Gamete donors' reasons for, and expectations and experiences of, registration with a voluntary donor linking register

Donor-linking provisions in New Zealand: counselling roles, concerns and needs

Donor-linking where those genetically related through donor conception (e.g. donor-conceived persons (DCP), donors and siblings), or recipient parents, search for and connect with each other, is increasingly common, both in identity-release jurisdictions where donors' identifying information may be released to DCP, usually when they become adults - and in anonymous jurisdictions, e.g. as a result of direct-to-consumer DNA testing. In this paper, we explore New Zealand fertility clinic counsellors' views regarding their donor-linking roles and their concerns and needs in relation to current and anticipated service provision. Counsellors believed that fertility service providers had a longer-term responsibility to offer donor-linking services to ensure the wellbeing of all parties affected by donor conception. They perceived their role as complex and multifaceted, encompassing psychoeducation, mediation, advocacy, facilitation, relationship counselling, and therapeutic intervention. They identified significant service provision challenges however, including inadequate staffing, training, time and prioritisation of donor-linking, and inadequate legislative provisions to support practice. Counsellors called for clarity in legislation addressing different contexts of donation and providing measures to ensure the recording of and access to identifying information. They expressed a need for comprehensive, funded donor-linking services, therefore facilitating choice, and services staffed by professionally trained and supported staff.

Mapping Ethical, Legal, and Social Implications (ELSI) of gamete donation

RESEARCH QUESTION

This scoping review investigates the Ethical, Legal, and Social Implications (ELSI) of gamete donation, a critical facet of Assisted Reproductive Technologies, by analyzing the evolving research scope, methodological approaches, and the geographical skew in the literature. Despite the increased global uptake of donor gametes, current scholarship predominantly emanates from Western contexts and focuses on majoritized groups. This bias constrains the universality of research findings and limits their applicability across varied legal, cultural, and social contexts, underscoring a need for broader inclusivity.

DESIGN

We addressed 867 pivotal articles published between 1999 and 2019.

RESULTS

Our analysis reveals a discernible escalation in research volume, with 62% based on empirical research. The intellectual landscape unfolds into four dominant clusters: Regulatory Frameworks, Incentives, and Access; Family Dynamics and Genetic Linkages; Identity and Privacy in Donor Conception; and Cultural and Societal Attitudes towards GD. Each cluster highlights nuanced dimensions of gamete donation, from regulatory intricacies and psychological welfare to identity ethics and cultural perceptions.

CONCLUSION

Our findings advocate for a shift towards more globally representative and methodologically inclusive research. By integrating diverse cultural narratives and expanding geographical breadth, future research can offer holistic understandings of gamete donation, fostering equitable and culturally resonant practices and policies worldwide.

A systematic review of assisted and third-party reproduction guidelines regarding management and care of donors

BACKGROUND

Gamete and embryo donors face complex challenges affecting their health and quality of life. Healthcare providers need access to well-structured, evidence-based, and needs-based guidance to care for gamete and embryo donors. Therefore, this systematic review aimed to synthesize current assisted and third-party reproduction guidelines regarding management and care of donors.

METHODS

The databases of ISI, PubMed, Scopus, and websites of organizations related to the assisted reproduction were searched using the keywords of "third party reproduction", "gamete donation", "embryo donation", "guidelines", "committee opinion", and "best practice", without time limit up to July 2023. All the clinical or ethical guidelines and best practice statements regarding management and care for gamete and embryo donors written in the English language were included in the study. Quality assessment was carried using AGREE II tool. Included documents were reviewed and extracted data were narratively synthesized.

RESULTS

In this systematic review 14 related documents were reviewed of which eight were guidelines, three were practice codes and three were committee opinions. Five documents were developed in the United States, three in Canada, two in the United Kingdom, one in Australia, and one in Australia and New Zealand. Also, two guidelines developed by the European Society of Human Reproduction and Embryology were found. Management and care provided for donors were classified into four categories including screening, counseling, information provision, and ethical considerations.

CONCLUSION

While the current guidelines include some recommendations regarding the management and care of gamete/embryo donors in screening, counseling, information provision, and ethical considerations, nevertheless some shortcomings need to be addressed including donors' psychosocial needs, long-term effects of donation, donors' follow-up cares, and legal and human rights aspects of donation. Therefore, it is needed to conduct robust and well-designed research studies to fill the knowledge gap about gamete and embryo donors' needs, to inform current practices by developing evidence-based guidelines.

Extended families? Contact expectations and experiences of egg donors donating to previously unknown recipients

In New Zealand egg donation is identity-release, and donors may be known to recipients, e.g. family members/friends, or previously unknown e.g. clinic-recruited or sourced through advertising. In the case of unknown donors, New Zealand practice allows donors and recipients to meet face-to-face prior to donation in a joint counselling meeting. While contact details may not necessarily be exchanged in counselling, information-exchange and contact expectations are usually addressed. In previous papers, we explored donors' motivations and experiences of donation. In this paper, we explore donors' ideas around their role in relation to the donor-conceived person (DCP) and their expectations and experiences of information-exchange and contact. While donors did not see themselves as parents and were aware of appropriate boundaries, they described a sense of ongoing connection to DCP, often framing this in extended family terms. They desired to be kept informed about DCP, considered themselves 'on standby' for information requests or in-person contact and valued the opportunity for connection between their children and DCP. Donors were, however, cognisant of the limits to their ability to ensure information-exchange and contact and sometimes struggled with their perceived disempowered position. Meeting prior to donation may both clarify and reinforce expectations of information-exchange and contact.

We want to feel valued: eggs donors' experiences of donation

Egg donation in New Zealand is identity-release, with donor-conceived individuals having the right to access donors' identifying information at the age of 18. It also allows donors and previously unknown recipients to meet prior to donation. Further, donation is altruistic, although reimbursement of costs is possible. In our previous paper we explored the motivations of 21 egg donors in this context and reported that they are motivated to donate as an act of personal gift-giving to recipients who may become known to them through donation, and that they do not want to be compensated for this financially. In this paper, drawing on in-depth interviews, we report on donors' experiences of the donation process and subsequent to donation. Donors understood their donations to be a significant act, both for the recipients and their families, but also for themselves, particularly given the multiple sacrifices which they willingly made. Donors wished for their gift and their role to be valued and acknowledged through being appreciated, informed, involved and supported by recipients and clinics before, during and after their donations. These findings have implications for clinical practice and care, offering insight into how best to support donors prior and subsequent to donation.

Understanding the Reasons Why Men and Women Do Not Donate Gametes

The global under-supply of sperm and oocyte donors is a serious concern for assisted reproductive medicine. Research has explored self-selected populations of gamete donors and their ex-post rationalisations of why they chose to donate. However, such studies may not provide the necessary insight into why the majority of people do not donate. Utilising the unique open form responses of a large sample (n = 1035) of online survey respondents, we examine the reasons participants cite when asked: “Why haven’t you donated your sperm/eggs?.” We categorise these responses into four core themes (conditional willingness, barriers, unconsidered, and conscientious objector) and eleven lower-order themes. We find that, on average, women are more conditionally willing (8.2% difference; p = 0.008) to participate in gamete donation than men. We also find that women are more likely than men to justify their non-donation based on their reproductive history (21.3% difference; p = 0.000) or kin selection and inclusive fitness (5.7% difference; p = 0.008). However, compared to women, men are more likely to validate their non-donation based on sociocultural or social norms (6% difference; p = 0.000) or religion (1.7% difference; p = 0.030). That so many of our study participants report in-principal willingness for future participation in gamete donation speaks to the need for increased research on understanding non-donor population preferences, motivations, and behaviours.

Good practice recommendations for information provision for those involved in reproductive donation†

STUDY QUESTION

What information and support should be offered to donors, intended parents and donor-conceived people, in general and in consideration of the availability of direct-to-consumer genetic testing and matching services?

SUMMARY ANSWER

For donors, intended parents and donor-conceived offspring, recommendations are made that cover information needs and informed consent, psychosocial implications and disclosure.

WHAT IS KNOWN ALREADY

Trends indicate that the use of donor-assisted conception is growing and guidance is needed to help these recipients/intended parents, the donors and offspring, navigate the rapidly changing environment in which donor-assisted conception takes place.

STUDY DESIGN SIZE DURATION

A working group (WG) collaborated on writing recommendations based, where available, on evidence collected from a literature search and expert opinion. Draft recommendations were published for stakeholder review and adapted where relevant based on the comments received.

PARTICIPANTS/MATERIALS SETTING METHODS

Papers retrieved from PUBMED were included from 1 January 2014 up to 31 August 2020, focusing on studies published since direct-to-consumer genetic testing has become more widespread and accessible. The current paper is limited to reproductive donation performed in medically assisted reproduction (MAR) centres (and gamete banks): donation outside the medical context was not considered.

MAIN RESULTS AND THE ROLE OF CHANCE

In total, 32 recommendations were made for information provision and support to donors, 32 for intended parents and 27 for donor-conceived offspring requesting information/support.

LIMITATIONS REASONS FOR CAUTION

The available evidence in the area of reproductive donation is limited and diverse with regards to the context and types of donation. General conclusions and recommendations are largely based on expert opinion and may need to be adapted in light of future research.

WIDER IMPLICATIONS OF THE FINDINGS

These recommendations provide guidance to MAR centres and gamete banks on good practice in information provision and support but should also be considered by regulatory bodies and policymakers at a national and international level to guide regulatory and legislative efforts towards the protection of donors and donor-conceived offspring.

STUDY FUNDING/COMPETING INTERESTS

The development of this good practice paper was funded by European Society of Human Reproduction and Embryology (ESHRE), covering expenses associated with the WG meetings, the literature searches and dissemination. The WG members did not receive any payment. The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare.

DISCLAIMER

This document represents the views of ESHRE, which are the result of consensus between the relevant ESHRE stakeholders and where relevant based on the scientific evidence available at the time of preparation. The recommendations should be used for informational and educational purposes. They should not be interpreted as setting a standard of care, or be deemed inclusive of all proper methods of care nor exclusive of other methods of care reasonably directed to obtaining the same results. They do not replace the need for application of clinical judgement to each individual presentation, nor variations based on locality and facility type. †ESHRE pages content is not externally peer reviewed. The manuscript has been approved by the Executive Committee of ESHRE.

New realities for the practice of egg donation: a family-building perspective

The practice of egg donation in the United States has been based on assumptions about secrecy, anonymity, and contact among the parties that require reexamination. This article argues for the need to acknowledge that secrecy and anonymity are no longer viable assumptions and that all parties may have a strong interest in contact and connection. A shift in the narrative for the practice of egg donation from a purely medical perspective to a broader family-building perspective is described. Significant practice changes to accommodate the new realities, rooted in a family-building perspective, are outlined in the arenas of medical record retention, informed consent, recipient and donor preparation and counseling, facilitation of contact among the parties, and outreach to other medical professionals, with the goal of promoting not only healthy pregnancy, but also long-term positive family functioning.

Anonymous Dutch sperm donors releasing their identity

This study examined the motivations of anonymous Dutch sperm donors to release their identity. It aimed to increase knowledge and encourage donors to become identifiable through a more informed decision, allowing more donor-conceived persons to contact their donors. Since 2010, anonymous sperm donors in the Netherlands can register in the Fiom KID-DNA Database developed by Fiom and Canisius Wilhelmina Hospital (CWZ). An online survey was sent to donors who registered in the database (May 2015-August 2017). A total of 179 male respondents participated in this study. The motives of most donors to register in the database were child-oriented: donors believe that their offspring are entitled to their physical and social details and/or they want to give their offspring the chance to contact them. Other motives are donor-oriented, such as the curiosity about the number of offspring, their well-being and the desire to establish contact. This research showed that, to encourage anonymous donors to release their identity, one should focus on providing information about the existence of DNA databases. As well as increasing the donor's awareness of problems donor-conceived persons can experience by the lack of knowledge about their descent, answering questions and concerns from donors, and exploring the curiosity about their offspring.