Preparation, characterization and antitumor activity evaluation of apigenin nanoparticles by the liquid antisolvent precipitation technique

Natural products and derivatives for breast cancer treatment: From drug discovery to molecular mechanism

BACKGROUND

Breast cancer stands as the most common malignancy among women globally and a leading cause of cancer-related mortality. Conventional treatments, such as surgery, hormone therapy, radiotherapy, chemotherapy, and small-molecule targeted therapy, often fall short of addressing the complexity and heterogeneity of certain breast cancer subtypes, leading to drug resistance and metastatic progression. Thus, the search for novel therapeutic targets and agents is imperative. Given their low toxicity and abundant variety, natural products and their derivatives are increasingly considered valuable sources for small-molecule anticancer drugs.

PURPOSE

This review aims to elucidate the pharmacological impacts and underlying mechanisms of active compounds found in select natural products and their derivatives, primarily focusing on breast cancer treatment. It intends to underscore the potential of these substances in combating breast cancer and guide future research directions for the development of natural product-based therapeutics.

METHODS

We conducted comprehensive searches in electronic databases such as PubMed, Web of Science, and Scopus until October 2023, using keywords such as 'breast cancer', 'natural products', 'derivatives', 'mechanism', 'signaling pathways', and various keyword combinations.

RESULTS

The review presents a spectrum of phytochemicals, including but not limited to flavonoids, polyphenols, and alkaloids, and examines their actions in various animal and cellular models of breast cancer. The anticancer effects of these natural products and derivatives are manifested through diverse mechanisms, including induction of cell death via apoptosis and autophagy, and suppression of tumor angiogenesis.

CONCLUSION

An increasing array of natural products and their derivatives are proving effective against breast cancer. Future therapeutic strategies can benefit from strategic enhancement of the anticancer properties of natural compounds, optimization for targeted action, improved bioavailability, and minimized side effects. The forthcoming research on natural products should prioritize these facets to maximize their therapeutic potential.

The metabolomics analysis of cecal contents elucidates significant metabolites involved in the therapeutic effects of total flavonoids derived from Sonchus arvensis L. in male C57BL/6 mice with ulcerative colitis

Ulcerative colitis (UC), an inflammatory disease affecting the colon and rectal mucosa, is characterized by chronic and heterogeneous behavior of unknown origin. The primary cause of UC is chronic inflammation, which is closely linked to the development of colorectal cancer. Sonchus arvensis L. (SAL), a plant consumed worldwide for its nutritional and medicinal properties, holds significance in this context. In this study, we employed the total flavone in SAL as a treatment for male C57BL/6 mice with UC. The cecal contents metabolic profile of C57BL/6 mice in different groups, including UC (group ML; n = 5), UC treated with aspirin (group AN; n = 5), UC treated with the total flavone in SAL (group FE; n = 5), and healthy male C57BL/6 mice (group CL; n = 5), was examined using UHPLC-Triple-TOF-MS. Through the identification of variations in key metabolites associated with UC and the exploration of their underlying biological mechanisms, our understanding of the pathological processes underlying this condition has been enhanced. This study identified a total of seventy-three metabolites that have a significant impact on UC. Notably, the composition of total flavone in SAL, a medication used for UC treatment, differs from that of aspirin due to the presence of four distinct metabolites (13,14-Dihydro-15-keto-PGE2, Prostaglandin I2 (PGI2), (20R,22R)-20,22-dihydroxycholesterol, and PS (18:1(9Z)/0:0)). These metabolites possess unique characteristics that set them apart. Moreover, the study identified a total of eleven pathways that were significantly enriched in mice with UC, including Aminoacyl-tRNA biosynthesis, Valine, leucine and isoleucine biosynthesis, Linoleic acid metabolism, PPAR signaling pathway, mTOR signaling pathway, Valine, leucine and isoleucine degradation, Lysine degradation, VEGF signaling pathway, Melanogenesis, Endocrine and other factor-regulated calcium reabsorption, and Cocaine addiction. These findings contribute to a better understanding of the metabolic variations in UC following total flavonoids of SAL therapy and provide valuable insights for the treatment of UC.Keywords: Ulcerative colitis; Total flavonoids of Sonchus arvensis L.; Key metabolites; Metabonomics; Cecal contents of male C57BL/6 mice.

Rubusoside As a Multifunctional Stabilizer for Novel Nanocrystal-Based Solid Dispersions with a High Drug Loading: A Case Study

The oral bioavailability of poorly soluble drugs has always been the focus of pharmaceutical researchers. We innovatively combined nanocrystal technology and solid dispersion technology to prepare novel nanocrystalline solid dispersions (NCSDs), which enable both the solidification and redispersion of nanocrystals, offering a promising new pathway for oral delivery of insoluble Chinese medicine ingredients. The rubusoside (Rub) was first used as the multifunctional stabilizer of novel apigenin nanocrystal-based solid dispersions (AP-NSD), improving the in vitro solubilization rate of the insoluble drug apigenin(AP). AP-NSD has been produced using a combination of homogenisation and spray-drying technology. The effects of stabilizer type and concentration on AP nanosuspensions (AP-NS) particles, span, and zeta potential were studied. And the effects of different types of protective agents on the yield and redispersibility of AP-NSD were also studied. Furthermore, AP-NSD was characterized by infrared spectroscopy (IR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), and powder X-ray diffraction (PXRD). Solubility was used to assess the in vitro dissolution of AP-NSD relative to APIs and amorphous solid dispersions (AP-ASD), and AP-ASD was prepared by the solvent method. The results showed that 20% Rub stabilized AP-NSD exhibited high drug-loading and good redispersibility and stability, and higher in vitro dissolution rate, which may be related to the presence of Rub on surface of drug. Therefore provides a natural and safe option for the development of formulations for insoluble drugs.

Lactiplantibacillus plantarum and Saccharomyces cerevisiae-Fermented Coconut Water Alleviates Dextran Sodium Sulfate-Induced Enteritis in Wenchang Chicken: A Gut Microbiota and Metabolomic Approach

In order to investigate the potential mechanisms of probiotic-fermented coconut water in treating enteritis, this study conducted a comprehensive analysis of the effects of probiotic intervention on the recovery from Dextran Sodium Sulfate-induced acute enteritis in Wenchang chicks. The analysis encompassed the assessment of growth performance, serum indicators, intestinal tissue structure, and metagenomic and metabolomic profiles of cecal contents in 60 Wenchang chicks subjected to intervention. This approach aimed to elucidate the impact of probiotic intervention on the recovery process from acute enteritis at both the genetic and metabolic levels in the avian model. The results revealed that intervention with Saccharomyces cerevisiae Y301 improved the growth rate of chicks. and intervention with Lactiplantibacillus plantarum MS2c regulated the glycerophospholipid metabolism pathway and reshaped the gut microbiota structure in modeling chicks with acute enteritis, reducing the abundance of potentially pathogenic bacteria from the Alistipes and increasing the abundance of potentially beneficial species from the Christensenellaceae. This intervention resulted in the production of specific gut metabolites, including Gentamicin C and polymyxin B2, recognized for their therapeutic effects on acute enteritis. The combined intervention of S. cerevisiae Y301 and L. plantarum MS2c not only enhanced growth performance but also mitigated intestinal wall damage and increased the abundance of gut metabolites such as gentamicin C and polymyxin B2, thereby mitigating symptoms of enteritis. Furthermore, this combined intervention reduced the levels of serum immune markers, including IL-10, IL-6, TNF-α, IFN-γ, and D-lactic acid, thus mitigating intestinal epithelial cell damage and promoting acute enteritis recovery. This study provides crucial insights into the mechanisms of action of probiotics and probiotic-fermented coconut water in acute enteritis recovery, offering new perspectives for sustainable farming practices for Wenchang chicken.

Development of Phytochemical Delivery Systems by Nano-Suspension and Nano-Emulsion Techniques

The awareness of the existence of plant bioactive compounds, namely, phytochemicals (PHYs), with health properties is progressively expanding. Therefore, their massive introduction in the normal diet and in food supplements and their use as natural therapeutics to treat several diseases are increasingly emphasized by several sectors. In particular, most PHYs possessing antifungal, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antiulcer, anti-cholesterol, hypoglycemic, immunomodulatory, and antioxidant properties have been isolated from plants. Additionally, their secondary modification with new functionalities to further improve their intrinsic beneficial effects has been extensively investigated. Unfortunately, although the idea of exploiting PHYs as therapeutics is amazing, its realization is far from simple, and the possibility of employing them as efficient clinically administrable drugs is almost utopic. Most PHYs are insoluble in water, and, especially when introduced orally, they hardly manage to pass through physiological barriers and scarcely reach the site of action in therapeutic concentrations. Their degradation by enzymatic and microbial digestion, as well as their rapid metabolism and excretion, strongly limits their in vivo activity. To overcome these drawbacks, several nanotechnological approaches have been used, and many nanosized PHY-loaded delivery systems have been developed. This paper, by reporting various case studies, reviews the foremost nanosuspension- and nanoemulsion-based techniques developed for formulating the most relevant PHYs into more bioavailable nanoparticles (NPs) that are suitable or promising for clinical application, mainly by oral administration. In addition, the acute and chronic toxic effects due to exposure to NPs reported so far, the possible nanotoxicity that could result from their massive employment, and ongoing actions to improve knowledge in this field are discussed. The state of the art concerning the actual clinical application of both PHYs and the nanotechnologically engineered PHYs is also reviewed.

Complexation of Apigenin and Oxymatrine Leading to Enhanced Anti-inflammatory Activity

Apigenin (APG) is a well-known dietary flavonoid with multiple bioactivities, but its poor aqueous solubility may result in low oral bioavailability and thus compromised therapeutic effects. In the present study, APG was complexed with oxymatrine (OMT), a natural quinolizidine alkaloid, for enhanced anti-inflammatory activity, and the related mechanisms in the interaction of APG with OMT were investigated. Fourier transform-infrared spectroscopy, fluorescence spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, and proton nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy characterizations demonstrated the occurrence of an APG-OMT complex formed at a molar ratio of 1:2. Then, molecular dynamics simulations and quantum chemical calculations were utilized to elucidate that hydrogen bonding, van der Waals forces, and hydrophobic effects were the main forces acting in the formation of the APG-OMT complex. Pharmacokinetic studies in rats demonstrated that the oral bioavailability of APG in the APG-OMT complex was significantly higher than that of APG alone. Finally, bioactivity evaluation in the lipopolysaccharide-induced acute inflammatory injury mouse models showed that the APG-OMT complex exhibited more potent anti-inflammatory effects than APG alone. This study confirmed that APG and OMT exerted enhanced anti-inflammatory effects through self-complexation, which may provide a novel strategy for improving the bioavailability and bioactivity of natural product mixtures.

Oral Delivery of Psoralidin by Mucoadhesive Surface-Modified Bilosomes Showed Boosted Apoptotic and Necrotic Effects against Breast and Lung Cancer Cells

This study aims to design and optimize chitosan-coated bilosomal formulations loaded with psoralidin (Ps-CS/BLs) with improved physicochemical properties, oral bioavailability, and boosted apoptotic and necrotic effects. In this regard, uncoated bilosomes loaded with Ps (Ps/BLs) were nanoformulated using the thin-film hydration technique using different molar ratios of phosphatidylcholine (PC), cholesterol (Ch), Span 60 (S60), and sodium deoxycholate (SDC) (1:0.4:0.2:0.125, 1:0.4:0.2:0.25, and 1:0.4:0.2:0.5, respectively). The best-optimized formulation with respect to size, PDI, zeta potential, and EE% was selected and then coated with chitosan at two different concentrations (0.125 and 0.25 w/v%), forming Ps-CS/BLs. The optimized Ps/BLs and Ps-CS/BLs showed a spherical shape and relatively homogenous size with negligible apparent agglomerations. Additionally, it was demonstrated that coating Ps/BLs with chitosan has significantly increased the particle size from 123.16 ± 6.90 in the case of Ps/BLs to 183.90 ± 15.93 nm in the case of Ps-CS/BLs. In addition, Ps-CS/BLs exhibited higher zeta potential (+30.78 ± 1.44 mV) as compared to Ps/BLs (−18.59 ± 2.13 mV). Furthermore, Ps-CS/BL showed enhanced entrapment efficiency (EE%) of 92.15 ± 7.20% as compared to Ps/BLs (68.90 ± 5.95%). Moreover, Ps-CS/BLs exhibited a more sustained release behavior of Ps compared to Ps/BLs over 48 h, and both formulations were best obeying the Higuchi diffusion model. More importantly, Ps-CS/BLs displayed the highest mucoadhesive efficiency% (74.89 ± 3.5%) as compared to Ps/BLs (26.78 ± 2.9%), indicating the ability of the designed nanoformulation to improve oral bioavailability and extend the residence time inside the gastrointestinal tract upon oral administration. Moreover, upon evaluating the apoptotic and necrotic effects of free Ps and Ps-CS/BLs on human breast cancer cell lines (MCF-7) and human lung adenocarcinoma cell lines (A549), there was a dramatic increase in the percentages of the apoptotic and necrotic cell compared to the control and free Ps. Our findings suggest the possible oral use of Ps-CS/BLs in hampering breast and lung cancers.

Liquid antisolvent crystallization of pharmaceutical compounds: current status and future perspectives

The present work reviews the liquid antisolvent crystallization (LASC) to prepare the nanoparticle of pharmaceutical compounds to enhance their solubility, dissolution rate, and bioavailability. The application of ultrasound and additives is discussed to prepare the particles with narrow size distribution. The use of ionic liquid as an alternative to conventional organic solvent is presented. Herbal compounds, also known for low aqueous solubility and limited clinical application, have been crystalized by LASC and discussed here. The particle characteristics such as particle size and particle size distribution are interpreted in terms of supersaturation, nucleation, and growth phenomena. To overcome the disadvantage of batch crystallization, the scientific literature on continuous flow reactors is also reviewed. LASC in a microfluidic device is emerging as a promising technique. The different design of the microfluidic device and their application in LASC are discussed. The combination of the LASC technique with traditional techniques such as high-pressure homogenization and spray drying is presented. A comparison of product characteristics prepared by LASC and the supercritical CO₂ antisolvent method is discussed to show that LASC is an attractive and inexpensive alternative for nanoparticle preparation. One of the major strengths of this paper is a discussion on less-explored applications of LASC in pharmaceutical research to attract the attention of future researchers.

The Preparation of Apigenin Nanoparticles and the Study of Their Anti-Inflammatory and Anti-Tumor Activities In Vitro

Apigenin (API) has many biological activities, but its poor solubility limits its clinical application. In this research, API nanoparticles were prepared by the liquid antisolvent precipitation (LAP) technique, which effectively improved the solubility and bioavailability of API. Through the design of a single-factor test, the effects of the type and dosage of surfactants, API concentration, the antisolvent to solvent volume ratio, the speed and time of stirring, the temperature of precipitation, and the dropping speed on the MPS (mean particle size) of API nanosuspension were carried out. The optimum technological conditions were determined as follows: 5 mg/mL of tween 80 as a surfactant, 20 mg/mL of API, an antisolvent/solvent volume ratio of 10, a 1200 r/min stirring speed for 5 min, a 45 °C precipitation temperature, and a 1 mL/min dropping speed. Under the optimum conditions, we obtained API nanosuspension with 170.5 nm MPS and then it was freeze-dried to obtain the API nanoparticles. Moreover, we characterized the API nanoparticles by SEM, FTIR, XRD, DSC, and TG. Results showed that although API nanoparticles transformed into an amorphous form, their internal chemical structure had not been changed and had a higher solubility. Finally, API nanoparticles’ anti-inflammatory activities were evaluated by observing the effect of API on nitric oxide (NO) production and IL-10 production toward RAW264.7 cells induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Moreover, the anti-tumor effect of API was determined by testing cell viability and apoptosis. The results suggested that API nanoparticles exhibited much better anti-inflammatory and anti-tumor activities compared to raw API.

Development of surface modified bilosomes for the oral delivery of quercetin: optimization, characterization in-vitro antioxidant, antimicrobial, and cytotoxicity study

Quercetin (QT) is a flavonoid that exhibits anti-oxidant and chemo-preventive activity. This research work aimed to develop surface-modified bilosomes (BS) of QT. The BS was prepared by the solvent evaporation method and optimized by the Box-Behnken design. The optimized QT-BS (QT-BS3opt) displayed vesicle size (143.51 nm), PDI (0.256), zeta potential (-15.4 mV), and entrapment efficiency (89.52%). Further, the optimized QT-BS formulation was coated with chitosan (CS). The XRD diffractogram of CS-QT-BS3opt1 did not exhibit extensive peaks of QT, revealing that QT is properly encapsulated in the polymer matrix. The QT-BS3opt and CS-QT-BS3opt1 exhibited sustained-release (86.62 ± 3.23% and 69.32 ± 2.57%, respectively) up to 24 h with the Korsmeyer-Peppas kinetic model (R² =0.9089). CS-QT-BS3opt1 exhibited significantly (P < .05) high flux, i.e. 4.20-fold more than pure QT dispersion and 1.27-fold higher than QT-BS3opt. CS-QT-BS3opt1 showed significantly greater bio-adhesion (76.43 ± 2.42%) than QT-BS3opt (20.82 ± 1.45%). The antioxidant activity showed that QT from CS-QT-BS3opt1 has more remarkable (P < .05) antioxidant activity at each concentration than pure QT. The CS-QT-BS3opt1 exhibited 1.61-fold higher cytotoxicity against MFC7 and 1.44-fold higher cytotoxicity against MDA-MB-231 than pure QT. The CS-QT-BS3opt1 displayed a significantly greater antimicrobial potential against E. coli than against S. aureus. From all these findings, it could be concluded that surface-modified QT-BS might be an effective approach for increasing the efficacy of QT in the treatment of certain ailments.

Phytofabricated Nanoparticle Formulation for Cancer Treatment: A Comprehensive Review

In recent times, nanotechnology has made significant advances in the field of cancer. The majority of chemotherapeutic drugs do not selectively target cancer cells, and they might cause side effects and damage to healthy cells, resulting in a variety of adverse effects. Having a thorough understanding of nanoparticles may improve drug targeting and administration. The nano-engineering of pharmacological and natural compounds can improve the diagnosis and treatment. Polymeric micelles, liposomes, and dendrimers are examples of innovative cancer therapeutic nano-formulations. It has been demonstrated that quantum dots, nano-suspensions, and gold nanoparticles can improve drug delivery. Nanomedicines may be delivered more effectively, focusing on cancerous cells instead of healthy tissues, which minimizes undesirable side effects and drug resistance to chemotherapeutic agents. However, limited water solubility, low stability, poor absorption, and quick metabolism limit their therapeutic effectiveness. Nanotechnology has generated unique formulations to optimise the potential use of phytochemicals in anticancer therapy. Nanocomposites can improve phytochemical solubility and bioavailability, extend their half-life in circulation, and even transport phytochemicals to specific locations. The progress in using phytochemical-based nanoparticles in cancer treatment is summarized in this paper.

Lung cancer targeting efficiency of Silibinin loaded Poly Caprolactone /Pluronic F68 Inhalable nanoparticles: In vitro and In vivo study

Silibinin (SB) is shown to have an anticancer properties. However, its clinical therapeutic effects have been restricted due to its low water solubility and poor absorption after oral administration. The aim of this study was to develop SB-loaded PCL/Pluronic F68 nanoparticles for pulmonary delivery in the treatment of lung cancer. A modified solvent displacement process was used to make nanoparticles, which were then lyophilized to make inhalation powder, Nanoparticles were characterized with DSC, FTIR,SEM and In vitro release study. Further, a validated HPLC method was developed to investigate the Biodistribution study, pharmacokinetic parameters. Poly Caprolactone PCL / Pluronic F68 NPs showed the sustained release effect up to 48 h with an emitted (Mass median Aerodynamic diameter)MMAD and (Geometric size distribution)GSD were found to be 4.235 ±0.124 and 1.958±1.23 respectively. More specifically, the SB Loaded PCL/Pluronic F 68 NPs demonstrated long circulation and successful lung tumor-targeting potential due to their cancer-targeting capabilities. SB Loaded PCL/Pluronic F68 NPs significantly inhibited tumour growth in lung cancer-induced rats after inhalable administration. In a pharmacokinetics study, PCL/ Pluronic F68 NPs substantially improved SB bioavailability, with a more than 4-fold rise in AUC when compared to IV administration. These findings indicate that SB-loaded PCL/PluronicF68 nanoparticles may be a successful lung cancer therapy delivery system.

Apigenin-oxymatrine binary co-amorphous mixture: Enhanced solubility, bioavailability, and anti-inflammatory effect

Apigenin (APG) is a functional ingredient in many foods, but its poor water solubility results in low bioavailability. This study aimed at delivering APG and improving bioavailability by a food-friendly co-amorphous formulation of APG with oxymatrine (OMT). After preparation of co-amorphous mixture (CM), characterized by powder x-ray diffraction and thermal analysis. Then, the presence of hydrogen bonds was confirmed by vibrational spectroscopy and molecular dynamics simulation. Furthermore, phase solubility and solubility studies, as well as dissolution test indicated that complexation occurred between APG and OMT in solution, which significantly improved the solubility and dissolution of APG-OMT CM. Additionally, pharmacokinetics and biological activity indicated that APG-OMT CM exhibited higher oral bioavailability and anti-inflammatory effect than pure APG. These results suggest that APG-OMT CM may be great potential for application in functional food. Importantly, the study provides a promising delivery system to improve the bioavailability of hydrophobic food ingredients.

Formulation of Chitosan-Coated Apigenin Bilosomes: In Vitro Characterization, Antimicrobial and Cytotoxicity Assessment

We prepared apigenin (APG)-loaded bilosomes (BLs) and evaluated them for vesicle size, zeta-potential and encapsulation efficiency. The formulations were prepared with cholesterol (CHL), sodium deoxy cholate (SDC), Tween 80 (T80) and phosphatidylcholine (PC) using solvent evaporation method. The prepared formulations showed the optimum result was coated with much mucoadhesive polymer chitosan (CH, 0.25 and 0.5% w/v). The chitosan-coated bilosomes (CH-BLs) were further evaluated for surface morphology, drug−polymer interaction, mucoadhesion, permeation, antimicrobial activity and cell viability. The prepared APG-BLs showed nano-metric size (211 ± 2.87 nm to 433 ± 1.98 nm), polydispersibility index <0.5, negative zeta potential (−15 to −29 mV) and enhanced encapsulation efficiency (69.5 ± 0.93 to 81.9 ± 1.3%). Based on these findings, selected formulation (F2) was further coated with chitosan and showed a marked increase in vesicle size (298 ± 3.56 nm), a positive zeta potential (+17 mV), superior encapsulation efficiency (88.1 ± 1.48%) and improved drug release (69.37 ± 1.34%). Formulation F2C1 showed significantly enhanced permeation and mucoadhesion (p < 0.05) compared to formulation F2 due to the presence of CH as a mucoadhesive polymer. The presence of CH on the surfaces of BLs helps to open the tight membrane junctions and leads to enhanced permeation. A TEM study revealed non-aggregated smooth surface vesicles. The antimicrobial and cell viability assessment revealed better effects in terms of zone of inhibition and cell line assessment against two different cancer cell line. From the study, it can be concluded that APG-CHBLs could be a superior alternative to conventional delivery systems.

Development and Optimization of Hybrid Polymeric Nanoparticles of Apigenin: Physicochemical Characterization, Antioxidant Activity and Cytotoxicity Evaluation

Breast cancer is the most common cancer in females and ranked second after skin cancer. The use of natural compounds is a good alternative for the treatment of breast cancer with less toxicity than synthetic drugs. The aim of the present study is to develop and characterize hybrid Apigenin (AN) Nanoparticles (NPs) for oral delivery (AN-NPs). The hybrid AN-NPs were prepared by the self-assembly method using lecithin, chitosan and TPGS. Further, the NPs were optimized by Box-Behnken design (3-factor, 3-level). The hybrid NPs were evaluated for particle size (PS), entrapment efficiency (EE), zeta potential (ZP), and drug release. The optimized hybrid NPs (ON2), were further evaluated for solid state characterization, permeation, antioxidant, cytotoxicity and antimicrobial study. The formulation (ON2) exhibited small PS of 192.6 ± 4.2 nm, high EE 69.35 ± 1.1%, zeta potential of +36.54 mV, and sustained drug release (61.5 ± 2.5% in 24 h), as well as significantly (p < 0.05) enhanced drug permeation and antioxidant activity. The IC₅₀ of pure AN was found to be significantly (p < 0.05) lower than the formulation (ON2). It also showed significantly greater (p < 0.05) antibacterial activity than pure AN against Bacillus subtilis and Salmonella typhimurium. From these findings, it revealed that a hybrid AN polymeric nanoparticle is a good carrier for the treatment of breast cancer.

Nanoencapsulation of apigenin with whey protein isolate: physicochemical properties, in vitro activity against colorectal cancer cells, and bioavailability

Incorporating lipophilic phytochemicals with anti-cancer activities in functional beverages requires an appropriate nanoencapsulation technology. The present objective was to encapsulate apigenin with whey protein isolate (WPI) utilizing a pH-cycle method and subsequently characterize physicochemical properties, the in vitro anticancer activities against human colorectal HCT-116 and HT-29 cancer cells, and the in vivo bioavailability. Up to 2.0 mg/mL of apigenin was nanoencapsulated with 1.0 mg/mL WPI, with an encapsulation efficiency of up to 98.15% and loading capacity of up to 196.21 mg/g-WPI. Nanodispersions were stable during storage, and apigenin became amorphous after encapsulation. Nanoencapsulation and in vitro digestion did not reduce the anti-proliferative activity of apigenin. Nanoencapsulation of apigenin enhanced the cellular uptake, the pro-apoptotic effects, and the bioavailability in the mice's blood and colon mucosa when comparing to the unencapsulated apigenin. Therefore, the present work may be significant to incorporate lipophilic phytochemicals in functional beverages for disease prevention.

Current Strategies and Potential Prospects for Nanoparticle-Mediated Treatment of Diabetic Nephropathy

Diabetic nephropathy (DN), a severe microvascular complication of diabetes mellitus (DM), is the most common form of chronic kidney disease (CKD) and a leading cause of renal failure in end-stage renal disease. No currently available treatment can achieve complete cure. Traditional treatments have many limitations, such as painful subcutaneous insulin injections, nephrotoxicity and hepatotoxicity with oral medication, and poor patient compliance with continual medication intake. Given the known drawbacks, recent research has suggested that nanoparticle-based drug delivery platforms as therapeutics may provide a promising strategy for treating debilitating diseases such as DN in the future. This administration method provides multiple advantages, such as delivering the loaded drug to the precise target of action and enabling early prevention of CKD progression. This article discusses the development of the main currently used nanoplatforms, such as liposomes, polymeric NPs, and inorganic NPs, as well as the prospects and drawbacks of nanoplatform application in the treatment of CKD.

Preparation, Characterization, and In Vivo Evaluation of Amorphous Icaritin Nanoparticles Prepared by a Reactive Precipitation Technique

Icaritin is a promising anti-hepatoma drug that is currently being tested in a phase-III clinical trial. A novel combination of amorphization and nanonization was used to enhance the oral bioavailability of icaritin. Amorphous icaritin nanoparticles (AINs) were prepared by a reactive precipitation technique (RPT). Fourier transform infrared spectrometry was used to investigate the mechanism underlying the formation of amorphous nanoparticles. AINs were characterized via scanning electron microscopy, X-ray powder diffraction, and differential scanning calorimetry. Our prepared AINs were also evaluated for their dissolution rates in vitro and oral bioavailability. The resultant nanosized AINs (64 nm) were amorphous and exhibited a higher dissolution rate than that derived from a previous oil-suspension formulation. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) revealed that the C=O groups from the hydrophilic chain of polymers and the OH groups from icaritin formed hydrogen bonds that inhibited AIN crystallization and aggregation. Furthermore, an oral administration assay in beagle dogs showed that C_max and AUC_last of the dried AINs formulation were 3.3-fold and 4.5-fold higher than those of the oil-suspension preparation (p < 0.01), respectively. Our results demonstrate that the preparation of amorphous drug nanoparticles via our RPT may be a promising technique for improving the oral bioavailability of poorly water-soluble drugs.

Liquid antisolvent recrystallization and solid dispersion of flufenamic acid with polyvinylpyrrolidone K-30

Flufenamic acid (FFA) is a Biopharmaceutical Classification System- II (BCS-II) class drug with poor bioavailability and a lower dissolution rate. Particle size reduction is one of the conventional approaches to increase the dissolution rate and subsequently the bioavailability. The use of the liquid antisolvent method for particle size reduction of FFA was studied in this work. Ethanol and water were used as solvent and antisolvent, respectively. Experimental parameters such as solution concentration (10–40 mg/ml), flow rate (120–480 ml/h), temperature (298–328 K) and stirring speed (200–800 rpm) were investigated. Furthermore, the solid dispersion of FFA was prepared with polyvinylpyrrolidone K-30 (PVP K-30) with different weight ratios (1:1, 1:2, 1:3 and 1:4) and samples were characterized using SEM, FTIR and XRD techniques. The experimental investigation revealed that higher values of concentration, injection rate, stirring speed, along with lower temperature favored the formation of fine particles. SEM analysis revealed that the morphology of raw FFA changed from rock-like to rectangular-like after liquid antisolvent recrystallization. FTIR analysis validated the presence of hydrogen bonding between FFA and PVP in solid dispersion. XRD analysis showed no significant change in the crystallinity of the processed FFA.

Fabrication of Nanosuspensions to Improve the Oral Bioavailability of Total Flavones from Hippophae rhamnoides L. and their Comparison with an Inclusion Complex

The aim of this work was to increase the solubility and oral bioavailability of isorhamnetin, kaempferol, and quercetin in the total flavones of Hippophae rhamnoides L. (TFH) by preparing their nanosuspensions (NSs) and an inclusion complex. Based on the particle size and zeta potential, P407, Soluplus, SDS, PEG-6000, and HP-β-CD were selected as stabilizers. TFH NSs and a TFH/HP-β-CD inclusion complex were prepared, and their morphology, crystallinity, molecular interactions, and cytotoxicity were investigated. Furthermore, the saturation solubility, dissolution, and pharmacokinetics of the three flavonoids in the TFH, TFH NSs, and TFH/HP-β-CD inclusion complex were compared. The five obtained TFH NSs were physically stable, and their particle sizes were all below 200 nm. The solubility and dissolution of the three active components were obviously enhanced by the formation of the TFH NSs and TFH/HP-β-CD inclusion complex. Correspondingly, the oral bioavailability of isorhamnetin, kaempferol, and quercetin increased up to 4.11-, 3.85-, and 6.73-fold, respectively, in the TFH NSs and 2.89-, 3.71-, and 9.51-fold, respectively, in the TFH/HP-β-CD inclusion complexes compared to those in the raw TFH. In brief, both NSs and inclusion complexes can improve the oral bioavailability of the three flavonoids in TFH. Taking the drug loading and the stable ratio of the multiple components into consideration, the NSs is a more promising strategy than the inclusion complex for increasing the oral bioavailability of multiple water-insoluble components in herbal extracts. Graphical abstract.

Enhancing Oral Bioavailability of Apigenin Using a Bioactive Self-Nanoemulsifying Drug Delivery System (Bio-SNEDDS): In Vitro, In Vivo and Stability Evaluations

Apigenin (APG) is a very well-known flavonoid for its anti-inflammatory and anticancer properties. The purpose of this study is to improve the solubility and bioavailability of APG using a stable bioactive self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery system (Bio-SNEDDS). APG was incorporated in an oil phase comprising coconut oil fatty acid, Imwitor 988, Transcutol P, and HCO30 to form a Bio-SNEDDS. This preparation was characterized for morphology, particle size, and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The APG performance was investigated in terms of loading, precipitation, release and stability tests from the optimal Bio-SNEDDS. An antimicrobial test was performed to investigate the activity of the Bio-SNEDDS against the selected strains. Bioavailability of the Bio-SNEDDS was evaluated using Wister rats against the commercial oral product and the pure drug. The results demonstrated the formation of an efficient nanosized (57 nm) Bio-SNEDDS with a drug loading of 12.50 mg/gm which is around 500-fold higher than free APG. TEM analysis revealed the formation of spherical and homogeneous nanodroplets of less than 60 nm. The dissolution rate was faster than the commercial product and was able to maintain 90% APG in gastro intestinal solution for more than 4 h. A stability study demonstrated that the Bio-SNEDDS is stable at a harsh condition. The in vivo pharmacokinetics parameters of the Bio-SNEDDS formulation in comparison to the pure drug showed a significant increase in maximum concentration (C_max) and area under the curve (AUC _(0–t)) of 105.05% and 91.32%, respectively. Moreover, the antimicrobial study revealed moderate inhibition in the bacterial growth rate. The APG-Bio-SNEDDS could serve as potential carrier aimed at improving the clinical application of APG.

Kaempferia parviflora Nanosuspension Formulation for Scalability and Improvement of Dissolution Profiles and Intestinal Absorption

Kaempferia parviflora (KP) is an herbal medicine for enhancement of physical fitness and male sexual function improvement with low oral absorption of the main active compounds, methoxyflavones. The purpose of this study is to optimize the preparation of nanosuspensions of KP extract for enhancing intestinal absorption using antisolvent precipitation technique which is an accessible nanomanufacturing methodology in the small industrial factory. Nanosuspensions were prepared using various types and concentrations of stabilizers. Then, the dry powder of KP nanosuspension was produced by spray drying. Its dissolution rate was determined using USP dissolution apparatus II. The rat everted intestinal sac was tested to confirm the improvement of intestinal absorption of KP nanosuspension. The result showed that 3% sodium lauryl sulfate (SLS) was the optimal condition for covering the nano-size of KP nanosuspension. KP nanosuspensions had particle sizes ranging from 100 to 300 nm with narrow size distribution (PDI < 0.60) and zeta potential at - 58 to - 70 mV. These characteristics were stable at 4°C and 25°C/60%RH for 1-month storage. Its methoxyflavones content also unchanged at 4°C and 25°C/60%RH for 1-month storage. KP nanosuspension released > 80% of the methoxyflavones within 30 min both in 0.1 N HCl and 0.01 M phosphate buffer solution (pH 6.8). Moreover, the developed nanosuspension dramatically improved the rat intestinal absorption about 10-fold. Therefore, the KP nanosuspension was successfully prepared. It has relatively high stability, fast dissolution rate, and high intestinal absorption.

Phytofabrication of Nanoparticles as Novel Drugs for Anticancer Applications

Cancer is one of the foremost causes of death globally and also the major stumbling block of increasing life expectancy. Although the primary treatment of surgical resection, chemotherapy, and radiotherapy have greatly reduced the mortality of cancer, the survival rate is still low because of the metastasis of tumor, a range of adverse drug reactions, and drug resistance. For all this, it is relevant to mention that a growing amount of research has shown the anticarcinogenic effect of phytochemicals which can modulate the molecular pathways and cellular events include apoptosis, cell proliferation, migration, and invasion. However, their pharmacological potential is hindered by their low water solubility, low stability, poor absorption, and rapid metabolism. In this scenario, the development of nanotechnology has created novel formulations to maximize the potential use of phytochemicals in anticancer treatment. Nanocarriers can enhance the solubility and stability of phytochemicals, prolong their half-life in blood and even achieve site-targeting delivery. This review summarizes the advances in utilizing nanoparticles in cancer therapy. In particular, we introduce several applications of nanoparticles combined with apigenin, resveratrol, curcumin, epigallocatechin-3-gallate, 6-gingerol, and quercetin in cancer treatment.

Nanocrystals as Effective Delivery Systems of Poorly Water-soluble Natural Molecules

Natural products are an important source of therapeutically effective compounds throughout the world. Since ancient times, a huge amount of both plant extracts and isolated compounds have been largely employed in treatment and prevention of human disorders and, currently, more than 60% of the world's population trusts on plant medicaments as demonstrated by the increasing quantity of herbal therapeutics in the market. Unfortunately, several promising natural molecules for the treatment of the most diverse ailments are characterized by extremely unfavourable features, such as low water solubility and poor/irregular bioavailability, which hinder their clinical use. To overcome these limitations and to make herbal therapy more effective, different formulative approaches have been employed. Among the different strategies for increasing drug solubility, nanocrystals can be considered one of the most interesting and successful approaches. Drug nanocrystals are nanosized drug particles usually formulated as nanosuspensions, namely submicron dispersions in liquid media where surfactants, polymers, or a mixture of both act as stabilisers. In this review, we described the most significant results and progresses concerning drug nanocrystal formulations for the delivery of natural compounds with a significant pharmacological activity. The text is organized in nine sections, each focusing on a specific poorly water- soluble natural compound (apigenin, quercetin, rutin, curcumin, baicalin and baicalein, hesperetin and hesperidin, resveratrol, lutein, silybin). To foster the clinical translation of these natural nanomedicines, our opinion is that future research should pair the essential pharmacokinetic studies with carefully designed pre-clinical experiments, able to prove the formulation efficacy in relevant animal models in vivo.

BSA Nanoparticles Modified with N-Acetylcysteine for Improving the Stability and Mucoadhesion of Curcumin in the Gastrointestinal Tract

A major obstacle to the clinical use of curcumin (CUR) is its reduced bioavailability because of the drug's hydrophobic nature, low intestinal absorption, and rapid metabolism. In this study, a novel oral drug delivery system was constructed for improving the stability and enhancing mucoadhesion of CUR in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. First, CUR was encapsulated in the bovine serum albumin nanoparticles (CUR-BSA-NPs). Then, N-acetyl cysteine (NAC)-modified CUR-BSA-NPs (CUR-NBSA-NPs) were obtained. The average particle size and zeta potential of CUR-NBSA-NPs were 251.6 nm and -30.66 mV, respectively; encapsulation efficiency and drug loading were 85.79 and 10.9%, respectively. CUR-NBSA-NPs exhibited a sustained release property and prominently enhanced stability in simulated GI conditions. Additionally, enhanced mucoadhesion of CUR-NBSA-NPs was also observed. An MTT study showed that the CUR-NBSA-NPs were safe for oral administration. Overall, NAC-modified BSA-NPs may potentially serve as an oral vehicle for improving CUR stability in the GI tract and enhancing mucoadhesion.