Old and new concepts of species differentiation inAspergillus

The role of food preservatives in shaping metabolic profile and chemical sensitivity of fungi - an extensive study on crucial mycological food contaminants from the genus Neosartorya (Aspergillus spp.)

Food preservatives are crucial in fruit production, but fungal resistance is a challenge. The main objective was to compare the sensitivity of Neosartorya spp. isolates to preservatives used in food security applications and to assess the role of metabolic properties in shaping Neosartorya spp. resistance. Sodium metabisulfite, potassium sorbate, sodium bisulfite and sorbic acid showed inhibitory effects, with sodium metabisulfite the most effective. Tested metabolic profiles included fungal growth intensity and utilization of amines and amides, amino acids, polymers, carbohydrates and carboxylic acids. Significant decreases in the utilization of all tested organic compound guilds were observed after fungal exposure to food preservatives compared to the control. Although the current investigation was limited in the number of predominately carbohydrate substrates and the breadth of metabolic responses, extensive sensitivity panels are logical step in establishing a course of action against spoilage agents in food production being important approach for innovative food chemistry.

Molecular and aflatoxigenicity analyses of Aspergillus flavus isolates indigenous to grain corn in Malaysia; potentials for biological control

AIMS

The present work aimed to distinguish the indigenous Aspergillus flavus isolates obtained from the first (pioneer) grain corn farms in Terengganu, Malaysia, into aflatoxigenic and non-aflatoxigenic by molecular and aflatoxigenicity analyses, and determine the antagonistic capability of the non-aflatoxigenic isolates against aflatoxigenic counterparts and their aflatoxin production in vitro.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Seven A. flavus isolates previously obtained from the farms were characterized molecularly and chemically. All isolates were examined for the presence of seven aflatoxin biosynthesis genes, and their aflatoxigenicity was confirmed using high performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detector. Phylogenetic relationships of all isolates were tested using ITS and β-tubulin genes. Of the seven isolates, two were non-aflatoxigenic, while the remaining were aflatoxigenic based on the presence of all aflatoxin biosynthesis genes tested and the productions of aflatoxins B1 and B2. All isolates were also confirmed as A. flavus following phylogenetic analysis. The indigenous non-aflatoxigenic isolates were further examined for their antagonistic potential against aflatoxigenic isolates on 3% grain corn agar. Both non-aflatoxigenic isolates significantly reduced AFB1 production of the aflatoxigenic isolates.

CONCLUSION

The indigenous non-aflatoxigenic A. flavus strains identified in the present work were effective in controlling the aflatoxin production by the aflatoxigenic A. flavus isolates in vitro and can be utilized for in situ testing.

Molecular Analysis for Potential Hospital-Acquired Infection Caused by Aspergillus Tubingensis Through the Environment

The identification of Aspergillus species has been performed mainly by morphological classification. In recent years, however, the revelation of the existence of cryptic species has required genetic analysis for accurate identification. The purpose of this study was to investigate five Aspergillus section Nigri strains isolated from a patient and the environment in a university hospital. Species identification by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-time-of-flight mass spectrometry identified all five black Aspergillus strains as Aspergillus niger. However, calmodulin gene sequence analysis revealed that all five strains were cryptic species, four of which, including the clinical strain, were Aspergillus tubingensis. Hospital-acquired infection of the patient with the A. tubingensis strain introduced from the environment was suspected, but sequencing of six genes from four A. tubingensis strains revealed no environmental strain that completely matched the patient strain. The amount of in vitro biofilm formation of the four examples of the A. tubingensis strain was comparable to that of Aspergillus fumigatus. An extracellular matrix was observed by electron microscopy of the biofilm of the clinical strain. This study suggests that various types of biofilm-forming A. tubingensis exist in the hospital environment and that appropriate environmental management is required.

Virulence capacity of different Aspergillus species from invasive pulmonary aspergillosis

Introduction

The opportunistic filamentous fungus Aspergillus causes invasive pulmonary aspergillosis (IPA) that often turns into a fatal infection in immunocompromised hosts. However, the virulence capacity of different Aspergillus species and host inflammation induced by different species in IPA are not well understood.

Methods

In the present study, host inflammation, antimicrobial susceptibilities and virulence were compared among clinical Aspergillus strains isolated from IPA patients.

Results

A total of 46 strains were isolated from 45 patients with the invasive infection, of which 35 patients were diagnosed as IPA. Aspergillus flavus was the dominant etiological agent appearing in 25 cases (54.3%). We found that the CRP level and leukocyte counts (elevated neutrophilic granulocytes and monocytes, and reduced lymphocytes) were significantly different in IPA patients when compared with healthy individuals (P < 0.05). Antifungal susceptibilities of these Aspergillus isolates from IPA showed that 91%, 31%, 14%, and 14% were resistant to Fluconazole, Micafungin, Amphotericin B and Terbinafine, respectively. The survival rate of larvae infected by A. flavus was lower than larvae infected by A. niger or A. fumigatus (P < 0.05).

Discussion

Aspergillus flavus was the dominant clinical etiological agent. Given the prevalence of A. flavus in our local clinical settings, we may face greater challenges when treating IPA patients.

Soil-Borne Neosartorya spp.: A Heat-Resistant Fungal Threat to Horticulture and Food Production-An Important Component of the Root-Associated Microbial Community

Soil-borne Neosartorya spp. are the highly resilient sexual reproductive stage (teleomorph) of Aspergillus spp. Fungi of this genus are relevant components of root-associated microbial community, but they can also excrete mycotoxins and exhibit great resistance to high temperatures. Their ascospores easily transfer between soil and crops; thus, Neosartorya poses a danger to horticulture and food production, especially to the postharvest quality of fruits and vegetables. The spores are known to cause spoilage, mainly in raw fruit produce, juices, and pulps, despite undergoing pasteurization. However, these fungi can also participate in carbon transformation and sequestration, as well as plant protection in drought conditions. Many species have been identified and included in the genus, and yet some of them create taxonomical controversy due to their high similarity. This also contributes to Neosartorya spp. being easily mistaken for its anamorph, resulting in uncertain data within many studies. The review discusses also the factors shaping Neosartorya spp.'s resistance to temperature, preservatives, chemicals, and natural plant extracts, as well as presenting novel solutions to problems created by its resilient nature.

Selection of Polymorphic Patterns Obtained by RAPD-PCR through Qualitative and Quantitative Analyses to Differentiate Aspergillus fumigatus

The objective of this work was to use the random amplification of the polymorphic DNA–polymerase chain reaction (RAPD-PCR) technique to select polymorphic patterns through qualitative and quantitative analyses to differentiate the species A. flavus, A. fumigatus, A. niger and A. tubingensis. Twenty-seven Aspergillus isolates from different species were typified using phenotypic (macro- and micromorphology) and genotypic (partial BenA gene sequencing) methods. Thirty-four primers were used to obtain polymorphic patterns, and with these a qualitative analysis was performed to select the primers that presented species-specific patterns to distinguish each species. For the quantitative selection, a database was built from the polymorphic patterns and used for the construction of logistic regression models; later, the model that presented the highest value of sensitivity against specificity was evaluated through ROC curves. The qualitative selection showed that the primers OPA-19, P54, 1253 and OPA-02 could differentiate the species. A quantitative analysis was carried out through logistic regression, whereby a species-specific correlation of sensitivity and specificity greater than 90% was obtained for the primers: OPC-06 with a 96.32% match to A. flavus; OPF-01 with a 100% match to A. fumigatus; OPG-13 with a 98.01% match to A. tubingensis; and OPF-07 with a 99.71% match to A. niger. The primer OPF-01 discriminated the four species as well as closely related species. The quantitative methods using the selected primers allowed discrimination between species and showed their usefulness for genotyping some of the species of medical relevance belonging to the genus Aspergillus.

Substantive Morphological Descriptions, Phylogenetic Analysis and Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms of Aspergillus Species From Foeniculum vulgare

Ascomycetous fungi are found associated with a wide variety of substrates which range from fresh water to marine ecosystems, tropical to temperate forest soils and deserts, throughout the world over. These demystifying fungi exist as endophytes, pathogens and saprobes. They have been studied due to their ability to contaminate foods and feedstuffs, causing an elaboration of mycotoxins. The objectives of the study included extensive analyses of the morphological features of fungi, especially Aspergilli, which have been presented while studying them on specific mycological media. It is also an elaborate compilation of substantive macro- and micro-morphological characterization of different Aspergilli isolated from the spice Foeniculum vulgare used in India and other countries in the world. Further, a first of its kind attempt has been made to study their relative abundance and frequency of occurrence, molecular phylogeny and genetic relatedness to characterize the Aspergilli into specific sections, groups and clades. Single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) analysis was carried out to evaluate the functional consequences of nucleotide variations, synonymous and non-synonymous mutations in the protein structure. The study resulted in a total of 3,506 Aspergillus isolates, which were obtained from seventy (70) fennel samples, representing 14 Aspergillus species. The two most frequently found species were A. niger and A. flavus with a relative abundance of 32.24 and 11.63%, respectively. The taxonomy and current placements have been reappraised with suggestions and prospects for future research from six sections namely Terrei, Flavi, Fumigati, Nidulantes, Nigri, and Versicolores. In addition, a total number of 27 isolates were studied and deposited at the National Centre for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) and five Aspergillus species have been identified and are being reported for the first time from the fennel seeds, based on partial sequence analysis of the official fungal barcode namely, Internal Transcribed Spacer (ITS) and a functional gene, beta tubulin gene locus, coupled with phenotypic characterization. SNPs for specific DNA regions have been used to identify variants in Aspergilli obtained from Indian fennel seeds for the first time. The need for a polyphasic approach of morphological identification and genetic characterization of Aspergilli from Foeniculum vulgare is addressed and presented here in adequate detail. Our current work makes extensive use of partial beta-tubulin gene sequences analyses to evaluate the association between SNPs in five Aspergillus species sections.

Antifungal and physicochemical properties of Ocimum essential oil loaded in poly(lactic acid) nanofibers

Poly(lactic acid) (PLA) nanofibers containing different proportions of the essential oils from Ocimum basilicum L. and Ocimum gratissimum L. were prepared by the solution blow spinning method. The essential oils were extracted by hydrodistillation and characterized by gas chromatography. MEV, contact angle, DSC, and FTIR were used to characterize the nanofibers. The effect of bioative nanofibers on the growth of the fungus and on the production of ochratoxin A were evaluated using the fumigation test. Linalool, 1.8-cineole and camphor were the principal components of the essential oil from O. basilicum, and eugenol was the principal constituent in the oil from O. gratissimum. An increase in the average diameter of the nanofibers was observed with the addition of the essential oils. The essential oils acted as a plasticizer, resulting in a reduction in the crystallinity of the PLA. The encapsulation of essential oils in PLA nanofibers was verified by FTIR. An effective antifungal and antimicotoxygenic activity against Aspergillus ochraceus and Aspergillus westerdjikiae was observed for the bioative nanofibers. These results confirm the potential of PLA nanofibers containing the essential oils for the control of toxigenic fungi that cause the deterioration of food and are harmful to human health.

Ochratoxin A in Slaughtered Pigs and Pork Products

Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a mycotoxin that is produced after the growth of several Aspergillus and Penicillium spp. in feeds or foods. OTA has been proved to possess nephrotoxic, hepatotoxic, teratogenic, neurotoxic, genotoxic, carcinogenic and immunotoxic effects in animals and humans. OTA has been classified as possibly carcinogenic to humans (Group 2B) by the IARC in 2016. OTA can be mainly found in animals as a result of indirect transmission from naturally contaminated feed. OTA found in feed can also contaminate pigs and produced pork products. Additionally, the presence of OTA in pork meat products could be derived from the direct growth of OTA-producing fungi or the addition of contaminated materials such as contaminated spices. Studies accomplished in various countries have revealed that pork meat and pork meat products are important sources of chronic dietary exposure to OTA in humans. Various levels of OTA have been found in pork meat from slaughtered pigs in many countries, while OTA levels were particularly high in the blood serum and kidneys of pigs. Pork products made from pig blood or organs such as the kidney or liver have been often found to becontaminated with OTA. The European Union (EU) has established maximum levels (ML) for OTA in a variety of foods since 2006, but not for meat or pork products. However, the establishement of an ML for OTA in pork meat and meat by-products is necessary to protect human health.

Filamentous fungi occurrence on Molossus molossus (Pallas, 1766) (Chiroptera: Molossidae) present in an Atlantic Forest remnant in Southern Brazil

The bats usually inhabit shelters with favorable conditions for fungal proliferation, including pathogenic and opportunistic species. The fungal diversity present on bats is little known and the studies are scarce in Brazil, which only a work has been performed in Cerrado and Pantanal biomes. Therefore, the objective of this study was evaluating the occurrence of filamentous fungi on the rostral region of Molossus molossus in an Atlantic Forest remnant of Brazil. The bats were captured with mist nets installed outside a shelter located in the municipality of Treviso, (28°29'23"S and 49°31'23"W), south region of state Santa Catarina. With a swab sterile moistened in saline solution, samples from the rostral region were obtained from all captured M. molossus individuals. The samples were taken to the laboratory for analysis and isolation in different culture media, followed of identification of fungal through the microculture technique. In total, 15 individuals were captured, which five fungal genus and 19 taxa were identified. Among the taxa registered, Aspergillioides sp.2, (47%), Penicillium sp.1 (33%), Chrysonilia sp. (33%), Cladosporium sp. (27%) were classified as little constant. In terms of abundance, Penicillium sp.1 (34%), Aspergillioides sp.2 (21%) and Aspergillus sp.2 (11%) were the most abundant in the samples. The results showed the occurrence of high diversity fungal in the rostral region of M. molossus in the Atlantic Forest, which is higher than observed in others Brazilian biomes. Some fungal genera found may harbor pathogenic and opportunistic species that need to be identified for preventing potential disease well as for bat conservation projects.

Morpho-biochemical and molecular characterization of two new strains of Aspergillus fumigatus nHF-01 and A. fumigatus PPR-01 producing broad-spectrum antimicrobial compounds

The main objective of the study is to characterize two new strains of Aspergillus fumigatus through morphometric, biochemical, molecular methods, and to evaluate their antimicrobial potentiality. The micro-morphotaxonomy, growth, and metabolic behavior of the strains, nHF-01 and PPR-01, were studied in different growth conditions and compared with standard strain. The molecular characterization was done by sequencing the ncrDNA ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 and D1-D2 domains of the nc 28S rDNA region and compared with a secondary structure-based phylogenetic tree. The secretory antimicrobials and pigments were characterized by TLC, UV-Vis, and FT-IR spectroscopy. Both the strains showed distinct growth patterns in different nutritional media and could assimilate a wide range of carbohydrates with distinctive biochemical properties. The molecular characterization revealed the strains, nHF-01 and PPR-01, as Aspergillus fumigatus (GenBank Accession No. MN190286 and MN190284, respectively). It was observed that the strain nHF-01 produces red to brownish pigments having mild antimicrobial activity while the strain PPR-01 does not represent such transformations. The extractable compounds had a significant antimicrobial potentiality against the human pathogenic bacteria. From this analysis, it can be concluded that the nHF-01 and PPR-01 strains are distinct from other A. fumigatus by their unique characters. Large-scale production and detailed molecular elucidation of the antimicrobial compounds may lead to the discovery of new antimicrobial compounds from these strains.

Effect of a Debaryomyces hansenii and Lactobacillus buchneri Starter Culture on Aspergillus westerdijkiae Ochratoxin A Production and Growth during the Manufacture of Short Seasoned Dry-Cured Ham

Recently, specific dry-cured hams have started to be produced in San Daniele and Parma areas. The ingredients are similar to protected denomination of origin (PDO) produced in San Daniele or Parma areas, and include pork leg, coming from pigs bred in the Italian peninsula, salt and spices. However, these specific new products cannot be marked as a PDO, either San Daniele or Parma dry cured ham, because they are seasoned for 6 months, and the mark PDO is given only to products seasoned over 13 months. Consequently, these products are called short-seasoned dry-cured ham (SSDCH) and are not branded PDO. During their seasoning period, particularly from the first drying until the end of the seasoning period, many molds, including Eurotium spp. and Penicillium spp., can grow on the surface and work together with other molds and tissue enzymes to produce a unique aroma. Both of these strains typically predominate over other molds. However, molds producing ochratoxins, such as Aspergillus ochraceus and Penicillium nordicum, can simultaneously grow and produce ochratoxin A (OTA). Consequently, these dry-cured hams may represent a potential health risk for consumers. Recently, Aspergillus westerdijkiae has been isolated from SSDCHs, which could represent a potential problem for consumers. Therefore, the aim of this study was to inhibit A. westerdijkiae using Debaryomyces hansenii or Lactobacillus buchneri or a mix of both microorganisms. Six D. hansenii and six L. buchneri strains were tested in vitro for their ability to inhibit A. westerdijkiae. The strains D. hansenii (DIAL)1 and L. buchneri (Lb)4 demonstrated the highest inhibitory activity and were selected for in situ tests. The strains were inoculated or co-inoculated on fresh pork legs for SSDCH production with OTA-producing A. westerdijkiae prior to the first drying and seasoning. At the end of seasoning (six months), OTA was not detected in the SSDCH treated with both microorganisms and their combination. Because both strains did not adversely affect the SSDCH odor or flavor, the combination of these strains are proposed for use as starters to inhibit OTA-producing A. westerdijkiae.

Phylogenetic diversity and prevalence of mycoflora in ready-to-eat supermarket and roadside-vended peanuts

Little is known of the mycobiota present in ready-to-eat peanuts consumed in Southern Africa. Knowledge of the mycobiota and aflatoxigenic species can elucidate potential health risks associated with consumption of ready-to-eat peanuts sold by supermarkets and roadside vendors. We investigated the culturable mycobiota diversity in supermarket and roadside-vended peanuts as well as the presence of five aflatoxin biosynthesis pathway-related genes (aflR, aflJ, aflM, aflD, and aflP) in 15 suspected aflatoxigenic isolates, with a focus on Mafikeng, South Africa. Mean colony-forming unit (CFU) counts of 288.7 and 619.7 CFU/g were observed in supermarket and roadside-vended peanuts, respectively. A total of 145 fungal isolates comprising 26 distinct taxa (based on 97% internal transcribed spacer region [ITS1-5.8S-ITS2] sequence similarity) were obtained, including strains representing Aspergillus, Acremonium, Alternaria, Bipolaris, Chaetomium, Ectophoma, Epicoccum, Hamigera, Leancillium, Monascus, Penicillium, Periconia, Talaromyces, and Trichoderma. Phylogenetic analyses of concatenated sequences of the ITS1-5.8S-ITS2, β-tubulin, and calmodulin genes delineated the species of Aspergillus, which included A. flavus, A. fumigatus, A. hiratsukae, A. niger, and A. parasiticus. Higher species richness was obtained from supermarket peanuts compared with roadside-vended peanuts, with eight species common to both sources. Across supermarket or roadside-vended peanuts, A. fumigatus, A. niger, and A. flavus were prevalent (>40% incidence). In contrast, strains related to or representing Ectophoma multirostata, Aspergillus hiratsukae, Bipolaris zeae, Chaetomium bostrychodes, Epicoccum nigrum, Hamigera paravellanea, Lecanicillium aphanocladii, Monascus ruber, Periconia macrospinosa, Periconia lateralis, Talaromyces funiculosus, Talaromyces minioluteus, Talaromyces wortmannii, Talaromyces spp., and Trichoderma sp. were detected in either supermarket or roadside-vended peanuts. Among the five aflatoxin biosynthesis pathway-related genes, aflD and aflM were more prevalent (87%) and aflR was the least prevalent (40%). Findings suggest that roasted peanuts meant for human consumption and sold at supermarkets and by roadside vendors are contaminated with potential toxin-producing fungi. Hence, proper processing and packaging of peanuts before vending is recommended.

Farming System Effect on the Incidence of Aspergillus carbonarius on Kotsifali Grapes and Ochratoxin A Occurrence in Wines of Crete

ABSTRACT

During grape cultivation and wine production, the most effective way to prevent ochratoxin A (OTA) contamination of grapes and wine is to control ochratoxigenic fungal species, especially Aspergillus carbonarius, using appropriate cultivation techniques. In this study, the influence of an organic farming system (OFS) and an integrated farming system (IFS) on the incidence of A. carbonarius on grapes, and OTA contamination of wine, were examined. Mycological analysis of grapes collected from Kotsifali cultivar (Vitis vinifera L.) vineyards and grown under two farming systems (OFS and IFS) was performed over two growing seasons. For the same two growing seasons, OTA levels of representative wine samples from wineries located in the same area, made from the same cultivar (single varietal or covinificated with Mandilari), and grown under the two farming systems were determined. The results showed that the farming system had a significant influence on the incidence of A. carbonarius, with IFS being the most effective in the control of the fungus and the prevention of OTA occurrence in wine. This knowledge could offer viticulturists a useful tool to produce safer grapes, giving winemakers an incentive to make low-OTA wine.

HIGHLIGHTS

A 9-Year Experience of Aspergillus Infections from Isfahan, Iran

Purpose

Aspergillosis is an important fungal disease affecting millions of individuals worldwide. The genus of Aspergillus consist of various complexes, causing a wide spectrum of diseases from superficial infections in immunocompetent hosts to life-threatening disseminated infections among immunocompromised patients. This study aimed to identify Aspergillus species by phenotypic (total isolates) and molecular tests (35 isolates), obtained from patients in Isfahan (the third-largest city of Iran) between 2010 and 2018, and determine the susceptibility of 35 clinical isolates to itraconazole (ITR), amphotericin-B (AMB), and voriconazole (VOR).

Patients and Methods

Based on clinical signs, a total of 2385 suspected cases were included in this retrospective study from January 2010 to December 2018. Direct microscopic examination with potassium hydroxide, sabouraud dextrose agar with chloramphenicol, and czapekdox agar media was applied to identify etiologic agents. Thirty-five Aspergillus species collected from January 2016 to December 2018 were identified by PCR-sequencing of ITS1-5.8SrDNA-ITS2 region, and their susceptibility to ITR, AMB, and VOR was determined using E-test.

Results

Based on direct microscopy and positive culture, 132 out of 2385 suspected cases had Aspergillus infection (5.5%). Fifty-four patients were male, and 78 patients were female. Patients in the age groups of 41–50 and 21–30 years had the highest and lowest frequencies, respectively. Aspergillus flavus/oryzae (n=54), A. fumigatus (n=24), A. niger (n=15), and A. terreus (n=12) were the most prevalent Aspergillus species, respectively. Among 35 Aspergillus species, the MIC ranges of AMB, ITR, and VOR for A. flavus/oryzae, A. niger, and A. terreus were (0.5–4 μg/mL; 0.5–16 μg/mL; 0.25–8 μg/mL), (1 μg/mL, 1 μg/mL, 1 μg/mL), and (4–4 μg/mL, 0.5–1 μg/mL, 0.5–1 μg/mL), respectively.

Conclusion

Aspergillus infections have a wide spectrum of clinical manifestations and often occur in immunocompromised patients. Accurate identification at the species level is essential since the emergence of cryptic species is connected to different patterns of AFST that affect patient treatment outcomes. Azole-resistant Aspergillus spp. is a global concern, and the detection of the route of resistance is pivotal to prevent and control infection.

Diversity of Fungi in Soils with Different Degrees of Degradation in Germany and Panama

Soil degradation can have an impact on the soil microbiota, but its specific effects on soil fungal communities are poorly understood. In this work, we studied the impact of soil degradation on the richness and diversity of communities of soil fungi, including three different degrees of degradation in Germany and Panama. Soil fungi were isolated monthly using the soil-sprinkling method for 8 months in Germany and 3 months in Panama, and characterized by morphological and molecular data. Soil physico-chemical properties were measured and correlated with the observed values of fungal diversity. We isolated a total of 71 fungal species, 47 from Germany, and 32 from Panama. Soil properties were not associated with fungal richness, diversity, or composition in soils, with the exception of soil compaction in Germany. The geographic location was a strong determinant of the soil fungal species composition although in both countries there was dominance by members of the orders Eurotiales and Hypocreales. In conclusion, the results of this work do not show any evident influence of soil degradation on communities of soil fungi in Germany or Panama.

Aspergillus section Flavi and Aflatoxins: Occurrence, Detection, and Identification in Raw Peanuts and Peanut-Based Products Along the Supply Chain

Aflatoxin contamination in foods is a global concern as they are carcinogenic, teratogenic and mutagenic compounds. The aflatoxin-producing fungi, mainly from the Aspergillus section Flavi, are ubiquitous in nature and readily contaminate various food commodities, thereby affecting human's health. The incidence of aflatoxigenic Aspergillus spp. and aflatoxins in various types of food, especially raw peanuts and peanut-based products along the supply chain has been a concern particularly in countries having tropical and sub-tropical climate, including Malaysia. These climatic conditions naturally support the growth of Aspergillus section Flavi, especially A. flavus, particularly when raw peanuts and peanut-based products are stored under inappropriate conditions. Peanut supply chain generally consists of several major stakeholders which include the producers, collectors, exporters, importers, manufacturers, retailers and finally, the consumers. A thorough examination of the processes along the supply chain reveals that Aspergillus section Flavi and aflatoxins could occur at any step along the chain, from farm to table. Thus, this review aims to give an overview on the prevalence of Aspergillus section Flavi and the occurrence of aflatoxins in raw peanuts and peanut-based products, the impact of aflatoxins on global trade, and aflatoxin management in peanuts with a special focus on peanut supply chain in Malaysia. Furthermore, aflatoxin detection and quantification methods as well as the identification of Aspergillus section Flavi are also reviewed herein. This review could help to shed light to the researchers, peanut stakeholders and consumers on the risk of aflatoxin contamination in peanuts along the supply chain.

Molecular Characterisation of Aflatoxigenic and Non-Aflatoxigenic Strains of Aspergillus Section Flavi Isolated from Imported Peanuts along the Supply Chain in Malaysia

Peanuts are widely consumed in many local dishes in southeast Asian countries, especially in Malaysia which is one of the major peanut-importing countries in this region. Therefore, Aspergillus spp. and aflatoxin contamination in peanuts during storage are becoming major concerns due to the tropical weather in this region that favours the growth of aflatoxigenic fungi. The present study thus aimed to molecularly identify and characterise the Aspergillus section Flavi isolated from imported peanuts in Malaysia. The internal transcribed spacer (ITS) and β-tubulin sequences were used to confirm the species and determine the phylogenetic relationship among the isolates, while aflatoxin biosynthesis genes (aflR, aflP (omtA), aflD (nor-1), aflM (ver-1), and pksA) were targeted in a multiplex PCR to determine the toxigenic potential. A total of 76 and one isolates were confirmed as A. flavus and A. tamarii, respectively. The Maximum Likelihood (ML) phylogenetic tree resolved the species into two different clades in which all A. flavus (both aflatoxigenic and non-aflatoxigenic) were grouped in the same clade and A. tamarii was grouped in a different clade. The aflatoxin biosynthesis genes were detected in all aflatoxigenic A. flavus while the non-aflatoxigenic A. flavus failed to amplify at least one of the genes. The results indicated that both aflatoxigenic and non-aflatoxigenic A. flavus could survive in imported peanuts and, thus, appropriate storage conditions preferably with low temperature should be considered to avoid the re-emergence of aflatoxigenic A. flavus and the subsequent aflatoxin production in peanuts during storage.

Wood volatiles as attractants of the confused flour beetle, Tribolium confusum (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae)

Confused flour beetles are serious pests of stored grain products, and therefore, it is important to efficiently monitor and control their populations. Aggregation pheromones are commercially used for monitoring this beetle but their efficacy has been questioned and they may be inadequate for practical use. Food attractants as well as pheromones are commonly used for monitoring stored-product insects. However, food attractants may not be effective in the case of food handling facilities, which are already filled with food odours. The ancestors of flour beetles may have been associated with dead or decomposing woody vegetation, so we investigated the attractiveness of several wood odours to beetles using a pitfall olfactometer. The beetles were strongly attracted to all wood odours tested: Castanea crenata, Magnolia obovata, Paulownia tomentosa, Prunus jamasakura, and Zelkova serrata. The attractiveness of these wood odours was also stronger than that of the odours of the usual food of these beetles. Supercritical CO2 extracts of these species of wood were also attractive to the beetles. The Z. serrata extract was the most attractive among these extracts, and was further analysed by gas chromatography mass spectrometry. One major compound, (-)-mellein, was detected in the extract. Synthetic (±)-mellein attracted the beetles.

Taxonomy of Aspergillus section Flavi and their production of aflatoxins, ochratoxins and other mycotoxins

Aflatoxins and ochratoxins are among the most important mycotoxins of all and producers of both types of mycotoxins are present in Aspergillus section Flavi, albeit never in the same species. Some of the most efficient producers of aflatoxins and ochratoxins have not been described yet. Using a polyphasic approach combining phenotype, physiology, sequence and extrolite data, we describe here eight new species in section Flavi. Phylogenetically, section Flavi is split in eight clades and the section currently contains 33 species. Two species only produce aflatoxin B1 and B2 (A. pseudotamarii and A. togoensis), and 14 species are able to produce aflatoxin B1, B2, G1 and G2: three newly described species A. aflatoxiformans, A. austwickii and A. cerealis in addition to A. arachidicola, A. minisclerotigenes, A. mottae, A. luteovirescens (formerly A. bombycis), A. nomius, A. novoparasiticus, A. parasiticus, A. pseudocaelatus, A. pseudonomius, A. sergii and A. transmontanensis. It is generally accepted that A. flavus is unable to produce type G aflatoxins, but here we report on Korean strains that also produce aflatoxin G1 and G2. One strain of A. bertholletius can produce the immediate aflatoxin precursor 3-O-methylsterigmatocystin, and one strain of Aspergillus sojae and two strains of Aspergillus alliaceus produced versicolorins. Strains of the domesticated forms of A. flavus and A. parasiticus, A. oryzae and A. sojae, respectively, lost their ability to produce aflatoxins, and from the remaining phylogenetically closely related species (belonging to the A. flavus-, A. tamarii-, A. bertholletius- and A. nomius-clades), only A. caelatus, A. subflavus and A. tamarii are unable to produce aflatoxins. With exception of A. togoensis in the A. coremiiformis-clade, all species in the phylogenetically more distant clades (A. alliaceus-, A. coremiiformis-, A. leporis- and A. avenaceus-clade) are unable to produce aflatoxins. Three out of the four species in the A. alliaceus-clade can produce the mycotoxin ochratoxin A: A. alliaceus s. str. and two new species described here as A. neoalliaceus and A. vandermerwei. Eight species produced the mycotoxin tenuazonic acid: A. bertholletius, A. caelatus, A. luteovirescens, A. nomius, A. pseudocaelatus, A. pseudonomius, A. pseudotamarii and A. tamarii while the related mycotoxin cyclopiazonic acid was produced by 13 species: A. aflatoxiformans, A. austwickii, A. bertholletius, A. cerealis, A. flavus, A. minisclerotigenes, A. mottae, A. oryzae, A. pipericola, A. pseudocaelatus, A. pseudotamarii, A. sergii and A. tamarii. Furthermore, A. hancockii produced speradine A, a compound related to cyclopiazonic acid. Selected A. aflatoxiformans, A. austwickii, A. cerealis, A. flavus, A. minisclerotigenes, A. pipericola and A. sergii strains produced small sclerotia containing the mycotoxin aflatrem. Kojic acid has been found in all species in section Flavi, except A. avenaceus and A. coremiiformis. Only six species in the section did not produce any known mycotoxins: A. aspearensis, A. coremiiformis, A. lanosus, A. leporis, A. sojae and A. subflavus. An overview of other small molecule extrolites produced in Aspergillus section Flavi is given.

Identification of clinical isolates of Aspergillus, including cryptic species, by matrix assisted laser desorption ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS)

An expanded library of matrix assisted laser desorption ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) has been constructed using the spectra generated from 42 clinical isolates and 11 reference strains, including 23 different species from 8 sections (16 cryptic plus 7 noncryptic species). Out of a total of 379 strains of Aspergillus isolated from clinical samples, 179 strains were selected to be identified by sequencing of beta-tubulin or calmodulin genes. Protein spectra of 53 strains, cultured in liquid medium, were used to construct an in-house reference database in the MALDI-TOF MS. One hundred ninety strains (179 clinical isolates previously identified by sequencing and the 11 reference strains), cultured on solid medium, were blindy analyzed by the MALDI-TOF MS technology to validate the generated in-house reference database. A 100% correlation was obtained with both identification methods, gene sequencing and MALDI-TOF MS, and no discordant identification was obtained. The HUVR database provided species level (score of ≥2.0) identification in 165 isolates (86.84%) and for the remaining 25 (13.16%) a genus level identification (score between 1.7 and 2.0) was obtained. The routine MALDI-TOF MS analysis with the new database, was then challenged with 200 Aspergillus clinical isolates grown on solid medium in a prospective evaluation. A species identification was obtained in 191 strains (95.5%), and only nine strains (4.5%) could not be identified at the species level. Among the 200 strains, A. tubingensis was the only cryptic species identified. We demonstrated the feasibility and usefulness of the new HUVR database in MALDI-TOF MS by the use of a standardized procedure for the identification of Aspergillus clinical isolates, including cryptic species, grown either on solid or liquid media.

Inhibitory effect of vitamin C on Aspergillus parasiticus growth and aflatoxin gene expression

Background and Purpose:

Aflatoxin is known as one of the most important mycotoxins threatening human life. This toxin is produced by Aspergillus species, which is the common cause of agricultural product contamination. The use of organic compounds has been always considered for the inhibition of fungal growth and toxin production. Regarding this, the aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of vitamin C on the rate of fungal growth, aflR gene expression, and toxin production.

Materials and Methods:

For the purpose of the study, first, Aspergillus parasiticus ATCC15517 was cultured in Sabouraud dextrose agar medium containing vitamin C at concentrations of 200, 100, 50, 25, 12.5, 6.25, and 3.1 mg/ml and temperature of 28°C for 72 h. Then, the amount of aflatoxin produced in the presence of vitamin C was measured through high performance liquid chromatography. Finally, by extracting the DNA of the cultured samples, the aflR gene expression level was evaluated by means of real-time polymerase chain reaction at different concentrations of vitamin C.

Results:

The results showed that mycelium deformation was started at the vitamin C concentration of 50 mg/ml, and that only fungal spores were observed at higher concentrations. The levels of total aflatoxin and its subsets, namely B₁, B₂, G₁, and G₂, in the presence of vitamin C were estimated as 5.9, 1.9, 0.2, 3.5, and 0.3 ppm, respectively. On the other hand, these values were respectively obtained as 207.5, 73.6, 4.5, 123.4, and 6 ppm in the absence of vitamin C. Measurement of the expression level of aflR genes showed that the level of gene expression decreased to 68% and up to 81% at the vitamin C concentrations of 25 and 50 mg/ml, respectively.

Conclusion:

This study showed that vitamin C, as a human-compatible compound, could be considered a good agent to protect agricultural products against fungal aflatoxin.

Prevalence and in vitro antifungal susceptibility of cryptic species of the genus Aspergillus isolated in clinical samples

INTRODUCTION

The genus Aspergillus contains more than 300 species, which are divided into closely related groups called sections. Molecular studies have revealed numerous cryptic species within different sections of this genus, which have different profiles of antifungal susceptibility and lack diagnostic morphological features. However, there are few studies on the prevalence and in vitro antifungal susceptibility of the cryptic species of this genus. The aim of this study was to investigate the distribution of Aspergillus spp. among clinical samples, and to study their in vitro susceptibility to different antifungal drugs.

METHOD

Over a period of 2-years (2014-2015), a total of 379 strains of the genus Aspergillus were isolated. Most of the isolates were classified as respiratory colonizations; no cases of invasive aspergillosis were found. The strains were identified by MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry, and susceptibility testing was performed by the EUCAST reference procedure.

RESULTS

Twenty species belonging to 8 sections were identified, being A. fumigatus the most prevalent (44.1%). The prevalence of cryptic species was 15.3%, with a clear predominance of A. tubingensis. Among the tested antifungal drugs, amphotericin B was the less active in vitro, followed by triazole drugs and echinocandins. The cryptic species had minimun inhibitory concentrations (MICs) higher than the corresponding type species.

CONCLUSIONS

Accurate identification of the genus Aspergillus at the species level and in vitro antifungal susceptibility testing are necessary because, as it has been shown, some species of this genus may show resistance profiles against available antifungal drugs.

Polyphasic approach to the identification and characterization of aflatoxigenic strains of Aspergillus section Flavi isolated from peanuts and peanut-based products marketed in Malaysia

Peanuts are widely consumed as the main ingredient in many local dishes in Malaysia. However, the tropical climate in Malaysia (high temperature and humidity) favours the growth of fungi from Aspergillus section Flavi, especially during storage. Most of the species from this section, such as A. flavus, A. parasiticus and A. nomius, are natural producers of aflatoxins. Precise identification of local isolates and information regarding their ability to produce aflatoxins are very important to evaluate the safety of food marketed in Malaysia. Therefore, this study aimed to identify and characterize the aflatoxigenic and non-aflatoxigenic strains of Aspergillus section Flavi in peanuts and peanut-based products. A polyphasic approach, consisting of morphological and chemical characterizations was applied to 128 isolates originating from raw peanuts and peanut-based products. On the basis of morphological characters, 127 positively identified as Aspergillus flavus, and the other as A. nomius. Chemical characterization revealed six chemotype profiles which indicates diversity of toxigenic potential. About 58.6%, 68.5%, and 100% of the isolates are positive for aflatoxins, cyclopiazonic acid and aspergillic acid productions respectively. The majority of the isolates originating from raw peanut samples (64.8%) were aflatoxigenic, while those from peanut-based products were less toxigenic (39.1%). The precise identification of these species may help in developing control strategies for aflatoxigenic fungi and aflatoxin contamination in peanuts, especially during storage. These findings also highlight the possibility of the co-occurrence of other toxins, which could increase the potential toxic effects of peanuts.

First Clinical Isolation of an Azole-Resistant Aspergillus fumigatus Isolate Harboring a TR46 Y121F T289A Mutation in South America

One of the most recently described Aspergillus fumigatusCYP51A-mediated azole resistance mechanisms is TR46 Y121F T289A. Clinical A. fumigatus strains harboring these substitutions have been reported worldwide, with the exception of South America. We describe the first clinical A. fumigatus strain with this resistance mechanism isolated from an Argentinian patient. The strain was isolated in 2009 (1 year after the first-described mutant in United States), demonstrating that these alleles were scattered worldwide earlier than previously thought.

Differentiation and quantification of the ochratoxin A producers Aspergillus ochraceus and Aspergillus westerdijkiae using PCR-DGGE

Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a nephrotoxic, teratogenic, immunotoxic, and carcinogenic mycotoxin which is produced in tropical zones mainly by Aspergillus carbonarius, A. niger, A. ochraceus, and A. westerdijkiae. A. ochraceus and A. westerdijkiae species are phenotypically and genomically very close but A. westerdijkiae produce OTA at a very higher level than A. ochraceus. These species have been differentiated recently. The DNA primer pairs which were drawn so far are not specific and a genomic region of the same size is amplified for both species or they are too specific, and in this case, the DNA of a single species is amplified. To help preventing OTA contamination of foodstuffs, the PCR-DGGE (Denaturing Gradient Gel Electrophoresis) method was used to discriminate between A. ochraceus and A. westerdijkiae DNA fragments of the same size but with different sequences and thus faster access to a diagnosis of the toxigenic potential of the fungal microflora. The proposed methodology was able to differentiate A. westerdijkiae from A. ochraceus with only one primer pairs in a single run. A calibration based on initial DNA content was obtained from image analysis of the DGGE gels and a method of quantification of the two strains was proposed.

LAMP-based group specific detection of aflatoxin producers within Aspergillus section Flavi in food raw materials, spices, and dried fruit using neutral red for visible-light signal detection

Aflatoxins can be produced by 21 species within sections Flavi (16 species), Ochraceorosei (2), and Nidulantes (3) of the fungal genus Aspergillus. They pose risks to human and animal health due to high toxicity and carcinogenicity. Detecting aflatoxin producers can help to assess toxicological risks associated with contaminated commodities. Species specific molecular assays (PCR and LAMP) are available for detection of major producers, but fail to detect species of minor importance. To enable rapid and sensitive detection of several aflatoxin producing species in a single analysis, a nor1 gene-specific LAMP assay was developed. Specificity testing showed that among 128 fungal species from 28 genera, 15 aflatoxigenic species in section Flavi were detected, including synonyms of A. flavus and A. parasiticus. No cross reactions were found with other tested species. The detection limit of the assay was 9.03pg of A. parasiticus genomic DNA per reaction. Visual detection of positive LAMP reactions under daylight conditions was facilitated using neutral red to allow unambiguous distinction between positive and negative assay results. Application of the assay to the detection of A. parasiticus conidia revealed a detection limit of 211 conidia per reaction after minimal sample preparation. The usefulness of the assay was demonstrated in the analysis of aflatoxinogenic species in samples of rice, nuts, raisins, dried figs, as well as powdered spices. Comparison of LAMP results with presence/absence of aflatoxins and aflatoxin producing fungi in 50 rice samples showed good correlation between these parameters. Our study suggests that the developed LAMP assay is a rapid, sensitive and user-friendly tool for surveillance and quality control in our food industry.

Rapid Identification of Aspergillus Fumigatus Using Βeta-Tubulin and RodletA Genes

AIM:

The main purpose of the present study was to test the β-tubulin and rodletA genes for rapid identification of Aspergillus fumigatus.

MATERIALS AND METHODS:

Fifty-one A. fumigatus strains including environmental, clinical and reference isolates were tested in this research. PCR was carried out based on βtub and rodA partial gene sequences.

RESULTS:

A 198 bp DNA fragment was obtained using βtub gene. PCR amplification of the rodA gene resulted in a 313 bp band. The βtub and rodA genes PCR products exhibited a 100% homology with the associated sequences in the GenBank.

CONCLUSION:

In the present study, we used a PCR approach that was able to discriminate A. fumigatus from other related species within the section Fumigati.

Characterization of the translation elongation factor 1-α gene in a wide range of pathogenic Aspergillus species

PURPOSE

We aimed to evaluate the resolving power of the translation elongation factor (TEF)-1α gene for phylogenetic analysis of Aspergillus species.

METHODOLOGY

Sequences of 526 bp representing the coding region of the TEF-1α gene were used for the assessment of levels of intra- and inter-specific nucleotide polymorphism in 33 species of Aspergillus, including 57 reference, clinical and environmental strains.

RESULTS

Analysis of TEF-1α sequences indicated a mean similarity of 92.6 % between the species, with inter-species diversity ranging from 0 to 70 nucleotides. The species with the closest resemblance were A. candidus/A. carneus, and A. flavus/A. oryzae/A. ochraceus, with 100 and 99.8 % identification, respectively. These species are phylogenetically very close and the TEF-1α gene appears not to have sufficient discriminatory power to differentiate them. Meanwhile, intra-species differences were found within strains of A. clavatus, A. clavatonanicus, A. candidus, A. fumigatus, A. terreus, A. alliaceus, A. flavus, Eurotium amstelodami and E. chevalieri. The tree topology with strongly supported clades (≥70 % bootstrap values) was almost compatible with the phylogeny inferred from analysis of the DNA sequences of the beta tubulin gene (BT2). However, the backbone of the tree exhibited low bootstrap values, and inter-species correlations were not obvious in some clades; for example, tree topologies based on BT2 and TEF-1α genes were incompatible for some species, such as A. deflectus, A. janus and A. penicillioides.

CONCLUSION

The gene was not phylogenetically more informative than other known molecular markers. It will be necessary to test other genes or larger genomic regions to better understand the taxonomy of this important group of fungi.

Multilocus Phylogeny and Antifungal Susceptibility of Aspergillus Section Circumdati from Clinical Samples and Description of A. pseudosclerotiorum sp. nov

A multilocus phylogenetic study was carried out to assess species identity of a set of 34 clinical isolates from Aspergillus section Circumdati from the United States and to determine their in vitro antifungal susceptibility against eight antifungal drugs. The genetic markers used were the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region, and fragments of the beta-tubulin (BenA), calmodulin (CaM), and RNA polymerase II second largest subunit (RPB2) genes. The drugs tested were amphotericin B, itraconazole, posaconazole, voriconazole, anidulafungin, caspofungin, micafungin, and terbinafine. The most common species sampled was A. westerdijkiae (29.4%), followed by a novel species, which was described here as A. pseudosclerotiorum (23.5%). Other species identified were A. sclerotiorum (17.6%), A. ochraceus (8.8%), A. subramanianii (8.8%), and A. insulicola and A. ochraceopetaliformis, with two isolates (5.9%) of each. The drugs that showed the most potent activity were caspofungin, micafungin, and terbinafine, while amphotericin B showed the least activity.

Microbial Transformation of Epiandrosterone by Aspergillus Sydowii

Incubation of epiandrosterone with Aspergillus sydowii MRC 200653 afforded ten metabolites. The fungal dehydrogenation of epiandrosterone is reported for the first time. The formation of the major metabolite, 6β-hydroxyandrost-4-ene-3,17-dione, involved first dehydrogenation to give a 4-ene and then hydroxylation at C-6β. Small amounts of the substrate were hydroxylated at C-1α, C-7α, C-7β and C-11α.

The Biotransformation of Some Steroids by Aspergillus Sydowii MRC 200653

The incubation of testosterone, dehydroepiandrosterone, progesterone and pregnenolone with Aspergillus sydowii MRC 200653 is reported. Testosterone was mainly hydroxylated at C-6β and to a minor extent at C-14α and C −15α. Most of dehydroepiandrosterone was metabolised by a 3β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase/Δ5-Δ4 isomerase activity and then hydroxylated at C-6β. The remaining dehydroepiandrosterone was only hydroxylated at C-7β or C-7α. Both progesterone and pregnenolone were mainly hydroxylated at C-11α and C-15β and to a minor extent at C-6β and C-7β. The same metabolites were recovered from both biotransformations.

Extrolites of Aspergillus fumigatus and Other Pathogenic Species in Aspergillus Section Fumigati

Aspergillus fumigatus is an important opportunistic human pathogen known for its production of a large array of extrolites. Up to 63 species have been described in Aspergillus section Fumigati, some of which have also been reliably reported to be pathogenic, including A. felis, A. fischeri, A. fumigatiaffinis, A. fumisynnematus, A. hiratsukae, A. laciniosus, A. lentulus, A. novofumigatus, A. parafelis, A. pseudofelis, A. pseudoviridinutans, A. spinosus, A. thermomutatus, and A. udagawae. These species share the production of hydrophobins, melanins, and siderophores and ability to grow well at 37°C, but they only share some small molecule extrolites, that could be important factors in pathogenicity. According to the literature gliotoxin and other exometabolites can be contributing factors to pathogenicity, but these exometabolites are apparently not produced by all pathogenic species. It is our hypothesis that species unable to produce some of these metabolites can produce proxy-exometabolites that may serve the same function. We tabulate all exometabolites reported from species in Aspergillus section Fumigati and by comparing the profile of those extrolites, suggest that those producing many different kinds of exometabolites are potential opportunistic pathogens. The exometabolite data also suggest that the profile of exometabolites are highly specific and can be used for identification of these closely related species.

Post endodontic Aspergillosis in an immunocompetent individual

Non-invasive aspergillosis in immunocompetent individuals subsequent to post endodontic treatment can involve the maxillary antrum. An early and accurate diagnosis will aid in prompt and effective treatment. A 35 year old female patient reported with a painful nasomaxillary swelling. Previous records revealed the failure of the endodontic treatment of maxillary left second premolar which was subsequently extracted. Root piece was accidently left behind which resulted in a painful nasomaxillary swelling. The extraction socket was curetted and tissue was sent for histopathological examination, which revealed abundant septate fungal hyphae with numerous spores characteristic of Aspergillus. The patient showed marked improvement in the symptoms with systemic itraconazole at 3 months follow up and complete resolution occurred within 6 months. Inclusion of aspergilloma infections in the differential diagnosis is advocated when patients present with post-endodontic nasomaxillary swelling.

Key words:Aspergillosis, fungal sinusitis, post root canal treatment.

Biotransformation of Some Steroids by Aspergillus Candidus

The biotransformation of dehydroepiandrosterone, progesterone and pregnenolone by Aspergillus candidus MRC 200634 for 5 days is reported. Dehydroepiandrosterone was hydroxylated at C-6β, C-7β, C-7α, C-11α and C-15α. The 17-ketone was reduced to the 17β-alcohol whilst ring A of dehydroepiandrosterone was oxidised to a 4-en-3-one moiety. Progesterone was mainly hydroxylated at C-11α and C-15β and to a lesser extent at C-14α. Pregnenolone gave the same metabolites.

Aspergillus in endodontic infection near the maxillary sinus

Introduction

Diseases of the maxillary sinus have been associated with dental roots near the maxillary sinus that have undergone endodontic treatment.

Objective

To investigate the presence of filamentous fungi in patients with dental roots near the maxillary sinus who had apical periodontitis treated endodontically, and to alert practitioners that this could be a possible avenue of contamination of the sinus in patients who develop maxillary sinus infection.

Methods

Cross-sectional study in 60 palatal roots of the first maxillary molars near the maxillary sinus, that underwent endodontic treatment for apical periodontitis. After removal of the filling material, dentin shavings were collected and placed in test tubes containing Sabouraud dextrose agar and chloramphenicol. The phenotype was determined by macroscopic and microscopic examination of the colonies. For polymerase chain reaction, the primers ITS-5 and ITS-4 were used. The sequences obtained were compared with those deposited at GenBank using the Basic Local Alignment Search Tool program.

Results

Filamentous fungi were isolated from 6 of 60 canals (10%): Aspergillus niger (6.7%), Aspergillus versicolor (1.6%), and Aspergillus fumigatus (1.6%).

Conclusion

Root canals near the maxillary sinus with endodontic treatment and apical periodontitis may exhibit positive cultures for filamentous fungi. Interested professionals should be alert, because these microorganisms have pathogenic characteristics that can cause disease of odontogenic origin in the maxillary sinus.

Early invasive pulmonary aspergillosis in a kidney transplant recipient caused by Aspergillus lentulus: first Brazilian report

We report the first Brazilian case of pulmonary invasive aspergillosis caused by Aspergillus lentulus, a new opportunistic Aspergillus species included in the section fumigati that is usually resistant to amphotericin B and azoles.

The potential hazards of Aspergillus sp. in foods and feeds, and the role of biological treatment: a review

The contamination of food and feed by Aspergillus has become a global issue with a significant worldwide economic impact. The growth of Aspergillus is unfavourable to the development of food and feed industries, where the problems happen mostly due to the presence of mycotoxins, which is a toxic metabolite secreted by most Aspergillus groups. Moreover, fungi can produce spores that cause diseases, such as allergies and asthma, especially to human beings. High temperature, high moisture, retarded crops, and poor food storage conditions encourage the growth of mold, as well as the development of mycotoxins. A variety of chemical, biological, and physical strategies have been developed to control the production of mycotoxins. A biological approach, using a mixed culture comprised of Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Lactobacillus rhamnosus resulted in the inhibition of the growth of fungi when inoculated into fermented food. The results reveal that the mixed culture has a higher potential (37.08%) to inhibit the growth of Aspergillus flavus (producer of Aflatoxin) compared to either single culture, L. rhamnosus NRRL B-442 and S. cerevisiae, which inhibit the growth by 63.07% and 64.24%, respectively.