Effects of the Positive Action Program on Indicators of Positive Youth Development Among Urban Youth

Whole-school interventions promoting student commitment to school to prevent substance use and violence, and improve educational attainment: a systematic review

Background

Whole-school interventions modify the school environment to promote health. A subset of these interventions promotes student commitment to school to prevent substance (tobacco, alcohol, other drugs) use and/or violence. A previous review identified the theory of human functioning and school organisation as a comprehensive theory of such interventions, and found evidence that these interventions reduce substance use and/or violence.

Objectives

The objectives were to search for, appraise and synthesise evidence to address the following questions: (1) What whole-school interventions promoting student commitment to school to prevent substance use and/or violence have been evaluated, what intervention subtypes are apparent and how closely do these align with the theory of human functioning and school organisation? (2) What factors relating to setting, population and intervention affect implementation? (3) What are the effects on student substance use, violence and educational attainment? (4) What is the cost-effectiveness of such interventions? (5) Are intervention effects mediated by student commitment to school or moderated by setting or population?

Data sources

A total of 56 information sources were searched (in January 2020), then an updated search of 48 of these was carried out (in May 2021). Reference lists were also searched and experts were contacted.

Review methods

Eligible studies were process/outcome evaluations of whole-school interventions to reduce student violence or substance use among students aged 5-18 years attending schools, via actions aligning with the theory of human functioning and school organisation: modifying teaching to increase engagement, enhancing student-staff relationships, revising school policies, encouraging volunteering or increasing parental involvement. Data extraction and quality assessments used existing tools. Theory and process reports were synthesised qualitatively. Outcome and economic data were synthesised narratively; outcome data were meta-analysed.

Results

Searches retrieved 63 eligible reports on 27 studies of 22 interventions. We identified four intervention subtypes focused on student participation in school-wide decisions, improving staff-student relationships, increasing engagement in learning and involving parents. The theories of change of most intervention subtypes aligned closely with the theory of human functioning and school organisation, and informed refinement of an intervention theory of change. Theories of change for interventions increasing learning engagement did not align with this theory, aiming instead to increase school commitment primarily via social skills curricula. Factors influencing the implementation included whether or not interventions were tailorable, workable and well explained. Interventions with action groups comprising staff/students, etc. and providing local data were well implemented. Implementation was also affected by whether or not schools accepted the need for change and staff had the resources for delivery. Meta-analyses suggest small, but significant, intervention effects in preventing violence victimisation and perpetration, and substance use. There was sparse and inconsistent evidence of moderation and some evidence of mediation by student commitment to school. Two economic evaluations suggested that there is the potential for the interventions to be cost-effective.

Limitations

The quality of the studies was variable and the economic synthesis was limited to two studies.

Conclusions

Whole-school interventions aiming to promote student commitment to school share similar theories of change and factors affecting implementation. They have the potential to contribute to preventing violence and substance use among young people. Future trials should aim to optimise intervention effectiveness by better theorisation, and assess implementation and effect moderators and mediators.

Study registration

This study is registered as PROSPERO CRD42019154334.

Funding

This award was funded by the National Institute for Health and Care Research (NIHR) Public Health Research programme (NIHR award ref: 17/151/05) and is published in full in Public Health Research; Vol. 12, No. 2. See the NIHR Funding and Awards website for further award information.

Identification of Important Factors When Measuring School Climate: Latent Construct Validation and Exploration

BACKGROUND

Researchers regularly must decide what information is necessary to understand school climate and how to include climate in a study. For example, which factors and/or scales should be used, is using just 1 scale for school climate sufficient, and to what extent does the selection of a single scale influence the research findings?

AIMS

Understanding what factors to consider and which available scales to review will assist those interested in measuring school climate.

METHODS

This study explores 8 validated scales related to school climate. Data used are from a previous study (Social and Character Development cooperative agreement funded by IES #R305L030072 and #R305A080253) that looked at Positive Action, a social emotional and character development program for elementary-, middle-, and high-school students.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSION

Scale correlations and factor analyses show how these scales work together to measure overall middle school climate.

Valuing the cross-sector benefits from improving youth health to drive investment in place-based preventive interventions in the US: A simulation modeling study

Healthcare payment reform has not produced incentives for investing in place-based, or population-level, upstream preventive interventions. This article uses economic modeling to estimate the long-term benefits to different sectors associated with improvements in population health indicators in childhood. This information can motivate policymakers to invest in prevention and provide guidance for cross-sector contracting to align incentives for implementing place-based preventive interventions. A benefit-cost model developed by the Washington State Institute for Public Policy was used to estimate total and sector-specific benefits expected from improvements to nine different population health indicators at ages 17 and 18. The magnitudes of improvement used in the model were comparable to those that could be achieved by high-quality implementation of evidence-based population-level preventive interventions. Benefits accruing throughout the lifecycle and over a ten-year time horizon were modelled. Intervention effect sizes of 0.10 and 0.20 demonstrated substantial long-term benefits for eight of the nine outcomes measured. At an effect size of 0.10, the median lifecycle benefit per participant across the ten indicators was $3080 (ranged: $93 to $14,220). The median over a 10-year time horizon was $242 (range: $14 to $1357). Benefits at effect sizes of 0.20 were approximately double. Policymakers may be able to build will for additional investment based on these cross-sector returns and communities may be able to capture these cross-sector benefits through contracting to better align incentives for implementing and sustaining place-based preventive interventions.

“Everybody Knows Everybody”: Adolescents’ Perceptions of What Helps Them Succeed in a Rural Title I School

The current study explored adolescents’ perceptions of what contributes to their experiences of success in a rural Title I school through interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA). Participants included adolescents who were enrolled at a rural Title I Middle/High School in the southern United States. The single campus school district serves approximately 185 students from Prekindergarten to grade 12. Approximately, 73% of the students are identified as At-Risk, 88% of the students are economically disadvantaged, and 100% of the students qualify for free or reduced lunch. Ten students from this school, with assent and parental consent, participated in the current study. Participants’ ages ranged from 13 to 18, and the students represented different genders (seven males, three females) and various racial and ethnic backgrounds (three Black/African American, four Latinx, two White, and one Biracial). Results from the current study suggest low-income adolescents in a rural Title I school perceived (a) school size, (b) family support, and (c) their own internal drive to succeed as contributing to their success at school. These themes, their corresponding subthemes, and representative participant statements are included. Implications for school administrators, teachers, and counselors along with directions for future research are discussed.

Childhood Protective Factors and a Prevention Program Reduce Later Problem Behaviors

Prior research has yet to elucidate how constellations of protective factors in childhood and prevention efforts simultaneously may influence youth involvement in problem behaviors across different points in development. The current study examines how latent classes of social and emotional learning (SEL) skills, parent-child relationships, and peer influences in third grade and receipt of an ongoing SEL intervention predict substance use and violence in fifth and eighth grade. The urban, predominantly low-income, sample (N = 1,169) was nested in 14 schools that were randomly assigned to the Positive Action program or business-as-usual. Membership in a latent class reflecting protective childhood factors predicted less substance use and violence in fifth grade; however, the SEL program predicted less substance use and violence in eighth grade. Findings generally support that SEL interventions can successfully target and boost developmentally appropriate positive behaviors and can prevail over initial risk factors with enough time and exposure.

Poly-Strengths and Peer Violence Perpetration: What Strengths Can Add to Risk Factor Analyses

Adolescence is a high-risk time for perpetration of different forms of peer-based violence including harassment, bullying, and sexual assault. Research documents a number of important risk factors but less understood are protective factors like sense of mattering or how combinations of strengths may reduce perpetration risk. The current study examined how protective factors (i.e., positive social norms), including a diversity of strengths (termed poly-strengths), influenced the perpetration of harassment, bullying, and sexual assault for young people, while accounting for the use of alcohol both cross-sectionally and over time. Youth (N = 2232, 52.6% female) in grades 7-10 enrolled in a study using active parental consent (53% response rate) and completed online surveys in school that asked about bullying and harassment, alcohol use, positive social norms related to violence prevention, and a composite of intra-personal strengths. Follow-up surveys took place 6 months later (N = 2150). Logistic regression analyses examined how social norms and poly-strengths influenced odds of perpetration after accounting for demographic variables and the risk factor of alcohol use. Use of alcohol increased the odds of perpetrating all forms of violence. Strengths were significantly related to lower perpetration at Time 1 but not Time 2. Positive social norms reduced perpetration at both time points. The findings suggest adolescent perpetration of bullying, harassment, and sexual violence is lower in the presence of positive social norms over time and more proximally, in the presence of a diverse strengths portfolio. Prevention efforts that incorporate positive social norms and alcohol reduction strategies may reduce peer violence.

Moving adolescents for a lifetime of physical activity: shifting to interventions aligned with the third health revolution

Public health advocates have been calling for an intensified focus on early, middle, and late adolescence health behaviours due to both the short- and long-term health consequences. Hence, both the health-risk (e.g., alcohol consumption) and health-promoting (e.g., physical activity) behaviours of adolescents have been widely studied to better understand the underlying causes or determinants with an eye towards implementing more effective interventions. The success of these interventions, typically grounded in a risk-reduction/prevention-oriented intervention approach has been modest, especially those focused on health-promoting behaviours, such as physical activity. The purposes of this paper are to (1) conduct a conceptual critique of the risk-reduction/prevention-oriented approach underlying traditional adolescent physical activity interventions, and (2) examine the potential usefulness of an emerging person-based, development-oriented (PBDO) approach for enhancing the motivation and sustainability of adolescent physical activity. Within this PBDO perspective, emphasis is on adolescent growth and development as the starting point for initiating and sustaining physical activity. Implications of the PBDO approach for adolescent physical activity interventions are presented.

A Cluster Randomized-Controlled Trial of the MindOut Social and Emotional Learning Program for Disadvantaged Post-Primary School Students

School-based social and emotional learning programs aim to provide students with the skills they need to deal with life challenges, thereby enhancing their social and emotional wellbeing, academic outcomes, and reducing their risk of mental health difficulties. While there is a robust evidence base on the effectiveness of these programs originating from the US, there is a relative paucity of research on how these programs impact young people in other county contexts, especially for older adolescents and those at higher risk. This study sets out to address this research gap by evaluating the effectiveness of a social emotional learning program designed for older adolescents in Ireland, the MindOut program. MindOut is a universal school-based social and emotional learning program designed for older adolescents in Ireland which was developed based on a common elements approach underpinned by CASEL's framework. Employing a cluster randomized-controlled trial, data on social and emotional skills, academic performance and mental health outcomes were collected from students (n = 497; 51.1% female) ages 15-18 years in 32 disadvantaged schools. There were significant improvements in intervention students' social and emotional skills including, reduced suppression of emotions (p = 0.035), use of more positive coping strategies [reduced avoidance coping p = < 0.001) and increased social support coping p = 0.044)]. Improvements in mental health and wellbeing were also found with significantly reduced levels of stress (p = 0.017) and depressive symptoms (p = 0.030) as well as reduced anxiety scores for females students (p = 0.044). These short-term evaluation findings support the positive impact of school-based social and emotional learning programs, such as MindOut, when designed to be both age and culturally appropriate and delivered to older adolescents in disadvantaged schools.

Incorporating positive youth development into the therapeutic model for incarcerated young woman

Young women in the juvenile justice system have high rates of prior physical and sexual abuse, substance use and psychiatric disorders. Understandably services usually are based on a therapeutic model to address those needs. Positive Youth Development (PYD) is a complementary alternative format that aims to provide resilience, life competencies, and self efficacy for pro-social actions. We provide a narrative review of PYD programs with a focus on how those relate to youth in closed custody. Sleep and physical activity are two behaviors where incarcerated young women still have personal agency, and we present the additional relevance of those program aspects. We describe methods and findings from a feasibility trial of an existing evidence-based, peer-led program for young women high school athletes used with incarcerated young women. Findings are placed in the context of established models of behavior change. The program was feasible and acceptable, and in this small trial, results demonstrate the format's potential efficacy. PYD may provide a trajectory of success and assets that could durably assist these young women following incarceration.

Can Universal SEL Programs Benefit Universally? Effects of the Positive Action Program on Multiple Trajectories of Social-Emotional and Misconduct Behaviors

Behavioral trajectories during middle childhood are predictive of consequential outcomes later in life (e.g., substance abuse, violence). Social and emotional learning (SEL) programs are designed to promote trajectories that reflect both growth in positive behaviors and inhibited development of negative behaviors. The current study used growth mixture models to examine effects of the Positive Action (PA) program on behavioral trajectories of social-emotional and character development (SECD) and misconduct using data from a cluster-randomized trial that involved 14 schools and a sample of predominately low-income, urban youth followed from 3rd through 8th grade. For SECD, findings indicated that PA was similarly effective at improving trajectories within latent classes characterized as "high/declining" and "low/stable". Favorable program effects were likewise evident to a comparable degree for misconduct across observed latent classes that reflected "low/rising" and "high/rising" trajectories. These findings suggest that PA and perhaps other school-based universal SEL programs have the potential to yield comparable benefits across subgroups of youth with differing trajectories of positive and negative behaviors, making them promising strategies for achieving the intended goal of school-wide improvements in student outcomes.

Meeting the Challenges of Longitudinal Cluster-Based Trials in Schools: Lessons From the Chicago Trial of Positive Action

We describe challenges in the 6-year longitudinal cluster randomized controlled trial (CRCT) of Positive Action (PA), a social-emotional and character development (SECD) program, conducted in 14 low-income, urban Chicago Public Schools. Challenges pertained to logistics of study planning (school recruitment, retention of schools during the trial, consent rates, assessment of student outcomes, and confidentiality), study design (randomization of a small number of schools), fidelity (implementation of PA and control condition activities), and evaluation (restricted range of outcomes, measurement invariance, statistical power, student mobility, and moderators of program effects). Strategies used to address the challenges within each of these areas are discussed. Incorporation of lessons learned from this study may help to improve future evaluations of longitudinal CRCTs, especially those that involve evaluation of school-based interventions for minority populations and urban areas.

Developmental Trajectories of Youth Character: A Five-Wave Longitudinal Study of Cub Scouts and Non-Scout Boys

Youth development programs, such as the Boy Scouts of America, aim to develop positive attributes in youth (e.g., character virtues, prosocial behaviors, and positive civic actions), which are necessary for individuals and societies to flourish. However, few developmental studies have focused on how specific positive attributes develop through participation in programs such as the Boy Scouts of America. As part of the Character and Merit Project, this article examined the developmental trajectories of character and other positive attributes, which are of focal concern of the Boy Scouts of America and the developmental literature. Data were collected from 1398 Scouts (M = 8.59 years, SD = 1.29 years, Range 6.17-11.92 years) and 325 non-Scout boys (M = 9.06 years, SD = 1.43 years, Range 6.20-11.81 years) over five waves of testing across a two-and-half-year period. Latent growth-curve analyses of self-report survey data examined the developmental trajectories of the attributes. Older youth rated themselves lower than younger participants on helpfulness, reverence, thriftiness, and school performance. However, all youth had moderately high self-ratings on all the attributes. Across waves, Scouts' self-ratings increased significantly for cheerfulness, helpfulness, kindness, obedience, trustworthiness, and hopeful future expectations. Non-Scout boys' self-ratings showed no significant change for any attributes except for a significant decrease in religious reverence among non-Scout boys from religious institutions. We discuss implications for positive youth development and for the role of the Boy Scouts of America programming in character development.