Vile vigilance: An integrated theoretical framework for understanding the state of Black surveillance

Imperial algorithms: Contemporary manifestations of racism and colonialism

In this special issue, we invited contributions that critically examined issues of imperialism, colonialism, power, justice, etc. to expand the canon of anticolonial scholarship and critical scholarship in community psychology. Our two objectives were: (1) to build on the canon of anticolonial and critical race scholarship to cultivate an empirical and theoretical body of work and conceptual frameworks about racism and colonialism within the field of community psychology and (2) to unpack the different manifestations of racism in society from the lens of community psychology and reflect on the implications of these varied forms of injustice in the contemporary moment. Rooted in African epistemology and methodology (Martin, 2012), we find the concept of the algorithm to serve as a potent metaphor for the ways in which these oppressive structures operate given the prevalence of algorithms in our daily lives and the algorithm is symbolic of the information age and predictive powers that seem to govern society beyond conscious control. In this sense, imperial algorithms are these structures, patterns, processes, and procedures that perpetuate imperialism. These imperial algorithms manifest as neo-colonialism, surveillance, social engineering, carcerality, reality warping of contemporary racism, health disparities exacerbated by COVID-19, and environmental grids of oppression.

Fear of a Black Neighborhood: Anti-Black Racism and the Health of White Americans

Does anti-Black racism harm White Americans? We advance hypotheses that address this question within the neighborhood context. Hypotheses are tested with neighborhood and survey data from a probability sample of White residents of Nashville, Tennessee. We find that regardless of neighborhood crime rates or socioeconomic compositions, Whites report heightened perceptions of crime and danger in their neighborhoods as the proportion of Black residents increases. Perceived neighborhood danger, in turn, predicts increased symptoms of psychophysiological distress. When stratified by socioeconomic status (SES), however, low-SES Whites also report perceptions of higher status when living near more Black neighbors, which entirely offsets their distress. We conclude that although anti-Black racism can ironically harm the health of White Americans, compensatory racist ideologies can also offset these harms, particularly for lower-status Whites. We situate our findings within broader discussions of anti-Black racism, residential segregation, and psychiatric disorders commonly observed among White Americans.

HIV Criminalization Laws and Enforcement: Assessing the Relationship Between HIV Criminalization at the State Level, Policing at the County Level, and County-level HIV Incidence Rates

The U.S. HIV epidemic disproportionately affects Black and Hispanic communities via ecosocial determinants of excess HIV risk, including HIV criminalization laws and overpolicing. This study used multilevel modeling to test the hypothesis that HIV criminalization laws are associated with higher county HIV incidence, and that this effect is modified by heavier county-level policing. County-level HIV incidence data from 2010 to 2019 were merged with county-level demographic, socioeconomic, and jailed population rate data for counties with stable HIV incidence rates (rates generated from a numerator of at least 12) for > 5 years. Multivariable multilevel (hierarchical) models for count-rate data were fitted, with years nested inside counties, and counties nested within states. An HIV criminalization law was associated with higher countywide HIV incidence rate for the general, Black, and Hispanic populations (aRR = 1.14, 1.30, and 1.32, respectively). This association was modified by an increased county jailed population rate for the general and Black populations.

Working to Improve Youth-Police Interactions: A Pilot Evaluation of a Program for Young People

In addition to training law enforcement personnel in strategies to promote positive youth-police interactions, equipping youth with similar knowledge is critical in ensuring safe and effective youth-police encounters. The classroom-based Juvenile Justice Curriculum was designed to equip young people with knowledge about the law and their rights and to empower them to have safer interactions with police. In the current study, we conducted the first evaluation of Strategies for Youth's nationally recognized classroom-based intervention. Cross-sectional data were collected from 155 youth (M age = 15.3; 43% White, 23% Black; 61% boys) after they completed the Juvenile Justice Curriculum. Results from our study indicated young people learned new information regarding what leads to arrest and multiple ways they might consider changing their behaviors when interacting with police. Young people's negative experiences with police officers were significantly associated with reduced views that police respect them and reports that they respect police, and with increased views of police as ethnoracially biased after completing the program. Altogether, our pilot program evaluation of this program demonstrated increased awareness of what constitutes illegal behavior, program engagement, and learned strategies to improve future interactions with police. Findings highlight the importance of policy makers supporting programming like the Juvenile Justice Curriculum as one means of preventing juvenile legal system involvement. While the onus to ensure safe and effective interactions with police should not be on young people, empowering young people to understand the law and their rights may help improve the social climate surrounding community responses to police and police interactions.

The wear and tear of racism: Self-silencing from the perspective of young Black women

Context

Historically, Black women strategically employed silence to endure enslavement to the U.S., and other forms of racial violence. The current study aimed to understand contemporary perspectives on self-silencing.

Objective

To explore young adult Black women's experiences of self-silencing and its potential impact on their physical and mental well-being.

Methods

Data are from 16 semi-structured interviews with Black women ages 18 to 39 in southwest Pennsylvania conducted between October 2021 - May 2022. We analyzed the interviews using inductive thematic analysis.

Results

We identified four themes: "Self-silencing is Inherited," "Silencing Here and Now," "Wear and Tear," and "The Flip Side." The first theme represents the overwhelming consensus that limiting self-expression has a generational component rooted in racism. Most participants identified self-silencing in school and employment settings. Participants described the wear and tear of self-silencing as negatively impacting health behaviors (e.g., diet) and mental health both when deciding whether to self-silence and later ruminations on the decision. "The Flip Side" represents counter perspectives that not self-silencing liberates and improves health.

Conclusions

The findings highlight that many Black women may use or resist self-silencing as a vigilance-based coping strategy to preserve their mental and physical well-being. We present measurement considerations for research on health impacts of racism and other forms of oppression.

Examining Historical and Contemporary Policing Disparities in the Black Community: Implications for Social Work

An alarming number of unarmed Black men and women have been killed by police in the United States. Though research suggests that police violence is not a new phenomenon in Black communities in the United States, several shocking high-profile incidents of unarmed Black people killed by police in recent years have catapulted this problem more sharply into our nation's consciousness. Despite recent efforts to engage in critical discourse about police violence against unarmed Black people in mainstream media and across multiple disciplines, limited research exists on the connection between historical and contemporary acts of police violence in Black communities. This article conducts a critical analysis of the extant literature on historical and contemporary policing in the Black community and identifies linkages between these time periods using critical race theory. This article concludes with implications for social work to combat the issue of police violence in Black communities.

Anticipation of Racially Motivated Police Brutality and Youth Mental Health

Purpose

Exposure to police brutality is a significant risk to adolescent mental health. This study extends this literature by exploring connections between anticipation of racially motivated police brutality and multiple facets of adolescent mental health.

Methods

Students ages 14 to 18 (n = 151) were recruited from a study administered in Baltimore City public schools. Between December 2020 and July 2021, participants completed a questionnaire assessing anticipatory stress regarding racially motivated police brutality and current mental health. Regression models examined associations between this anticipatory stress and mental health. Latent profile and regression analyses were used to examine whether anticipatory stress was more salient among adolescents with comorbid mental health symptoms, compared to those without comorbid symptoms.

Results

Youth with anticipatory stress stemming from both personal and vicarious police brutality had more symptoms of anxiety, depression, and PTSD, as well as lower hope, compared to youth without anticipatory stress. The association between anticipatory stress and anxiety was stronger for girls than boys.

Conclusions

Findings from this study highlight racialized police brutality as a common anticipated stressor among youth, particularly for girls. Findings have implications for policing interventions, including development of additional trainings for police officers and promoting positive police/youth interactions.

Meta-analysis of the effect of racial discrimination on suicidality

Racial discrimination (RD) is unfair treatment of individuals based on race or ethnicity. It is a pervasive and increasing phenomenon in the lives of many individuals with deleterious effects on mental health. Research implicates RD in diminished well-being, lower life satisfaction and self-esteem, and mental health disorders. Furthermore, there have been reports that minorities and marginalized groups exposed to RD are at a higher risk of suicide. Given that RD negatively impacts mental health and that suicide is a major public health concern, we meta-analytically reviewed the literature to investigate whether RD is associated with suicidal ideation (SI) and suicide attempt (SA). We identified 43 eligible articles investigating the association between RD and suicidality through PubMed, Embase, PsycINFO and Scopus, from which we pooled 39 effect sizes for SI (58,629 individuals) and 15 for SA (30,088 individuals). Results demonstrated that RD has a small but significant effect both on SI (r = 0.16, 95% CI: 0.12 to 0.19; p < 0.0001) and on SA (r = 0.13, 95% CI: 0.02 to 0.23; p = 0.018). We found no indication of publication bias, and fail-safe tests confirmed the robustness of the results. Furthermore, we tested the moderating effects of several study characteristics (e.g., age, race, RD and SI time frame assessment, and categorization of RD measures). The only study characteristic to moderate the effect of RD on SI was SI time frame assessment (r = 0.07; 95% CI: 0.015 to 0.12; p = 0.01). Our findings suggest that SI and SA are phenomena that may be influenced by exposure to RD. Thus, individuals that are discriminated based on race may develop more suicidal thoughts and an increased likelihood of attempting suicide. These findings underscore the need for more prevention and intervention efforts to attenuate the effect of RD on suicidality.

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We conducted a meta-analysis of 62,349 individuals.

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We pooled effect sizes from 43 studies from seven countries.

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Racial discrimination has a statistically significant effect on suicidal ideation (r = 0.16, p < 0.0001).

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Racial discrimination has a statistically significant effect on suicide attempt (r = 0.13, p = 0.018).

Adolescents' views of defunding the police, abolishing the police, and "The Talk"

INTRODUCTION

Definitions regarding defunding or abolishing the police are highly contested in the United States. Moreover, adolescents' definitions and how socialization processes shape their definitions are unclear.

METHODS

Within a national sample of 822 adolescents ages 13-17 (49.69% female; 63.22% White, 16.93% Black/African American, 11.01% Hispanic/Latinx) surveyed in July 2020, this study examined how youth define defunding versus abolishing the police, how much parents talk to youth about the police (i.e., "the Talk"), and whether relations emerged between defunding/abolishing the police and "the Talk."

RESULTS

Youth supported defunding more than abolishing (d = 0.57). Support for abolishing was higher for youth who frequently received "the Talk" (b = 0.25). Differences by race and gender were uncovered in how frequently youth received "the Talk."

CONCLUSIONS

Police must recognize that coercion, fear, and biased policing breed discontent and promote families to engage in protective parenting strategies including engaging in "the Talk."

Deployments of Multiracial Masculinity and Anti-Black Violence: The Racial Framings of Barack Obama, George Zimmerman, and Daunte Wright

In this article, I examine how political and media discourses of multiraciality are deployed to justify guilt and innocence. I trace the deployment of multiraciality to determine who is deserving of life or death in media coverage, political rhetoric, and court records during Obama’s presidency, in George Zimmerman’s 2013 acquittal, and in the 2021 killing of Daunte Wright. I examine the weaponization of discourses of multiracial identities as tools of white supremacy and anti-Blackness. Through such weaponization, the construction of the multiracial man as an index of racial progress and post-racism evident in the Barack Obama era enabled the violence and miscarriages of justice in the killings of Trayvon Martin and Daunte Wright. I consider how transnational and U.S. narratives of multiraciality, joined with anti-Blackness and white supremacy, enabled the acquittal of George Zimmerman. Furthermore, I examine how white womanhood and fears of Black masculinity facilitated the sympathy garnered towards Kim Potter. In considering the killing of Daunte Wright, this paper shows how multiraciality and racial malleability are valuable only when utilized for preserving racial hierarchies.

System avoidance and social isolation: Mechanisms connecting police contact and deleterious health outcomes

A growing body of literature suggests even routine or low-level contact with the criminal justice system impacts health outcomes. In this paper, I examine two mechanisms by which police contact contributes to deleterious health outcomes: system avoidance and social isolation. I use data from 12,016 respondents from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health, a longitudinal and nationally representative sample. Findings suggest system avoidance may be an important mechanism by which police stops shape health outcomes. Whether social isolation serves as a mechanism varies based on how it is measured. Results suggest police stops are associated with subjective feelings of loneliness, which in turn explained some of the association between police stops and health outcomes. Notably, women were more likely to exhibit system avoidance and poor health following police contact compared to men.

Systematic review of pathways to care in the U.S. for Black individuals with early psychosis

The pathway to receiving specialty care for first episode psychosis (FEP) among Black youth in the US has received little attention despite documented challenges that negatively impact engagement in care and clinical outcomes. We conducted a systematic review of US-based research, reporting findings related to the pathway experiences of Black individuals with FEP and their family members. A systematic search of PubMed, PsycInfo, and Embase/Medline was performed with no date restrictions up to April 2021. Included studies had samples with at least 75% Black individuals and/or their family members or explicitly examined racial differences. Of the 80 abstracts screened, 28 peer-reviewed articles met the inclusion criteria. Studies were categorized into three categories: premordid and prodromal phase, help-seeking experiences, and the duration of untreated psychosis (DUP). Compounding factors such as trauma, substance use, and structural barriers that occur during the premorbid and prodromal contribute to delays in treatment initiation and highlight the limited use of services for traumatic childhood experiences (e.g., sexual abuse). Studies focused on help-seeking experiences demonstrated the limited use of mental health services and the potentially traumatic entry to services (e.g., law enforcement), which is associated with a longer DUP. Although the majority of studies focused on help-seeking experiences and predictors of DUP, findings suggests that for Black populations, there is a link between trauma and substance use in the pathway to care that impacts the severity of symptoms, initiation of treatment, and DUP. The present review also identifies the need for more representative studies of Black individuals with FEP.

Participatory Approaches to Addressing Missing COVID-19 Race and Ethnicity Data

Varying dimensions of social, environmental, and economic vulnerability can lead to drastically different health outcomes. The novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-19) pandemic exposes how the intersection of these vulnerabilities with individual behavior, healthcare access, and pre-existing conditions can lead to disproportionate risks of morbidity and mortality from the virus-induced illness, COVID-19. The available data shows that those who are black, indigenous, and people of color (BIPOC) bear the brunt of this risk; however, missing data on race/ethnicity from federal, state, and local agencies impedes nuanced understanding of health disparities. In this commentary, we summarize the link between racism and COVID-19 disparities and the extent of missing data on race/ethnicity in critical COVID-19 reporting. In addition, we provide an overview of the current literature on missing demographic data in the US and hypothesize how racism contributes to nonresponse in health reporting broadly. Finally, we argue that health departments and healthcare systems must engage communities of color to co-develop race/ethnicity data collection processes as part of a comprehensive strategy for achieving health equity.

No Justice and No Peace: The Ongoing Traumatic Stress of Families Bereaved by Law Enforcement

While the American public is increasingly waking up to the pervasiveness of police violence, the family-level impacts of police killings are severely understudied. This study partnered with families bereaved by police to explore how interactions with law enforcement before and after the killing impacted their psychological wellbeing. Eleven in-depth, semi-structured interviews were conducted with relatives of men of color killed by police. Interviews were analyzed using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis and organized into two domains with five themes. The first domain (The Victim's Treatment by Police) describes the lost loved one's history with law enforcement, his killing, and the immediate aftermath of the death. The second domain (The Bereaved Family's Experience of Law Enforcement) explores the family's treatment by police subsequent to the death, how participants understood the role of racism, and how they interpreted their children's view of law enforcement. Participants reported that the pain of their violent loss was compounded by traumatic experiences with law enforcement before and after the killing. The majority saw this treatment as racialized and noted a profound impact on their children's sense of safety around police. Clinical implications include the imperative to integrate psychological services with legal services, material support, and community building.

A systematic review on the effects of social discrimination on telomere length

Discrimination is unfair treatment against a certain group based on race, age, gender, sexual orientation, or other social identities. Discrimination is pervasive in society, elevates psychosocial stress, and is associated with negative mental and physical health outcomes. However, more research is needed to understand the biological mechanisms underlying discrimination-related health disparities. Telomere science may contribute to elucidate some of these aspects. Telomeres are protein-DNA complexes that shorten after cell division and are valuable markers of cellular aging. Short telomeres have been associated with the onset of age-related diseases. Evidence shows that chronic psychological stress may accelerate telomere shortening. Since discrimination can lead to psychological strain with cumulative impact on general health, we hypothesized that groups that report more discrimination show reduced telomere length (TL) as a consequence of psychosocial stress elevation. Through a systematic review of the literature we found 12 articles that met our criteria. Eligible studies measured racial, gender, unfair policing, and multiple forms of discrimination in association with TL. Our review showed mixed results, suggesting that there is weak evidence of a main association between discrimination and TL. However, discrimination may interact with several variables (such as depressive symptoms, acculturation, higher socioeconomic status, internalization of negative racial bias, and not discussing discrimination experiences with others) and contribute to shorten telomeres. Discrimination is a complex social construct composed of a vast sum of experiences, impressions, and contexts that in combination with other sources of stress may have an impact on TL. Telomeres may be a plausible pathway to investigate health discrepancies in discriminated groups in society, but more evidence is needed to investigate the potential harm of discrimination on cells.

Interpersonal-level discrimination indices, sociodemographic factors, and telomere length in African-Americans and Whites

OBJECTIVE

Studies have linked self-reported discrimination to telomere attrition, a biological marker of accelerated cellular aging. However, it is unknown whether intersections between social categories-race, socioeconomic status (SES), sex, and age-influence the association of varying forms of discrimination with telomere length. We examined these associations in a socioeconomically and racially/ethnically diverse urban sample.

METHODS

Cross-sectional data were from 341 middle-aged (30-64 years) African American and White, community participants in the Healthy Aging in Neighborhoods of Diversity across the Life Span Study (HANDLS). Multiple regression models examined up to 3-way interactions between a discrimination measure (i.e., everyday, racial, gender, lifetime burden, and frequency of discrimination across sources) and two social categories.

RESULTS

After adjusting for depressive symptoms, waist circumference, and lifetime substance use, two themes emerged: 1) among women with higher SES, a) greater lifetime discrimination burden (b = -0.23, p =  .011), gender discrimination (b = -0.29, p =  .040), and racial discrimination (b = -0.24, p = 0.023) and 2) among younger adults, irrespective of race and sex, greater frequency of discrimination across sources (b = 0.002, p =  .008) was associated with shorter telomeres.

CONCLUSIONS

Irrespective of race, women with higher SES and younger adults reporting greater discrimination may be at particular risk for accelerated aging. Telomere attrition promotes and accelerates chronic health conditions for which there are health disparities. Future research explicating intersections among specific discrimination indices and social categories is warranted.