Real-world cost-effectiveness of stool-based colorectal cancer screening in a Medicare population

Health Economic Evaluations of Circulating Tumor DNA Testing for Cancer Screening: Systematic Review

BACKGROUND

Cancer detection remains a significant global healthcare challenge, and circulating tumor DNA (ctDNA) is a biomarker for noninvasive cancer screening.

OBJECTIVE

This systematic review aimed to describe health economic evaluations of ctDNA for cancer screening.

METHODS

A comprehensive literature search was performed (following PRISMA guidelines) across MEDLINE, Embase, APA PsycINFO, Cochrane Library, Web of Science, and the Center for Review and Dissemination. The review included full-scale health economic analyses such as cost-effectiveness, cost-utility, cost-benefit, and cost-consequence analyses. The quality of the included reports was assessed using CHEERS 2022 standards, and each report was categorized as excellent, very good, good, or insufficient.

RESULTS

Eighteen studies were selected, including four ctDNA tests (EBV-DNA, cf-DNA, mSEPT9, and mt-sDNA) for three types of cancer screening: nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) (2; 11.11%), breast cancer (BC) (1; 5.56%), and colorectal cancer (CRC) (15; 83.33%). Five studies (27.78%) found ctDNA cost-effective for CRC screening (mt-sDNA (with higher uptake than conventional tests) versus fecal immunochemical testing (FIT) or colonoscopy (n = 4); mSEPT9 versus computed tomography colonoscopy (CTC) (n = 1)). Thirteen studies (72.22%) found ctDNA not cost-effective for NPC (EBV-DNA versus no screening (n = 2)); BC (cf-DNA versus conventional testing (n = 1)); CRC (mSEPT9 versus FIT or colonoscopy (n = 2)); mt-sDNA versus FIT or colonoscopy (n = 5); mSEPT9 or mt-sDNA versus conventional tests (n = 3)). The CHEERS assessment found all reports in the "very good" category.

CONCLUSION

All ctDNA tests were generally not cost-effective comparing to conventional screening methods, except when the mt-sDNA uptake was higher than the comparators or when mSEPT9 was compared with CTC.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

CRD42023477732.

Diagnostic accuracy of the faecal immunochemical test and volatile organic compound analysis in detecting colorectal polyps: meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

For the early detection of colorectal cancer, it is important to identify the premalignant lesions to prevent cancer development. Non-invasive testing methods such as the faecal immunochemical test are well established for the screening and triage of patients with suspected colorectal cancer but are not routinely used for polyps. Additionally, the role of volatile organic compounds has been tested for cancer detection. The aim of this review was to determine the diagnostic accuracy of the faecal immunochemical test and volatile organic compounds in detecting colorectal polyps.

METHODS

Original articles with diagnostic test accuracy measures for both the faecal immunochemical test and volatile organic compounds for advanced adenomas were included. Four databases including Medical Literature Analysis and Retrieval System Online (MEDLINE), Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature (CINAHL), Embase, and Web of Science were searched. The quality assessment tool for diagnostic accuracy study was used to assess the risk of bias and applicability. Meta-analysis was performed using RStudio® and the combined faecal immunochemical test-volatile organic compounds sensitivity and specificity were computed.

RESULTS

Twenty-two faecal immunochemical tests and 12 volatile organic compound-related articles were included in the systematic review whilst 18 faecal immunochemical tests and eight volatile organic compound-related studies qualified for the meta-analysis. The estimated pooled sensitivity and specificity of the faecal immunochemical test to diagnose advanced adenoma(s) were 36% (95% c.i. 30 to 41) and 89% (95% c.i. 86 to 91) respectively, with an area under the curve of 0.65, whilst volatile organic compounds pooled sensitivity and specificity was 83% (95% c.i. 70 to 91) and 76% (95% c.i. 60 to 87) respectively, with an area under the curve of 0.84. The combined faecal immunochemical test-volatile organic compounds increased the sensitivity to 89% with a specificity of 67%.

CONCLUSION

Faecal immunochemical testing has a higher specificity but poor sensitivity for detecting advanced adenomas, while volatile organic compound analysis is more sensitive. The combination of both tests enhances the detection rate of advanced adenomas.

Projected Colorectal Cancer Incidence and Mortality Based on Observed Adherence to Colonoscopy and Sequential Stool-Based Screening

INTRODUCTION

Modeling supporting recommendations for colonoscopy and stool-based colorectal cancer (CRC) screening tests assumes 100% sequential participant adherence. The impact of observed adherence on the long-term effectiveness of screening is unknown. We evaluated the effectiveness of a program of screening colonoscopy every 10 years vs annual high-sensitivity guaiac-based fecal occult blood testing (HSgFOBT) using observed sequential adherence data.

METHODS

The MIcrosimulation SCreening ANalysis (MISCAN) model used observed sequential screening adherence, HSgFOBT positivity, and diagnostic colonoscopy adherence in HSgFOBT-positive individuals from the National Colonoscopy Study (single-screening colonoscopy vs ≥4 HSgFOBT sequential rounds). We compared CRC incidence and mortality over 15 years with no screening or 10 yearly screening colonoscopy vs annual HSgFOBT with 100% and differential observed adherence from the trial.

RESULTS

Without screening, simulated incidence and mortality over 15 years were 20.9 (95% probability interval 15.8-26.9) and 6.9 (5.0-9.2) per 1,000 participants, respectively. In the case of 100% adherence, only screening colonoscopy was predicted to result in lower incidence; however, both tests lowered simulated mortality to a similar level (2.1 [1.6-2.9] for screening colonoscopy and 2.5 [1.8-3.4] for HSgFOBT). Observed adherence for screening colonoscopy (83.6%) was higher than observed sequential HSgFOBT adherence (73.1% first round; 49.1% by round 4), resulting in lower simulated incidence and mortality for screening colonoscopy (14.4 [10.8-18.5] and 2.9 [2.1-3.9], respectively) than HSgFOBT (20.8 [15.8-28.1] and 3.9 [2.9-5.4], respectively), despite a 91% adherence to diagnostic colonoscopy with FOBT positivity. The relative risk of CRC mortality for screening colonoscopy vs HSgFOBT was 0.75 (95% probability interval 0.68-0.80). Findings were similar in sensitivity analyses with alternative assumptions for repeat colonoscopy, test performance, risk, age, and projection horizon.

DISCUSSION

Where sequential adherence to stool-based screening is suboptimal and colonoscopy is accessible and acceptable-as observed in the national colonoscopy study, microsimulation, comparative effectiveness, screening recommendations.

Estimated impact and value of blood-based colorectal cancer screening at varied adherence compared with stool-based screening

OBJECTIVE

This analysis estimated the outcomes of triennial blood-based colorectal cancer (CRC) screening at various adherence, including perfect adherence, compared with triennial multi-target stool DNA (mt-sDNA) screening at the reported real-world adherence rate.

METHODS

The validated CRC-AIM model simulated a US cohort of average-risk individuals receiving triennial screening with mt-sDNA or blood-based test from ages 45 to 75 years. Modeled specificity and sensitivity were based on reported data. Adherence was set at a real-world rate of 65.6% for mt-sDNA and at 65.6%, relative 10% incremental increases from 65.6%, or 100% for the blood-based test. Costs of mt-sDNA and the blood-based test were based on prices for clinically available tests ($508.87 and $895, respectively). Value-based pricing was estimated at a willingness-to-pay threshold of $100,000.

RESULTS

Both tests resulted in life-years gained (LYG), reduced CRC cases, and reduced deaths versus no screening. With adherence for mt-sDNA set at 65.6% and for blood-based test set at 100%, mt-sDNA resulted in 30% more LYG, 52% more averted CRC cases, and 32% more averted CRC deaths. At reported sensitivity and specificity rates, mt-sDNA at 65.6% adherence dominates (is more effective and less costly) the blood-based test at any adherence. There was no price at which triennial screening with the blood-based test at any adherence was cost-effective compared with mt-sDNA at 65.6% adherence.

CONCLUSIONS

Triennial screening with mt-sDNA resulted in better clinical outcomes at a lower cost compared with the modeled blood-based test even at perfect adherence, supporting application of blood-based tests only as a secondary screening option.

Population health outcomes of blood-based screening for colorectal cancer in comparison to current screening modalities: insights from a discrete-event simulation model incorporating longitudinal adherence

AIM

Insufficient adherence to colorectal cancer (CRC) screening impedes individual and population health benefits, with about one-third of individuals non-adherent to available screening options. The impact of poor adherence is inadequately considered in most health economics models, limiting the evaluation of real-world population-level screening outcomes. This study introduces the CAN-SCREEN (Colorectal cANcer SCReening Economics and adherENce) model, utilizing real-world adherence scenarios to assess the effectiveness of a blood-based test (BBT) compared to existing strategies.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The CAN-SCREEN model evaluates various CRC screening strategies per 1,000 screened individuals for ages 45-75. Adherence is modeled in two ways: (1) full adherence and (2) longitudinally declining adherence. BBT performance is based on recent pivotal trial data while existing strategies are informed using literature. The full adherence model is calibrated using previously published Cancer Intervention and Surveillance Modeling Network (CISNET) models. Outcomes, including life-years gained (LYG), CRC cases averted, CRC deaths averted, and colonoscopies, are compared to no screening.

RESULTS

Longitudinal adherence modeling reveals differences in the relative ordering of health outcomes and resource utilization, as measured by the number of colonoscopies performed per 1,000, between screening modalities. BBT outperforms the fecal immunochemical test (FIT) and the multitarget stool DNA (mtsDNA) test with more CRC deaths averted (13) compared to FIT and mtsDNA (7, 11), more CRC cases averted (27 vs. 16, 22) and higher LYG (214 vs. 157, 199). BBT yields fewer CRC deaths averted compared to colonoscopy (13, 15) but requires fewer colonoscopies (1,053 vs. 1,928).

LIMITATIONS

Due to limited data, the CAN-SCREEN model with longitudinal adherence leverages evidence-informed assumptions for the natural history and real-world longitudinal adherence to screening.

CONCLUSIONS

The CAN-SCREEN model demonstrates that amongst non-invasive CRC screening strategies, those with higher adherence yield more favorable health outcomes as measured by CRC deaths averted, CRC cases averted, and LYG.

Performance of different colorectal cancer screening strategies: a long-term passive follow-up population-based screening program in Beijing, China

BACKGROUND

We aimed to assess the performance of the risk assessment questionnaire and fecal immunochemical test (FIT) in a population-based colorectal cancer (CRC) screening program to provide timely evidence for tailored screening strategies in China.

METHODS

This analysis was conducted using data from Beijing Cancer Screening Prospective Cohort Study (BCSPCS). A risk assessment questionnaire and FIT were selected as the primary screening methods, and participants with any positive results were referred to undergo a diagnostic colonoscopy.

RESULTS

From 2015 to 2020, 148,636 Beijing residents aged 40-69 years were invited from designated communities, with 147,807 finishing the risk assessment questionnaire and 115,606 (78.2%) completing the FIT. Among the 42,969 (29.1%) high-risk CRC participants, 23,824 (55.4%) underwent colonoscopy. One year after enrollment, all subjects were linked to the Beijing Cancer Registry (BCR) database and 241 cases of CRC were confirmed. The CRC incidence rate was 58.2/100,000 for the low-risk arm and 418.9/100,000 for the high-risk arm. For participants who underwent colonoscopy, 91 CRC cases were detected, with a detection rate of 91.9% and 63.7% of them were early-stage cases. Furthermore, the sensitivities of utilizing the risk assessment questionnaire alone, FIT alone, combined risk assessment questionnaire and FIT were 75.7%, 50.1%, and 95.1%, and the specificities were 75.3%, 87.3%, and 70.7%, respectively.

CONCLUSION

The Beijing CRC screening program can effectively detect early-onset CRC; however, the compliance with colonoscopy still needs to be improved.

Colorectal cancer screening: The role of MT-sDNA testing

ABSTRACT

Because an estimated 10.5% of new colorectal cancer (CRC) cases occur in patients under age 50 years, the US Preventive Services Task Force in 2021 recommended CRC screening for adults ages 45 to 49 years. The prevalence of up-to-date CRC screening with any recommended test among patients age 45 years and older in the United States is only 59% in 2023, indicating that existing screening practices are ineffective. Screening options now include invasive and noninvasive measures. Multi-target stool DNA (MT-sDNA) testing is a simple, low-risk, noninvasive test that provides excellent sensitivity and specificity, is cost-effective, and may increase patient screening rates. CRC screening guideline recommendations and alternative screening methods may help improve patient outcomes and reduce morbidity and mortality. This article describes MT-sDNA testing, its effectiveness, recommended use, and potential expanding role as a screening option.

Effectiveness of Colorectal Cancer (CRC) Screening on All-Cause and CRC-Specific Mortality Reduction: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

(1) Background: The aim of this study was to pool and compare all-cause and colorectal cancer (CRC) specific mortality reduction of CRC screening in randomized control trials (RCTs) and simulation models, and to determine factors that influence screening effectiveness. (2) Methods: PubMed, Embase, Web of Science and Cochrane library were searched for eligible studies. Multi-use simulation models or RCTs that compared the mortality of CRC screening with no screening in general population were included. CRC-specific and all-cause mortality rate ratios and 95% confidence intervals were calculated by a bivariate random model. (3) Results: 10 RCTs and 47 model studies were retrieved. The pooled CRC-specific mortality rate ratios in RCTs were 0.88 (0.80, 0.96) and 0.76 (0.68, 0.84) for guaiac-based fecal occult blood tests (gFOBT) and single flexible sigmoidoscopy (FS) screening, respectively. For the model studies, the rate ratios were 0.45 (0.39, 0.51) for biennial fecal immunochemical tests (FIT), 0.31 (0.28, 0.34) for biennial gFOBT, 0.61 (0.53, 0.72) for single FS, 0.27 (0.21, 0.35) for 10-yearly colonoscopy, and 0.35 (0.29, 0.42) for 5-yearly FS. The CRC-specific mortality reduction of gFOBT increased with higher adherence in both studies (RCT: 0.78 (0.68, 0.89) vs. 0.92 (0.87, 0.98), model: 0.30 (0.28, 0.33) vs. 0.92 (0.51, 1.63)). Model studies showed a 0.62-1.1% all-cause mortality reduction with single FS screening. (4) Conclusions: Based on RCTs and model studies, biennial FIT/gFOBT, single and 5-yearly FS, and 10-yearly colonoscopy screening significantly reduces CRC-specific mortality. The model estimates are much higher than in RCTs, because the simulated biennial gFOBT assumes higher adherence. The effectiveness of screening increases at younger screening initiation ages and higher adherences.

Colorectal cancer statistics, 2023

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is the second most common cause of cancer death in the United States. Every 3 years, the American Cancer Society provides an update of CRC statistics based on incidence from population-based cancer registries and mortality from the National Center for Health Statistics. In 2023, approximately 153,020 individuals will be diagnosed with CRC and 52,550 will die from the disease, including 19,550 cases and 3750 deaths in individuals younger than 50 years. The decline in CRC incidence slowed from 3%-4% annually during the 2000s to 1% annually during 2011-2019, driven partly by an increase in individuals younger than 55 years of 1%-2% annually since the mid-1990s. Consequently, the proportion of cases among those younger than 55 years increased from 11% in 1995 to 20% in 2019. Incidence since circa 2010 increased in those younger than 65 years for regional-stage disease by about 2%-3% annually and for distant-stage disease by 0.5%-3% annually, reversing the overall shift to earlier stage diagnosis that occurred during 1995 through 2005. For example, 60% of all new cases were advanced in 2019 versus 52% in the mid-2000s and 57% in 1995, before widespread screening. There is also a shift to left-sided tumors, with the proportion of rectal cancer increasing from 27% in 1995 to 31% in 2019. CRC mortality declined by 2% annually from 2011-2020 overall but increased by 0.5%-3% annually in individuals younger than 50 years and in Native Americans younger than 65 years. In summary, despite continued overall declines, CRC is rapidly shifting to diagnosis at a younger age, at a more advanced stage, and in the left colon/rectum. Progress against CRC could be accelerated by uncovering the etiology of rising incidence in generations born since 1950 and increasing access to high-quality screening and treatment among all populations, especially Native Americans.

Cost-Effectiveness of Waiving Coinsurance for Follow-Up Colonoscopy after a Positive Stool-Based Colorectal Screening Test in a Medicare Population

Commercial insurance covers a follow-up colonoscopy after a positive colorectal cancer-screening test with no patient cost-sharing. Instituting a similar policy for Medicare beneficiaries may increase screening adherence and improve outcomes. The cost-effectiveness of stool-based colorectal cancer screening was compared across adherence scenarios that assumed Medicare coinsurance status quo (20% for follow-up colonoscopy) or waived coinsurance. The CRC-AIM model simulated previously unscreened eligible Medicare beneficiaries undergoing stool-based colorectal cancer screening at age 65 for 10 years. Medicare costs, colorectal cancer cases, colorectal cancer-related deaths, life-years gained (LYG), and quality-adjusted life-years (QALY) were estimated versus no screening. Scenario 1 (S1) assumed 20% coinsurance for follow-up colonoscopy. Scenario 2 (S2) assumed waived coinsurance without adherence changes. Scenarios 3-7 (S3-S7) assumed that waiving coinsurance increased real-world stool-based screening and/or follow-up colonoscopy adherence by 5% or 10%. Sensitivity analyses assumed 1%-4% increased adherence. Cost-effectiveness threshold was ≤$100,000/QALY. Waiving coinsurance without adherence changes (S2) did not affect outcomes versus S1. S3-S7 versus S1 over 10 years estimated up to 3.6 fewer colorectal cancer cases/1,000 individuals, up to 2.1 fewer colorectal cancer deaths, up to 20.7 more LYG, and had comparable total costs per-patient (≤$6,478 vs. $6,449, respectively) as reduced colorectal cancer medical costs offset increased screening and colonoscopy costs. In sensitivity analyses, any increase in adherence after waiving coinsurance was cost-effective and increased LYG. In simulated Medicare beneficiaries, waiving coinsurance for follow-up colonoscopy after a positive stool-based test improved outcomes and was cost-effective when assumed to modestly increase colorectal cancer screening and/or follow-up colonoscopy adherence.

PREVENTION RELEVANCE

Follow-up colonoscopy after a positive stool-based test is necessary to complete the colorectal cancer-screening process. This analysis demonstrated that in a simulated Medicare population, waiving coinsurance for a follow-up colonoscopy improved estimated outcomes and was cost-effective when it was assumed that waiving the coinsurance modestly increased screening adherence. See related Spotlight, p. 641.

Cost-Effectiveness of Outreach Strategies for Stool-Based Colorectal Cancer Screening in a Medicaid Population

Outreach, including patient navigation, has been shown to increase the uptake of colorectal cancer (CRC) screening in underserved populations. This analysis evaluates the cost-effectiveness of triennial multi-target stool DNA (mt-sDNA) versus outreach, with or without a mailed annual fecal immunochemical test (FIT), in a Medicaid population. A microsimulation model estimated the incremental cost-effectiveness ratio using quality-adjusted life years (QALY), direct costs, and clinical outcomes in a cohort of Medicaid beneficiaries aged 50-64 years, over a lifetime time horizon. The base case model explored scenarios of either 100% adherence or real-world reported adherence (51.3% for mt-sDNA, 21.1% for outreach with FIT and 12.3% for outreach without FIT) with or without real-world adherence for follow-up colonoscopy (66.7% for all). Costs and outcomes were discounted at 3.0%. At 100% adherence to both screening tests and follow-up colonoscopy, mt-sDNA costed more and was less effective compared with outreach with or without FIT. When real-world adherence rates were considered for screening strategies (with 100% adherence for follow-up colonoscopy), mt-sDNA resulted in the greatest reduction in incidence and mortality from CRC (41.5% and 45.8%, respectively) compared with outreach with or without FIT; mt-sDNA also was cost-effective versus outreach with and without FIT ($32,150/QALY and $22,707/QALY, respectively). mt-sDNA remained cost-effective versus FIT, with or without outreach, under real-world adherence rates for follow-up colonoscopy. Outreach or navigation interventions, with associated real-world adherence rates to screening tests, should be considered when evaluating the cost-effectiveness of CRC screening strategies in underserved populations.