional food or natural medicine development.

Epigenetic regulation by polyphenols in diabetes and related complications

Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a chronic metabolic disorder and one of the most challenging health problems worldwide. Left untreated, it may progress causing serious complications. Genetics, epigenetics, and environmental factors are known to play an overlapping role in the pathogenesis of DM. Growing evidence suggests the hypothesis that the environment induces changes in the early phases of growth and development, influencing health and disease in the adulthood through the alteration in genetic expression of an individual, at least in part. DNA methylation, histone modifications and miRNAs are three mechanisms responsible for epigenetic alterations. The daily diet contains a number of secondary metabolites, with polyphenols being highest in abundance, which contribute to overall health and may prevent or delay the onset of many chronic diseases. Polyphenols have the ability to alter metabolic and signaling pathways at various levels, such as gene expression, epigenetic regulation, protein expression and enzyme activity. The potential efficacy of polyphenolic compounds on glucose homeostasis has been evidenced from in vitro, in vivo and clinical studies. The present review is designed to focus on epigenetic regulation exerted by polyphenolic compounds in DM and their complications, as well as to summarize clinical trials involving polyphenols in DM.

Supplementation with Red Wine Extract Increases Insulin Sensitivity and Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Sirt1 Expression in Nondiabetic Humans

The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of dietary supplementation with a nonalcoholic red wine extract (RWE), including resveratrol and polyphenols, on insulin sensitivity and Sirt1 expression in nondiabetic humans. The present study was a single-arm, open-label and prospective study. Twelve subjects received supplementation with RWE, including 19.2 mg resveratrol and 136 mg polyphenols, daily for 8 weeks. After 8 weeks, metabolic parameters, including glucose/lipid metabolism and inflammatory markers, were evaluated. mRNA expression of Sirt1 was evaluated in isolated peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMNCs). Additionally, Sirt1 and phosphorylated AMP-activated kinase (p-AMPK) expression were evaluated in cultured human monocytes (THP-1 cells). Supplementation with RWE for 8 weeks decreased the homeostasis model assessment for insulin resistance (HOMA-IR), which indicates an increase in insulin sensitivity. Serum low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol (LDL-C), triglyceride (TG) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) were significantly decreased by RWE supplementation for 8 weeks. Additionally, Sirt1 mRNA expression in isolated PBMNCs was significantly increased after 8 weeks of RWE supplementation. Moreover, the rate of increase in Sirt1 expression was positively correlated with the rate of change in HOMA-IR. The administration of RWE increased Sirt1 and p-AMPK expression in cultured THP-1 cells. Supplementation with RWE improved metabolism, such as insulin sensitivity, lipid profile and inflammation, in humans. Additionally, RWE supplementation induced an increase in Sirt1 expression in PBMNCs, which may be associated with an improvement in insulin sensitivity.

Chemopreventive Effect of Dietary Anthocyanins against Gastrointestinal Cancers: A Review of Recent Advances and Perspectives

Anthocyanins are a group of dietary polyphenols, abundant mainly in fruits and their products. Dietary interventions of anthocyanins are being studied extensively related to the prevention of gastrointestinal (GI) cancer, among many other chronic disorders. This review summarizes the hereditary and non-hereditary characteristics of GI cancers, chemistry, and bioavailability of anthocyanins, and the most recent findings of anthocyanin in GI cancer prevention through modulating cellular signaling pathways. GI cancer-preventive attributes of anthocyanins are primarily due to their antioxidative, anti-inflammatory, and anti-proliferative properties, and their ability to regulate gene expression and metabolic pathways, as well as induce the apoptosis of cancer cells.

Microwave-Assisted Synthesis and Ionic Liquids: Green and Sustainable Alternatives toward Enzymatic Lipophilization of Anthocyanin Monoglucosides

Anthocyanins recycling and transformations into novel compounds have been of great interest of the scientific community to improve the circular economy and enhance their technological applications. The enzymatic acylation of anthocyanins into lipophilic derivatives by conjugation with fatty acids emerged as one of the approaches; however, the literature describes only the use of organic solvents and conventional heating. In this work, the production of cyanidin-3-glucoside-octanoic acid conjugate combining ionic liquids (ILs), microwave (MW) irradiation, and Candida antarctica lipase B as a biocatalyst was attempted for the first time. Overall, the use of MW irradiation could reduce drastically the reaction time, allowing the formation of an acylated product with similar concentrations to the conventional method. On the other hand, the study of the lipophilic conjugate synthesis using different ILs showed that their composition is crucial to achieve the desired enzymatic reaction, and in this case, the combination of an imidazolium derivative as the cation with the triflate as the anion was suitable for the production of this derivative. These promising results achieved through the combination of greener alternatives to those reported in the literature are a starting point for further developments to produce this kind of anthocyanin derivatives exploring such sustainable and ecofriendly conditions.

The Prevention and Inhibition Effect of Anthocyanins on Colorectal Cancer

BACKGROUND

Anthocyanins are a type of flavonoids that are natural water soluble glycosidic pigments with efficacious anti-cancer effects, which have good biological activity against many cancers including colorectal cancer (CRC). However, the exact molecular mechanism used by anthocyanins against cancer is unclear; it is also unclear what a reasonable dosage might be for their use against colorectal cancer.

METHODS

Western blotting, immunohistochemistry, MTT assay, xenograft model, and hematoxylin-eosin (HE) staining were used to perform the experiments.

RESULTS

Compared with the control group, anthocyanins could significantly inhibit the cell viability and proliferation and promote the apoptosis of human colon cancer HT29 cells. Furthermore, anthocyanins reduced tumor weight and volume in a colon tumor mouse model and downregulated the expression of PI3K protein, inhibited AKT expression and phosphorylation, decreased the Bcl-2 and Bax ratio and reduced survivin protein expression in the tumor tissue.

CONCLUSION

Anthocyanins promoted apoptosis of CRC cells and inhibited colon cancer growth of xenografted tumors. Mechanistically, anthocyanins enhanced the Bcl-2/Bax and caspase-dependent apoptotic pathways through targeting the PI3K/AKT/survivin pathway, resulting in impairment of growth of CRC.

The ameliorating effects of anthocyanins on the cross-linked signaling pathways of cancer dysregulated metabolism

Cancer cells underlie the dysregulated metabolism of carbohydrate, lipid and protein and thereby, employ interconnected cross-linked signaling pathways to supply adequate energy for growth and related biosynthetic procedures. In the present study, a comprehensive review of cancer metabolism and anthocyanin's effect was conducted using the existing electronic databases, including Medline, PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science, as well as related articles in the field. Such keywords as "cancer", and "cancer metabolism" in the title/abstract/keyword and all the "anthocyanins" in the whole text were used. Data were collected without time restriction until February 2020. The results indicated the involvement of several signaling pathways, including inflammatory PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway, Bax/Bcl-2/caspases as apoptosis modulators, and NF-κB/Nrf2 as oxidative stress mediators in the cancer dysregulated metabolism. Compelling studies have shown that targeting these pathways, as critical hallmarks of cancer, plays a critical role in combating cancer dysregulated metabolism. The complexity of cancer metabolism signaling pathways, along with toxicity, high costs, and resistance to conventional drugs urge the need to investigate novel multi-target agents. Increasing evidence has introduced plant-derived secondary metabolites as hopeful anticancer candidates which target multiple dysregulated cross-linked pathways of cancer metabolism. Amongst these metabolites, anthocyanins have demonstrated positive anticancer effects by targeting inflammation, oxidative stress, and apoptotic signaling pathways. The current study revealed the cross-linked signaling pathways of cancer metabolism, as well as the promising pharmacological mechanisms of anthocyanins in targeting the aforementioned signaling mediators. To overcome the pharmacokinetic limitations of anthocyanins in cancer treatment, their interactions with gut microbiota and the need to develop related nano-formulations were also considered.

Mechanism and regulation of pyroptosis-mediated in cancer cell death

Pyroptosis, a form of programmed cell death, has garnered increasing attention as it relates to innate immunity and diseases. The discovery of caspase-1/3/4/5/8/11 function in sensing various challenges expands the spectrum of pyroptosis mediators and also reveals that pyroptosis is not cell type specific. Recent studies have identified that pyroptosis has become a new topic in cancer research because it may affect all stages of carcinogenesis. In this mini-review, we provided a primer on pyroptosis, discussed the induction of pyroptosis in cancer and its implications in cancer management. Moreover, its two important executioners, the gasdermin D (GSDMD) and gasdermin E (GSDME), the functions and mechanisms of them involved in the regulation of cancer therapy were focused on. Small molecules-mediated pyroptosis were found to effectively inhibit various tumor cells. In brief, the findings of pyroptosis-dependent cancer progression, new drugs and therapeutic targets may lead to a promising, novel therapeutic approach for cancer patients.

Modulation of dysregulated cancer metabolism by plant secondary metabolites: A mechanistic review

Several signaling pathways and basic metabolites are responsible for the control of metabolism in both normal and cancer cells. As emerging hallmarks of cancer metabolism, the abnormal activities of these pathways are of the most noticeable events in cancer. This altered metabolism expedites the survival and proliferation of cancer cells, which have attracted a substantial amount of interest in cancer metabolism. Nowadays, targeting metabolism and cross-linked signaling pathways in cancer has been a hot topic to investigate novel drugs against cancer. Despite the efficiency of conventional drugs in cancer therapy, their associated toxicity, resistance, and high-cost cause limitations in their application. Besides, considering the numerous signaling pathways cross-linked with cancer metabolism, discovery, and development of multi-targeted and safe natural compounds has been a high priority. Natural secondary metabolites have exhibited promising anticancer effects by targeting dysregulated signaling pathways linked to cancer metabolism. The present review reveals the metabolism and cross-linked dysregulated signaling pathways in cancer. The promising therapeutic targets in cancer, as well as the critical role of natural secondary metabolites for significant anticancer enhancements, have also been highlighted to find novel/potential therapeutic agents for cancer treatment.

Progress in Research on the Role of Flavonoids in Lung Cancer

Lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer deaths worldwide. Therefore, for the prevention, diagnosis, prognosis and treatment of lung cancer, efficient preventive strategies and new therapeutic strategies are needed to face these challenges. Natural bioactive compounds and particular flavonoids compounds have been proven to have an important role in lung cancer prevention and of particular interest is the dose used for these studies, to underline the molecular effects and mechanisms at a physiological concentration. The purpose of this review was to summarize the current state of knowledge regarding relevant molecular mechanisms involved in the pharmacological effects, with a special focus on the anti-cancer role, by regulating the coding and non-coding genes. Furthermore, this review focused on the most commonly altered and most clinically relevant oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes and microRNAs in lung cancer. Particular attention was given to the biological effect in tandem with conventional therapy, emphasizing the role in the regulation of drug resistance related mechanisms.

QSAR studies of the antioxidant activity of anthocyanins

Through experimental information available from antioxidant assays of seventeen anthocyanins, and six common anthocyanidins, quantitative structure-activity relationships (QSAR) have been established in the present work. The antioxidant bioactivity has been predicted in three different lipid environments: emulsified and bulk oil (methyl linoleate) (in vitro tests) at concentrations of 50 and 250 μM, and 50 μM of the inhibitor, respectively, and in human LDL (low-density lipoprotein; "bad cholesterol") (ex vivo test) at concentrations of 2.5, 10, and 25 μM of the inhibitor. Radical scavenging activity was predicted in the assay with the 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl radical (DPPH·). The QSAR models developed for each test and concentration used allowed to obtain prospective information on the constitutional and topological molecular characteristics for anthocyanin/anthocyanidin compounds. Therefore, the antioxidant activity was predicted for twenty-one compounds with unknown experimental values, leading for some of them to a favorable predicted bioactivity.

Neuroprotective effects of anthocyanins and its major component cyanidin-3-O-glucoside (C3G) in the central nervous system: An outlined review

Anthocyanins, a class of water soluble flavonoids extracted from plants like berries and soybean seed, have been shown to display obvious anti-oxidative, anti-inflammatory, and anti-apoptotic activities. They are recommended as a supplementation for prevention and/or treatment of disorders ranging from cardiovascular disease, metabolic syndrome, and cancer. In the central nervous system (CNS), anthocyanins and its major component cyanidin-3-O-glucoside (C3G) have been reported to produce preventive and/or therapeutic activities in a wide range of disorders, such as cerebral ischemia, Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, multiple sclerosis, and glioblastoma. Both anthocyanins and C3G can also affect some important processes in aging, including neuronal apoptosis and death as well as learning and memory impairment. Further, the anthocyanins and C3G have been shown to prevent neuro-toxicities induced by different toxic factors, such as lipopolysaccharide, hydrogen peroxide, ethanol, kainic acid, acrolein, glutamate, and scopolamine. Mechanistic studies have shown that inhibition of oxidative stress and neuroinflammation are two critical mechanisms by which anthocyanins and C3G produce protective effects in CNS disorder prevention and/or treatment. Other mechanisms, including suppression of c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) activation, amelioration of cellular degeneration, activation of the brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) signaling, and restoration of Ca²⁺ and Zn²⁺ homeostasis, may also mediate the neuroprotective effects of anthocyanins and C3G. In this review, we summarize the pharmacological effects of anthocyanins and C3G in CNS disorders as well as their possible mechanisms, aiming to get a clear insight into the role of anthocyanins in the CNS.

Anthocyanin Consumption and Risk of Colorectal Cancer: A Meta-Analysis of Observational Studies

This meta-analysis aimed to summarize the association between anthocyanin consumption and the risk of colorectal cancer. All relative articles were located on online databases, including PubMed, Embase, and the Cochrane Library as of June 11, 2018. Risk ratios (RRs) or odds ratio and their 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated through the STATA 12.0 software package. A total of seven studies were included in the meta-analysis. A significant inverse association was found between total anthocyanin consumption and colorectal cancer risk (RR = 0.78; 95% CI, 0.64-0.95). Likewise, there was significant evidence of a relationship between anthocyanin intake and colorectal cancer in the colon site (RR = 0.81; 95% CI, 0.71-0.92); men (RR = 0.88; 95% CI, 0.81-0.95), and case-control studies (RR = 0.69; 95% CI, 0.60-0.78). A dose-response relationship was not found in this meta-analysis. The Grades of Recommendations Assessment, Development, and Evaluation quality in our study was very low. This meta-analysis indicates that anthocyanin consumption is inversely associated with the risk of colorectal cancer. Anthocyanins may play an active role in the prevention of colorectal cancer. Key teaching points: Some epidemiological studies found an inverse correlation between the high consumption of anthocyanins and low risk of colorectal cancer. Because of this structure, anthocyanins/anthocyanidins have a powerful capability of donating electrons, which can be characterized as antioxidant properties. Anthocyanins can also inhibit colon cancer by interfering in the cell cycle and inducing the effect of anti-proliferation and apoptosis. The formation of cytoplasmic vacuoles in cells also indicates that anthocyanins may induce autophagy. From the findings of nonrandomized controlled trials, anthocyanins may play an active role in the prevention of colorectal cancer.

Saturated, mono- and polyunsaturated fatty acid intake and cancer risk: results from the French prospective cohort NutriNet-Santé

PURPOSE

Lipid intakes such as saturated (SFA), monounsaturated (MUFA) and polyunsaturated (PUFA) fatty acids have been widely studied regarding cardiovascular health, but their relevance to cancer is unclear. Inconsistent epidemiological results may be explained by varied mechanisms involving PUFAs and redox balance, inflammatory status and cell signalling, along with interactions with other dietary components such as antioxidants, dietary fibre and more generally fruits and vegetable intakes. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the associations between lipid intakes and cancer risk, and their potential modulation by vitamin C, vitamin E, dietary fibre and fruit and vegetable intakes.

METHODS

This prospective study included 44,039 participants aged ≥ 45 years from the NutriNet-Santé cohort (2009-2017). Dietary data were collected using repeated 24 h-dietary records. Multivariable Cox models were performed to characterize associations.

RESULTS

SFA intake was associated with increased overall [n = 1722 cases, HR_Q5vsQ1 = 1.44 (1.10-1.87), p-trend = 0.008] and breast [n = 545 cases, HR_Q5vsQ1 = 1.98 (1.24-3.17), p-trend = 0.01] cancer risks. n-6 PUFA [HR_Q5vsQ1 = 0.56 (0.32-0.97), p-trend = 0.01] and MUFA (HR_Q5vsQ1 = 0.41 [0.18-0.0.95), p-trend = 0.009] intakes were associated with a decreased risk of digestive cancers (n = 190 cases). Associations between n-6 PUFA, eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) intakes and digestive cancer risk were modulated by dietary fibre, vitamin C and fruit and vegetable intakes.

CONCLUSION

These findings suggested that SFA intake could increase overall and breast cancer risks while some unsaturated fatty acids could decrease digestive cancer risk. However, in line with mechanistic hypotheses, our results suggest that intakes of fruits and vegetables and their constituents (antioxidants, fibre) may interact with PUFAs to modulate these associations.

Functional Anthocyanin-Rich Sausages Diminish Colorectal Cancer in an Animal Model and Reduce Pro-Inflammatory Bacteria in the Intestinal Microbiota

Colorectal cancer is the fourth most common neoplasia in Europe, where it accounts for 28.2 new cases per 100,000 inhabitants. In an effort to decrease the incidence of this disease, various prevention measures are being studied, one of which are anthocyanin-rich foods. Anthocyanins are potent antioxidant flavonoids mainly found in flowers and colorful fruits and vegetables. These nutraceuticals have diverse biological functions once ingested, including immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory and antitumor functions. In order to test the preventive effect of these flavonoids against colorectal cancer, an animal model (Rattus norvegicus F344) was developed. In this model two doses of azoxymethane (10 mg/kg) and two treatments with dextran sodium sulfate (DSS) were administered to the animals. For 20 weeks they were fed either control rat feed, control sausages, or functional sausages containing 0.1% (w/w) of anthocyanins from a mixture of dehydrated blackberries and strawberries. At the end of that period, the animals were sacrificed and their antioxidant plasma levels and digestive tract tissues were analyzed. The results revealed a statistically significant reduction in the number of colon tumors in the functional sausages cohort with respect to the control animals and an increase in the FRAP (ferric reducing ability of plasma) total antioxidant activity in that same cohort. Colon microbiota differences were also examined via metagenomics 16S ribosomal RNA (rRNA) sequencing, revealing a significant reduction in populations of the pro-inflammatory Bilophila wadsworthia. Therefore, the design of functional processed meat products, such as ones enriched with anthocyanins, may be an effective strategy for preventing inflammatory digestive diseases and colorectal cancer in human populations.

WNT Inhibitory Activity of Malus Pumila miller cv Annurca and Malus domestica cv Limoncella Apple Extracts on Human Colon-Rectal Cells Carrying Familial Adenomatous Polyposis Mutations

Inhibitors of the Wingless-related Integration site (WNT)/β-catenin pathway have recently been under consideration as potential chemopreventive agents against Familial Adenomatous Polyposis (FAP). This autosomal-dominant syndrome is caused by germline mutations in the gene coding for the protein APC and leads to hyperactivation of the WNT/β-catenin signaling pathway, uncontrolled intestinal cell proliferation and formation of adenocarcinomas. The aim of the present work was to: (i) test, on in vitro cultures of cells carrying FAP mutations and on ex vivo biopsies of FAP patients, the WNT inhibitory activity of extracts from two common southern Italian apples, Malus pumila Miller cv. 'Annurca' and Malus domestica cv 'Limoncella'; (ii) identify the mechanisms underpinning their activities and; (iii) evaluate their potency upon gastrointestinal digestion. We here show that both Annurca and Limoncella apple extracts act as WNT inhibitors, mostly thanks to their polyphenolic contents. They inhibit the pathway in colon cells carrying FAP mutations with active dilutions falling in ranges close to consumer-relevant concentrations. Food-grade manufacturing of apple extracts increases their WNT inhibitory activity as result of the conversion of quercetin glycosides into the aglycone quercetin, a potent WNT inhibitor absent in the fresh fruit extract. However, in vitro simulated gastrointestinal digestion severely affected WNT inhibitory activity of apple extracts, as result of a loss of polyphenols. In conclusion, our results show that apple extracts inhibit the WNT pathway in colon cells carrying FAP mutations and represent a potential nutraceutical alternative for the treatment of this pathology. Enteric coating is advisable to preserve the activity of the extracts in the colon-rectal section of the digestive tract.