Gambling and gambling problem among elite athletes and their professional coaches: findings from a Swedish total population survey of participants in four sports

Gambling Habits and Attitudes among Athlete and Non-Athlete High School Students in Skåne Region, Sweden

Previous literature has reported increased rates of gambling problems in athletes compared to non-athletes. More liberal gambling-related attitudes have been suggested as a reason, although this rarely has been researched. The present study aimed to examine gambling experience, gambling problems, and gambling-related attitudes and parental gambling experience in high school students, comparing student-athletes to students at conventional schools. This is a cross-sectional web survey study in high school students (N = 473, 53% at sports high schools, 57% male) at eleven schools in the Skåne region, Sweden, who answered a web survey addressed gambling experiences, parental gambling and gambling-related attitudes, and included validated screening instruments for gambling problems and psychological distress. A history of any gambling was common and increased with age. Problem gambling was detected in 10% (13% of males and 5% of females, p < .001), and was associated with paternal and maternal gambling but not with psychological distress. Sports high school students were not more likely (9%) than other students (10%) to endorse gambling problems and history of each gambling type. However, paternal (but not maternal) gambling was more commonly reported in athletes, who also had more positive attitudes to gambling's effects on society and gambling availability. In contrast to other studies, this study did not demonstrate higher prevalence of gambling or gambling problems among young athletes than among other students, but liberal attitudes towards gambling, and experience of parental gambling on the father's side, were more common among athletes than among non-athletes. Gambling attitudes in adolescents may need to be targeted in future preventive efforts in young athletes and others.

The Mental Health of Elite-Level Coaches: A Systematic Scoping Review

BACKGROUND

Elite-level coaches are exposed to multiple performance, organisational and personal stressors which may contribute to reduced mental health and wellbeing. This systematic scoping review examined the current body of evidence to explore what is known about the mental health of elite-level coaches (i.e. wellbeing and mental ill-health), the risk and protective factors that influence coach mental health, and the relationship between mental health and coaching effectiveness.

METHODS

The review adhered to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) guidelines. A systematic search was undertaken and updated in September 2022 using six electronic databases.

RESULTS

12,376 studies were identified and screened, with 42 studies satisfying the inclusion criteria. Despite the paucity of high-quality research, findings indicated that 40% of the included studies examined themes connected to wellbeing, with 76% assessing the nature or prevalence of mental ill-health in elite-level coaches. Among studies exploring mental ill-health, coach burnout was the primary focus, while scant research examined symptoms associated with clinical disorders (e.g. anxiety and depression). Overall, psychological outcomes for elite-level coaches were shaped by risk and protective factors operating at the individual, interpersonal, organisational and societal level. Preliminary evidence was also found to suggest that poor mental health may contribute to reduced coaching effectiveness. It is proposed that coaching effectiveness could therefore be employed as a 'hook' to engage elite-level coaches in greater consideration of their mental health needs.

CONCLUSION

Alongside the development of methodologically robust research, there is a need to examine dynamic individual (e.g. psychological skills), interpersonal (e.g. strong social supports) and organisational (e.g. workload) factors that aim to preserve the mental health and optimise the efficacy of elite-level coaches.

Young male athletes at risk for problem gambling: Findings from a cross-sectional study in Sweden

Previous research has shown that male athletes at the elite level in Sweden have a higher proportion of gambling problems than the average male population in the country. However, there is a knowledge gap in the prevalence of gambling problems among young athletes. To address this gap, this study aimed to explore gambling behavior among young athletes and to examine the associations between individual and environmental factors and problem gambling. The cross-sectional survey comprised questions from the Problem Gambling Severity Index and the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test, in addition to self-constructed items on individual and environmental factors. The data were derived from a sample of 1,636 students from the National Sports Education Program (NIU) and 816 grassroots athletes of the same age (16-20 years old). The results showed that male athletes had a higher prevalence of problem gambling compared to female athletes, and that a large proportion of male athletes had gambled during school hours. The prevalence of problem gambling was almost zero for women. The prevalence of problem gambling among male athletes over 18 years of age was 9% in NIU athletes and 3.6% in grassroots athletes, while for men under 18 years of age, the prevalence was 4.9% in NIU athletes and 1.3% in grassroots athletes. The study highlights the importance of considering contextual factors such as the school and team environment in preventing problem gambling among young male athletes.

Problem gambling severity in a nationally representative sample of the Israeli population: the moderating role of ethnonational affiliation

Introduction

Gambling is a public health concern. Problem gambling is related to a range of psycho-social risk factors including ethnonational affiliation. Israel is an insightful case to probe problem gambling, given the socio-economic marginalization of Israeli Arabs, the continued exposure of Israelis to stress and the conservative Israeli gambling market. This study aimed to estimate problem gambling severity in Israeli society, characterize the sociodemographic, environmental, mental health, and gambling-related risk factors associated with problem gambling severity, and examine the role of ethnonational affiliation (Israeli Jewish/Arab) as a moderating factor in the associations between these risk factors and problem gambling severity.

Methods

A cross-sectional study based on a representative sample of 3,244 Israelis was conducted in 2022, of whom 1,626 had gambled in the previous year. Measurements included Problem Gambling Severity Index, Gambling Behaviors, Perceived Neighborhood Cohesion, Stress, the Patient Health Questionnaire-4, and sociodemographic variables.

Results

Low-risk, moderate-risk and problem gambling were reported by 16.7% of the total sample. The main risk factors for problem gambling were being an Israeli Arab, traditional, residing in a low socio-economic cluster, reporting anxiety symptoms, and higher gambling behaviors, specifically in legal/illegal online gambling. Ethnonational affiliation (Israeli Jewish/Arab) moderated the associations between gambling, illegal online gambling, and problem gambling severity. Higher neighborhood cohesion emerged as a risk factor for problem gambling solely for Israeli Arabs.

Discussion

As an excluded minority, Israeli Arabs may turn to gambling as a method to access the core republican community, thus, exposing themselves to a higher risk of developing problem gambling.

Supporting The Mental Health Of Elite-Level Coaches Through Early Intervention

Current evidence indicates that elite-level coaches encounter a range of performance, organizational, and personal stressors that may influence or compromise mental health. With exposure to these stressors, supports need to be established to protect and preserve the mental health of elite-level coaches. Given the paucity of evidence available, this article proposes a number of considerations that should be taken into account when developing a mental health and rehabilitation framework for high-performance coaches. We argue that early intervention should be positioned at the core of this framework, to address the onset of symptoms prior to the emergence of a mental disorder or mental health crisis. Mental health screening and monitoring of coaches, the psychological safety of high-performance environments, the mental health literacy of coaches, and the tailored pathways to support are discussed. Beyond these strategies, it is proposed that rehabilitation and reintegration should be addressed to assist coaches who are currently experiencing mental ill health or have left their role due to mental health reasons. Although further research is needed to implement evidence-based strategies, it is recommended that a future mental health framework should incorporate the perspectives of coaches to ensure it is consistent with their needs and experiences.

Mental health problems, health risk behaviors, and prevention: A qualitative interview study on perceptions and attitudes among elite male soccer players

Background

The purpose of this study was to investigate the perception of mental health problems and health risk behaviors among Swedish male elite soccer players and their attitudes toward possible prevention strategies.

Method

Twenty elite soccer players, aged 15-30 years, were recruited through purposive sampling and interviewed via a digital video calling platform. A semi-structured interview guide, encompassing questions about mental health problems, health risk behaviors among soccer teams, peer-relations, relations to coaches, and attitudes toward health risk behaviors, along with proposals for effective interventions, was employed. The interviews were transcribed verbatim and analyzed with qualitative content analysis.

Results

The informants reported positive feelings in relation to playing soccer, good health, and few health risk behaviors. Risk factors included a large income, excessive free time, and the need for excitement. Stress and mental health problems were linked to performance pressure, social media, and injuries. Hesitation to talk openly about personal problems due to concerns about negative consequences and the "macho culture" was highlighted as barriers to admit and seek help for personal problems. Some statements indicated openness and the club's efforts to destigmatize personal problems. Positive attitudes toward prevention and suggestions for various measures were prominent.

Conclusion

Future research and implementation of interventions should focus on the prevention of health risk behaviors and alleviation of stress and performance pressure, as well as continue the efforts to destigmatize mental health problems and raise awareness among coaches of the importance of their communication and behavior for players' mental health and performance. This could be achieved by developing strategic and systematic policy work, information, and dialogue among players and coaches, in addition to individual digital or face-to-face support, provided by professionals outside the soccer context.

A Longitudinal Examination of Young People's Gambling Behaviours and Participation in Team Sports

This paper develops and expands upon social identity theory as an explanation for gambling among youth engaged in team sport. Analysing longitudinal data for over 4500 20-year-olds from the Growing Up in Ireland study, reveals that online gambling increased from 2.6 to 9.3% between 17 and 20 years in the cohort, with the increase driven by males. A statistically significant positive association is uncovered between playing team sports and regularly gambling, as well as online gambling behaviour, independent of socio-demographic and other risk factors for males but not for females. The findings provide support for a dose-response like effect for males, where a longer period of participation in team sports is associated with a higher likelihood of engaging in gambling behaviour compared to shorter periods. Implications of the findings for policy and practice are discussed.

Part of the Game? Exploring the Prevalence and Normalization of Gambling in Belgian Sports Clubs

Gambling and sports are entangled in a close relationship. However, little remains known about gambling behaviors and perceptions in sports. Drawing on normalization theory, this study explores the prevalence and predictors of problem gambling as well as the normalization of gambling (including its availability and accessibility, prevalence, and socio-cultural accommodation) in sports clubs. A cross-sectional study design was implemented, based on an online survey completed by 817 Belgian sports club actors. This survey consisted of the Problem Gambling Severity Index (PGSI) and questions about personal and socio-cultural factors regarding gambling. Data were analyzed with SPSS 26 software, using descriptive statistics and an ordinal logistic regression analysis. These analyses exposed being male, being aged 26-35 years old, and being involved in football (soccer) as factors that might be linked with higher levels of problem gambling in sports. Furthermore, sports betting is especially shown to be normalized in sports clubs given its prevalence, and its frequently organized and discussed character. Moreover, respondents disclosed a lack of formal rules (96%) and education initiatives (98.7%) on gambling in their sports club. Given the indicated support for gambling regulations and educational measures, this study may inform sports organizations about how to help denormalize gambling.

The Gambling Habits of University Students in Aragon, Spain: A Cross-Sectional Study

Gambling has become a routine form of entertainment for many young people. The aim of this study was to describe the gambling behavior that university students are developing in Aragon, Spain, and to analyze whether these habits are more common among students of sports science, on the assumption that they are more likely to have a higher exposure to betting company marketing. A cross-sectional design was applied, with data collected on advertising exposure, gambling habits and experiences, and opinions on the impact of gambling and its regulation from 516 undergraduate students from the University of Zaragoza. The online survey included ad hoc questions and the “Pathological Gambling Short Questionnaire” to screen for potential gambling disorders. Almost half of the sample had bet money at least once in their life (48.1%), and 2.4% screened positive for consideration of a possible diagnosis of pathological gambling. Betting shops (44.2%) were the most common gambling option, and students of sports science showed a higher prevalence of pathological gambling and had greater tendencies to make bets. Gambling is perceived as a normal leisure activity by a significant part of university students. The development of transversal strategies is required to raise awareness towards the potential dangers of gambling.

Problem Gambling and Problem Gaming in Elite Athletes: a Literature Review

Researchers have raised concerns about mental health in elite athletes, including problem gambling, where research hitherto is scarce. While gambling has been assessed in the younger student-athlete population, neither gambling nor the recently recognized behavioral addiction of gaming disorder has been sufficiently addressed in the elite athlete population. The present systematic literature review aimed to summarize research knowledge on the prevalence and correlates of problem gambling and problem gaming in elite athletes. Research papers were searched systematically using the Scopus, PsycINFO, and PubMed/MEDLINE databases and evaluated following a PRISMA paradigm. For the elite athlete population, eight reports on problem gambling and one report on problem gaming were found. While at least five papers indicated an increased risk of problem gambling in elite athletes compared to the general population, one study from Australia indicated the opposite. Problem gambling was generally more common in male athletes. Knowledge of problem gaming prevalence is thus far limited. It is concluded that increased research in problem gambling and problem gaming in elite athletes is warranted.

Match-Fixing Causing Harm to Athletes on a COVID-19-Influenced Gambling Market: A Call for Research During the Pandemic and Beyond

Match-fixing, although not a new problem, has received growing attention during the COVID-19 pandemic, which has been reported in the media to have increased the risk of match-fixing events. Gambling is a well-documented addictive behavior, and gambling-related fraud, match-fixing, is a challenge to the world of sports. Most research on match-fixing has a judicial or institutional perspective, and few studies focus on its individual consequences. Nevertheless, athletes may be at particular risk of mental health consequences from the exposure to or involvement in match-fixing. The COVID-19 crisis puts a spotlight on match-fixing, as the world of competitive sports shut down or changed substantially due to pandemic-related restrictions. We call for research addressing individual mental health and psycho-social correlates of match-fixing, and their integration into research addressing problem gambling, related to the pandemic and beyond.

Skin in the game - Erroneous beliefs and emotional involvement as correlates of athletes' sports betting behavior and problems

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

The sports betting market has been growing rapidly over the last years, as have reports of problematic gambling behavior associated with betting. Due to the well-documented gambling problems of famous athletes and the betting supportive nature of many sports-related environments, athletes have been highlighted as a potential group at-risk for problematic sports betting. However, there currently remains a lack of research on individual-level athlete-specific risk-factors or mechanisms that might contribute to the development and perpetuation of betting-related problems. Here, we examine the influence of two potential risk-factors on sports betting behavior and problems: erroneous beliefs and athletes' emotional involvement.

METHODS

201 athletes with different levels of expertise completed a newly developed scale to assess both factors. Participants were sampled from the general German population, predominantly male (83.08%) and on average 29.52 (SD = 11.05) years old. We use principal components analysis to detect patterns of covariation, potentially due to the proposed underlying latent factors, and regression analyses to test associations of these factors with betting behavior and problems.

RESULTS

We find that athletes' emotional involvement was strongly associated with betting problems whereas erroneous beliefs were not. However, distorted cognitions/beliefs were associated with higher volumes and more frequent betting activities.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

This might contribute to betting problems in the long run. These results highlight athletes' emotional involvement and erroneous beliefs as potential targets for future intervention and prevention efforts.

Gambling at Work: A Qualitative Study of Swedish Elite Athletes, Coaches, and Managers

Considering the financial connections between sport and the gambling industry, more should be learned about gambling and problem gambling in this setting. This study explores how male athletes, coaches, and sports managers experience gambling activities and problems in their sports. Interviews were conducted with 30 male elite athletes, coaches, and managers in four sports. The interviews were analysed using content analysis, and the results indicated two main themes: 1) desire for and concerns with money and 2) in the shadow of performance, and three categories. The first main theme emerged as a result of the respondents recurring reference to money as the reason to different actions: It is important to win money,’too little’ or ‘too much’ money is described as reason for gambling, athletes status is affected by money and sponsor money from the gambling companies are considered important. ‘In the shadow of the performance’ captures the reason to and value of performance: The thrill and money are rewards for the gambling performance, everyday sporting life emphasizes performance both in training and matches. Lack of successful performance is perceived as a threat and evokes a fear of being seen as weak and being ejected from the team. This study identifies gambling as normalized within male elite sport. Preventing gambling problems calls for action at all levels of the involved socio-ecological framework. Management, coaches, and athletes need more knowledge of gambling and how to create a sustainable framework to prevent gambling problems.

Psychological Distress and Problem Gambling in Elite Athletes during COVID-19 Restrictions-A Web Survey in Top Leagues of Three Sports during the Pandemic

COVID-19 and lockdown strategies may affect mental health and addictive behavior differently in the population, and elite athletes are among the professions clearly affected by the pandemic. This study in top elite athletes aimed to study current perceived psychological influence from COVID-19 and symptoms of depression, anxiety and changes in alcohol drinking, gambling behavior and problem gambling in the midst of the COVID-19 lockdown. This web survey included athletes in top leagues of soccer, ice hockey and handball in Sweden (N = 327, 62% men). A total of 66% and 51% were worried about the future of their sport or about their own future in sports, respectively. Feeling worse psychologically during the pandemic was common (72% of women, 40% of men, p < 0.001); depression criteria were endorsed by 19% of women and three percent of men (p < 0.001); anxiety criteria by 20% of women and five percent of men (p < 0.001). Reporting increased gambling during the pandemic was associated with gambling problem severity. Moderate-risk or problem gambling was seen in 10% of men and none of the women (p < 0.001). Depression and anxiety were associated with feeling worse during the COVID-19 pandemic and with concern over one's own sports future. In conclusion, COVID-19-related distress is common in elite athletes and associated with mental health symptoms. Gambling increase during the pandemic was rare, but related to gambling problems, which were common in male athletes. The calls for increased focus on COVID-19-related concerns in athletes and on problem gambling in male athletes.