Functional biomimetic nanoparticles for drug delivery and theranostic applications in cancer treatment

Nanomaterials in crossroad of autophagy control in human cancers: Amplification of cell death mechanisms

Cancer is the result of genetic abnormalities that cause normal cells to grow into neoplastic cells. Cancer is characterized by several distinct features, such as uncontrolled cell growth, extensive spreading to other parts of the body, and the ability to resist treatment. The scientists have stressed the development of nanostructures as novel therapeutic options in suppressing cancer, in response to the emergence of resistance to standard medicines. One of the specific mechanisms with dysregulation during cancer is autophagy. Nanomaterials have the ability to specifically carry medications and genes, and they can also enhance the responsiveness of tumor cells to standard therapy while promoting drug sensitivity. The primary mechanism in this process relies on autophagosomes and their fusion with lysosomes to break down the components of the cytoplasm. While autophagy was initially described as a form of cellular demise, it has been demonstrated to play a crucial role in controlling metastasis, proliferation, and treatment resistance in human malignancies. The pharmacokinetic profile of autophagy modulators is poor, despite their development for use in cancer therapy. Consequently, nanoparticles have been developed for the purpose of delivering medications and autophagy modulators selectively and specifically to the cancer process. Furthermore, several categories of nanoparticles have demonstrated the ability to regulate autophagy, which plays a crucial role in defining the biological characteristics and response to therapy of tumor cells.

Engineered coiled-coil HIF1α protein domain mimic

The development of targeted anti-cancer therapeutics offers the potential for increased efficacy of drugs and diagnostics. Utilizing modalities agnostic to tumor type, such as the hypoxic tumor microenvironment (TME), may assist in the development of universal tumor targeting agents. The hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF), in particular HIF1, plays a key role in tumor adaptation to hypoxia, and inhibiting its interaction with p300 has been shown to provide therapeutic potential. Using a multivalent assembled protein (MAP) approach based on the self-assembly of the cartilage oligomeric matrix protein coiled-coil (COMPcc) domain fused to the critical residues of the C-terminal transactivation domain (C-TAD) of the α subunit of HIF1 (HIF1α), we generate HIF1α-MAP (H-MAP). The resulting H-MAP demonstrates picomolar binding affinity to p300, the ability to downregulate hypoxia-inducible genes, and in vivo tumor targeting capability.

Targeted Nanotheransotics: Integration of Preclinical MRI and CT in the Molecular Imaging and Therapy of Advanced Diseases

The integration of preclinical magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and computed tomography (CT) methods has significantly enhanced the area of therapy and imaging of targeted nanomedicine. Nanotheranostics, which make use of nanoparticles, are a significant advancement in MRI and CT imaging. In addition to giving high-resolution anatomical features and functional information simultaneously, these multifunctional agents improve contrast when used. In addition to enabling early disease detection, precise localization, and personalised therapy monitoring, they also enable early disease detection. Fusion of MRI and CT enables precise in vivo tracking of drug-loaded nanoparticles. MRI, which provides real-time monitoring of nanoparticle distribution, accumulation, and release at the cellular and tissue levels, can be used to assess the efficacy of drug delivery systems. The precise localization of nanoparticles within the body is achievable through the use of CT imaging. This technique enhances the capabilities of MRI by providing high-resolution anatomical information. CT also allows for quantitative measurements of nanoparticle concentration, which is essential for evaluating the pharmacokinetics and biodistribution of nanomedicine. In this article, we emphasize the integration of preclinical MRI and CT into molecular imaging and therapy for advanced diseases.

Translational Challenges and Prospective Solutions in the Implementation of Biomimetic Delivery Systems

Biomimetic delivery systems (BDSs), inspired by the intricate designs of biological systems, have emerged as a groundbreaking paradigm in nanomedicine, offering unparalleled advantages in therapeutic delivery. These systems, encompassing platforms such as liposomes, protein-based nanoparticles, extracellular vesicles, and polysaccharides, are lauded for their targeted delivery, minimized side effects, and enhanced therapeutic outcomes. However, the translation of BDSs from research settings to clinical applications is fraught with challenges, including reproducibility concerns, physiological stability, and rigorous efficacy and safety evaluations. Furthermore, the innovative nature of BDSs demands the reevaluation and evolution of existing regulatory and ethical frameworks. This review provides an overview of BDSs and delves into the multifaceted translational challenges and present emerging solutions, underscored by real-world case studies. Emphasizing the potential of BDSs to redefine healthcare, we advocate for sustained interdisciplinary collaboration and research. As our understanding of biological systems deepens, the future of BDSs in clinical translation appears promising, with a focus on personalized medicine and refined patient-specific delivery systems.

Smart nanoparticles for cancer therapy

Smart nanoparticles, which can respond to biological cues or be guided by them, are emerging as a promising drug delivery platform for precise cancer treatment. The field of oncology, nanotechnology, and biomedicine has witnessed rapid progress, leading to innovative developments in smart nanoparticles for safer and more effective cancer therapy. In this review, we will highlight recent advancements in smart nanoparticles, including polymeric nanoparticles, dendrimers, micelles, liposomes, protein nanoparticles, cell membrane nanoparticles, mesoporous silica nanoparticles, gold nanoparticles, iron oxide nanoparticles, quantum dots, carbon nanotubes, black phosphorus, MOF nanoparticles, and others. We will focus on their classification, structures, synthesis, and intelligent features. These smart nanoparticles possess the ability to respond to various external and internal stimuli, such as enzymes, pH, temperature, optics, and magnetism, making them intelligent systems. Additionally, this review will explore the latest studies on tumor targeting by functionalizing the surfaces of smart nanoparticles with tumor-specific ligands like antibodies, peptides, transferrin, and folic acid. We will also summarize different types of drug delivery options, including small molecules, peptides, proteins, nucleic acids, and even living cells, for their potential use in cancer therapy. While the potential of smart nanoparticles is promising, we will also acknowledge the challenges and clinical prospects associated with their use. Finally, we will propose a blueprint that involves the use of artificial intelligence-powered nanoparticles in cancer treatment applications. By harnessing the potential of smart nanoparticles, this review aims to usher in a new era of precise and personalized cancer therapy, providing patients with individualized treatment options.

Co-delivery of doxorubicin and hydroxychloroquine via chitosan/alginate nanoparticles for blocking autophagy and enhancing chemotherapy in breast cancer therapy

Breast cancer (BC) is the most common malignancy in women worldwide, and the standard treatment is chemotherapy or radiotherapy after surgery. In order to reduce the side effects of chemotherapy, various nanoparticles (NPs) have been discovered and synthesized, which has become a promising treatment for BC. In this study, a co-delivery nanodelivery drug system (Co-NDDS) was designed and synthesized with 2,3-dimercaptosuccinic acid (DMSA) coated Fe₃O₄ NPs as core encapsulated into chitosan/alginate nanoparticles (CANPs) shell, doxorubicin (DOX) and hydroxychloroquine (HCQ) as loading drugs. Smaller NPs carrying DOX (FeAC-DOX NPs) were loaded into larger NPs containing HCQ (FeAC-DOX@PC-HCQ NPs) by ionic gelation and emulsifying solvent volatilization methods. The physicochemical properties of this Co-NDDS were characterised, followed by in vitro studies of the anticancer effects and mechanisms using two different BC cell lines, MCF-7 cells and MDA-MB-231 cells. The results indicated that the Co-NDDS showcases exemplary physicochemical qualities and encapsulation capacity, facilitating accurate intracellular release through pH-sensitive attributes. Importantly, NPs can significantly increase the in vitro cytotoxicity of co-administered drugs and effectively inhibit the autophagy level of tumour cells. The Co-NDDS constructed in this study provides a promising strategy for the treatment of BC.

Nanocarrier design–function relationship: The prodigious role of properties in regulating biocompatibility for drug delivery applications

The concept of drug delivery systems as a magic bullet for the delivery of bioactive compounds has emerged as a promising approach in the treatment of different diseases with significant advantages over the limitations of traditional methods. While nanocarrier-based drug delivery systems are the main advocates of drug uptake because they offer several advantages including reduced non-specific biodistribution, improved accumulation, and enhanced therapeutic efficiency; their safety and biocompatibility within cellular/tissue systems are therefore important for achieving the desired effect. The underlying power of "design-interplay chemistry" in modulating the properties and biocompatibility at the nanoscale level will direct the interaction with their immediate surrounding. Apart from improving the existing nanoparticle physicochemical properties, the balancing of the hosts' blood components interaction holds the prospect of conferring newer functions altogether. So far, this concept has been remarkable in achieving many fascinating feats in addressing many challenges in nanomedicine such as immune responses, inflammation, biospecific targeting and treatment, and so on. This review, therefore, provides a diverse account of the recent advances in the fabrication of biocompatible nano-drug delivery platforms for chemotherapeutic applications, as well as combination therapy, theragnostic, and other diseases that are of interest to scientists in the pharmaceutical industries. Thus, careful consideration of the "property of choice" would be an ideal way to realize specific functions from a set of delivery platforms. Looking ahead, there is an enormous prospect for nanoparticle properties in regulating biocompatibility.

Neutrophil membrane-coated nanoparticles exhibit increased antimicrobial activities in an anti-microbial resistant K. pneumonia infection model

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the efficacy and safety of neutrophil membrane-coated nanoparticles mediated KLA peptides (KLAKLAKKLAKLAK) and gentamicin in the targeted therapy of anti-microbial resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae (K. pneumonia) lung infection.

METHODS

The characteristics of KLA-neutrophils nanoparticles (NNPs) are identified via dynamic light scattering (DLS), transmission electron microscope (TEM), SDS-PAGE, Western blot, quantitative flow cytometry (QFCM) and confocal microscopy. The safety of KLA-NNPs both in vitro and in vivo is evaluated by hemolysis test, platelet α granule membrane protein concentration, protein adsorption capacity, in vitro macrophage phagocytosis, weight change, liver function indicators, blood biochemical indicators, and pathological changes of vital organs in mice. The efficacy of KLA-NNPs is determined by time-kill assay, fluorescent label test, intracellular bacterial content, caspase-1 activity, survival rate, and HE staining both in vitro and in vivo.

RESULTS

The prepared KLA-NNPs have a typical "core-shell" structure, uniform nanometer size, and retain the membrane proteins on the neutrophil membrane that achieve functional effects. In vitro safety analysis showed that KLA-NNPs have good blood compatibility and can inhibit macrophage phagocytosis in vitro. KLA-NNPs can effectively release KLA and significantly reduce intracellular bacteria and caspase-1 activity. In vivo safety analysis and efficacy analysis revealed that KLA-NNPs have good biocompatibility and could effectively improve the survival rate of mice.

CONCLUSION

The prepared KLA-NNPs have good nano-medicine chemical and physical properties and safety. It can evade immune system clearance, achieve high-efficiency targeted aggregation and drug delivery to bacterial infection sites, and effectively inhibit the development of pneumonia induced by drug-resistant K. pneumonia.

Recent advances of natural and bioengineered extracellular vesicles and their application in vascular regeneration

The progression of cardiovascular diseases such as atherosclerosis and myocardial infarction leads to serious vascular injury, highlighting the urgent need for targeted regenerative therapy. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) composed of a lipid bilayer containing nuclear and cytosolic materials are relevant to the progression of cardiovascular diseases. Moreover, EVs can deliver bioactive cargo in pathological cardiovascular and regulate the biological function of recipient cells, such as inflammation, proliferation, angiogenesis and polarization. However, because the targeting and bioactivity of natural EVs are subject to several limitations, bioengineered EVs have achieved wide advancements in biomedicine. Bioengineered EVs involve three main ways to acquire including (i) modification of the EVs after isolation; (ii) modification of producer cells before EVs’ isolation; (iii) synthesize EVs using natural or modified cell membranes, and encapsulating drugs or bioactive molecules into EVs. In this review, we first summarize the cardiovascular injury-related disease and describe the role of different cells and EVs in vascular regeneration. We also discuss the application of bioengineered EVs from different producer cells to cardiovascular diseases. Finally, we summarize the surface modification on EVs which can specifically target abnormal cells in injured vascular.

Biomimetic Nanotherapeutics: Employing Nanoghosts to fight Melanoma

Melanoma is a cancer of melanocytes present at the basal layer of the skin. Nanomedicine has armed us with competent platform to manage such fatal neoplastic diseases. Nevertheless, it suffers from numerous pitfalls such as rapid clearance and opsonization of surface-functionalized carriers, biocompatibility and idiopathic reactions which could be difficult to predict in the patient. Biomimetic approach, a novel step towards personalized medicine bridges these drawbacks by employing endogenous cell membranes to traverse physiological barriers. Camouflaged carriers coated with natural cell membranes possess unique characteristics such as high circulatory periods, and the absence of allogenic and xenogenic responses. Proteins residing on the cell membranes render a diverse range of utilities to the coated nanoparticles including natural efficiency to identify cellular targets, homologous targeting, reticuloendothelial system evasion, biocompatibility and reduced adverse and idiopathic effects. In the present article, we have focused on cell membrane camouflaged nanocarriers for melanoma management. We have discussed various types of biomimetic systems, their processing and coating approaches, and their characterization. We have also enumerated novel avenues in melanoma treatment and the combination of biomimetic systems with smart nanoparticulate systems with the potential to bring breakthroughs in the near future. Additionally, immunotherapy-based biomimetic systems to combat melanoma have been highlighted. Hurdles towards clinical translation and ways to overcome them have been explained in detail.

Mitigating off-target distribution and enhancing cytotoxicity in breast cancer cells with alpha-ketoglutaric acid-modified Fe/Mg-CA nanoparticles

Purpose

In this work, pH-sensitive alpha-ketoglutaric acid-modified Fe/Mg-carbonate apatite (α-KAM-Fe/Mg-CA) NPs were introduced and found to be capable of promoting the selective delivery of cancer-killing drug doxorubicin (DOX) in breast cancer cells, while simultaneously mitigating DOX toxicity on normal cells.

Methods

As part of the characterization and evaluation of α-KAM-Fe/Mg-CA NPs to target breast cancer cells, a series of assessments were performed, which included size measurements, morphological analysis, FTIR, cytotoxicity assessment, hemolysis, drug binding, cellular uptake, and pH-responsive drug release tests. Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry was used to conduct the protein corona analysis of α-KAM-Fe/Mg-CA using 10% FBS (fetal bovine serum) and mice plasma. Furthermore, to investigate the distribution of DOX-loaded α-KAM-Fe/Mg-CA NPs in major tissues and the tumor, a biodistribution investigation was conducted in mammary tumor-induced Balb/c mouse models 24 h after the intravenous administration of DOX-loaded α-KAM-Fe/Mg-CA NPs.

Results

The in vitro pH-dependent release of DOX over time demonstrated that α-KAM-Fe/Mg-CA NPs were pH-responsive and degraded rapidly at acidic pH levels. When compared to free DOX, the DOX-loaded α-KAM-Fe/Mg-CA NPs demonstrated a potent antiproliferative effect on breast cancer cells. Confocal microscopy confirmed the effective internalization of DOX-loaded α-KAM-Fe/Mg-CA NPs in breast cancer cells. The protein corona analysis revealed an affinity for dysopsonins (serum albumin, apolipoproteins) and transport proteins that may assist in extending their blood circulation period. Furthermore, biodistribution data of DOX-loaded α-KAM-Fe/Mg-CA NPs in the mammary tumor-induced Balb/c mouse model indicated extended circulation in the bloodstream, reduced non-target distribution in major tissues, and increased drug accumulation in the tumor.

Conclusion

The results obtained suggest that α-KAM-Fe/Mg-CA NPs may emerge as a prospective candidate for delivering therapeutic cargos to treat malignant mammary tumors.

Effective Combinations of Immunotherapy and Radiotherapy for Cancer Treatment

Though single tumor immunotherapy and radiotherapy have significantly improved the survival rate of tumor patients, there are certain limitations in overcoming tumor metastasis, recurrence, and reducing side effects. Therefore, it is urgent to explore new tumor treatment methods. The new combination of radiotherapy and immunotherapy shows promise in improving therapeutic efficacy and reducing recurrence by enhancing the ability of the immune system to recognize and eradicate tumor cells, to overcome tumor immune tolerance mechanisms. Nanomaterials, as new drug-delivery-system materials of the 21st century, can maintain the activity of drugs, improve drug targeting, and reduce side effects in tumor immunotherapy. Additionally, nanomaterials, as radiosensitizers, have shown great potential in tumor radiotherapy due to their unique properties, such as light, heat, electromagnetic effects. Here, we review the mechanisms of tumor immunotherapy and radiotherapy and the synergy of radiotherapy with multiple types of immunotherapies, including immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs), tumor vaccines, adoptive cell therapy, and cytokine therapy. Finally, we propose the potential for nanomaterials in tumor radiotherapy and immunotherapy.

Synthesis of 3-octadecanoxypropyl 6-deoxy-6-sulfo-α-d-glucopyranoside (ODSG) as a lipase-resistant SQAP derivative

Sulfoquynovosylacyl propanediol (SQAP; 1) has been developed as a radiosensitizer (anti-cancer agent) for solid tumors, but it was easily cleaved in vivo and had a problem of short residence time. We synthesized a novel compound of a SQAP derivative (3-octadecanoxypropyl 6-deoxy-6-sulfo-α-d-glucopyranoside: ODSG; 2) to solve these problems not easily cleaved by lipase. ODSG (2) cytotoxicity was investigated in vitro, resulting in low toxicity like SQAP (1).

The State of the Art of Theranostic Nanomaterials for Lung, Breast, and Prostate Cancers

The synthesis and engineering of nanomaterials offer more robust systems for the treatment of cancer, with technologies that combine therapy with imaging diagnostic tools in the so-called nanotheranostics. Among the most studied systems, there are quantum dots, liposomes, polymeric nanoparticles, inorganic nanoparticles, magnetic nanoparticles, dendrimers, and gold nanoparticles. Most of the advantages of nanomaterials over the classic anticancer therapies come from their optimal size, which prevents the elimination by the kidneys and enhances their permeation in the tumor due to the abnormal blood vessels present in cancer tissues. Furthermore, the drug delivery and the contrast efficiency for imaging are enhanced, especially due to the increased surface area and the selective accumulation in the desired tissues. This property leads to the reduced drug dose necessary to exert the desired effect and for a longer action within the tumor. Finally, they are made so that there is no degradation into toxic byproducts and have a lower immune response triggering. In this article, we intend to review and discuss the state-of-the-art regarding the use of nanomaterials as therapeutic and diagnostic tools for lung, breast, and prostate cancer, as they are among the most prevalent worldwide.

Efficient in vitro and in vivo docetaxel delivery mediated by pH-sensitive LPHNPs for effective breast cancer therapy

The present study was designed to develop pH-sensitive lipid polymer hybrid nanoparticles (pHS-LPHNPs) for specific cytosolic-delivery of docetaxel (DTX). The pHS-LPHNPs-DTX formulation was prepared by self-assembled nano-precipitation technique and characterized for zeta potential, particle size, entrapment efficiency, polydispersity index (PDI), and in vitro drug release. In vitro cytotoxicity of pHS-LPHNPs-DTX was assessed on breast cancer cells (MDA-MB-231 and MCF-7) and compared with DTX-loaded conventional LPHNPs and bare DTX. In vitro cellular uptake in MDA-MB-231 cell lines showed better uptake of pHS-LPHNPs. Further, a significant reduction in the IC₅₀ of pHS-LPHNPs-DTX against both breast cancer cells was observed. Flow cytometry results showed greater apoptosis in case of pHS-LPHNPs-DTX treated MDA-MB-231 cells. Breast cancer was experimentally induced in BALB/c female mice, and the in vivo efficacy of the developed pHS-LPHNPs formulation was assessed with respect to the pharmacokinetics, biodistribution in the vital organs (liver, kidney, heart, lungs, and spleen), percentage tumor burden, and survival of breast cancer-bearing animals. In vivo studies showed improved pharmacokinetic and target-specificity with minimum DTX circulation in the deep-seated organs in the case of pHS-LPHNPs-DTX compared to the LPHNPs-DTX and free DTX. Mice treated with pHS-LPHNPs-DTX exhibited a significantly lesser tumor burden than other treatment groups. Also, reduced distribution of DTX in the serum was evident for pHS-LPHNPs-DTX treated mice compared to the LPHNPs-DTX and free DTX. In essence, pHS-LPHNPs mediated delivery of DTX presents a viable platform for developing therapeutic-interventions against breast-cancer.

Protein-nanoparticle interactions and a new insight

The study of protein-nanoparticle interactions provides knowledge about the bio-reactivity of nanoparticles, and creates a database of nanoparticles for applications in nanomedicine, nanodiagnosis, and nanotherapy. The problem arises when nanoparticles come in contact with physiological fluids such as plasma or serum, wherein they interact with the proteins (or other biomolecules). This interaction leads to the coating of proteins on the nanoparticle surface, mostly due to the electrostatic interaction, called 'corona'. These proteins are usually partially unfolded. The protein corona can deter nanoparticles from their targeted functionalities, such as drug/DNA delivery at the site and fluorescence tagging of diseased tissues. The protein corona also has many repercussions on cellular intake, inflammation, accumulation, degradation, and clearance of the nanoparticles from the body depending on the exposed part of the proteins. Hence, the protein-nanoparticle interaction and the configuration of the bound-proteins on the nanosurface need thorough investigation and understanding. Several techniques such as DLS and zeta potential measurement, UV-vis spectroscopy, fluorescence spectroscopy, circular dichroism, FTIR, and DSC provide valuable information in the protein-nanoparticle interaction study. Besides, theoretical simulations also provide additional understanding. Despite a lot of research publications, the fundamental question remained unresolved. Can we aim for the application of functional nanoparticles in medicine? A new insight, given by us, in this article assumes a reasonable solution to this crucial question.

Nanomaterials as Novel Cardiovascular Theranostics

Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are a group of conditions associated with heart and blood vessels and are considered the leading cause of death globally. Coronary heart disease, atherosclerosis, myocardial infarction represents the CVDs. Since CVDs are associated with a series of pathophysiological conditions with an alarming mortality and morbidity rate, early diagnosis and appropriate therapeutic approaches are critical for saving patients’ lives. Conventionally, diagnostic tools are employed to detect disease conditions, whereas therapeutic drug candidates are administered to mitigate diseases. However, the advent of nanotechnological platforms has revolutionized the current understanding of pathophysiology and therapeutic measures. The concept of combinatorial therapy using both diagnosis and therapeutics through a single platform is known as theranostics. Nano-based theranostics are widely used in cancer detection and treatment, as evident from pre-clinical and clinical studies. Nanotheranostics have gained considerable attention for the efficient management of CVDs. The differential physicochemical properties of engineered nanoparticles have been exploited for early diagnosis and therapy of atherosclerosis, myocardial infarction and aneurysms. Herein, we provided the information on the evolution of nano-based theranostics to detect and treat CVDs such as atherosclerosis, myocardial infarction, and angiogenesis. The review also aims to provide novel avenues on how nanotherapeutics’ trending concept could transform our conventional diagnostic and therapeutic tools in the near future.

Advances in Multiple Stimuli-Responsive Drug-Delivery Systems for Cancer Therapy

Nanomedicines afford unique advantages in therapeutic intervention against tumors. However, conventional nanomedicines have failed to achieve the desired effect against cancers because of the presence of complicated physiological fluids and the tumor microenvironment. Stimuli-responsive drug-delivery systems have emerged as potential tools for advanced treatment of cancers. Versatile nano-carriers co-triggered by multiple stimuli in different levels of organisms (eg, extracorporeal, tumor tissue, cell, subcellular organelles) have aroused widespread interest because they can overcome sequential physiological and pathological barriers to deliver diverse therapeutic “payloads” to the desired targets. Furthermore, multiple stimuli-responsive drug-delivery systems (MSR-DDSs) offer a good platform for co-delivery of agents and reversing multidrug resistance. This review affords a comprehensive overview on the “landscape” of MSR-DDSs against tumors, highlights the design strategies of MSR-DDSs in recent years, discusses the putative advantage of oncotherapy or the obstacles that so far have hindered the clinical translation of MSR-DDSs.

Nanomaterials-Mediated Immunomodulation for Cancer Therapeutics

Immunotherapy holds great promise in overcoming the limitations of conventional regimens for cancer therapeutics. There is growing interest among researchers and clinicians to develop novel immune-strategies for cancer diagnosis and treatment with better specificity and lesser adversity. Immunomodulation-based cancer therapies are rapidly emerging as an alternative approach that employs the host's own defense mechanisms to recognize and selectively eliminate cancerous cells. Recent advances in nanotechnology have pioneered a revolution in the field of cancer therapy. Several nanomaterials (NMs) have been utilized to surmount the challenges of conventional anti-cancer treatments like cytotoxic chemotherapy, radiation, and surgery. NMs offer a plethora of exceptional features such as a large surface area to volume ratio, effective loading, and controlled release of active drugs, tunable dimensions, and high stability. Moreover, they also possess the inherent property of interacting with living cells and altering the immune responses. However, the interaction between NMs and the immune system can give rise to unanticipated adverse reactions such as inflammation, necrosis, and hypersensitivity. Therefore, to ensure a successful and safe clinical application of immunomodulatory nanomaterials, it is imperative to acquire in-depth knowledge and a clear understanding of the complex nature of the interactions between NMs and the immune system. This review is aimed at providing an overview of the recent developments, achievements, and challenges in the application of immunomodulatory nanomaterials (iNMs) for cancer therapeutics with a focus on elucidating the mechanisms involved in the interplay between NMs and the host's immune system.

Nanocarriers-Mediated Drug Delivery Systems for Anticancer Agents: An Overview and Perspectives

Nanotechnology has been actively integrated as drug carriers over the last few years to treat various cancers. The main hurdle in the clinical management of cancer is the development of multidrug resistance against chemotherapeutic agents. To overcome the limitations of chemotherapy, the researchers have been developing technological advances for significant progress in the oncotherapy by enabling the delivery of chemotherapeutic agents at increased drug content levels to the targeted spots. Several nano-drug delivery systems designed for tumor-targeting are evaluated in preclinical and clinical trials and showed promising outcomes in cancerous tumors' clinical management. This review describes nanocarrier's importance in managing different types of cancers and emphasizing nanocarriers for drug delivery and cancer nanotherapeutics. It also highlights the recent advances in nanocarriers-based delivery systems, including polymeric nanocarriers, micelles, nanotubes, dendrimers, magnetic nanoparticles, solid lipid nanoparticles, and quantum dots (QDs). The nanocarrier-based composites are discussed in terms of their structure, characteristics, and therapeutic applications in oncology. To conclude, the challenges and future exploration opportunities of nanocarriers in chemotherapeutics are also presented.

Biomimetic nanoarchitecturing: A disguised attack on cancer cells

With the changing face of healthcare, there is a demand for drug delivery systems that have increased efficacy and biocompatibility. Nanotechnology derived drug carrier systems were found to be ideal candidates to meet these demands. Among the vast number of nanosized delivery systems, biomimetic nanoparticles have been researched at length. These nanoparticles mimic cellular functions and are highly biocompatible. They are also able to avoid clearance by the reticuloendothelial system which increases the time spent by them in the systemic circulation. Additionally, their low immunogenicity and targeting ability increase their significance as drug carriers. Based on their core material we have summarized them as biomimetic inorganic nanoparticles, biomimetic polymeric nanoparticles, and biomimetic lipid nanoparticles. The core then may be coated using membranes derived from erythrocytes, cancer cells, leukocytes, stem cells, and other membranes to endow them with biomimetic properties. They can be used for personalized therapy and diagnosis of a large number of diseases, primarily cancer. This review summarizes the various therapeutic approaches using biomimetic nanoparticles along with their applications in the field of cancer imaging, nucleic acid therapy and theranostic properties. A brief overview about toxicity concerns related to these nanoconstructs has been added to provide knowledge about biocompatibility of such nanoparticles.

Effect of Nanoconfinement of Polyphenolic Extract from Grape Pomace into Functionalized Mesoporous Silica on Its Biocompatibility and Radical Scavenging Activity

The aim of this paper is to assess the properties of Mamaia (MM) grape pomace polyphenolic extract loaded onto pristine and functionalized MCM-41 mesoporous silica as potential ingredients for nutraceuticals or cosmetics. The chemical profile of hydroalcoholic polyphenolic extracts, prepared either by conventional extraction or microwave-assisted method, was analyzed by reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography with photodiode array detector (HPLC-PDA) analysis, while their radical scavenger activity (RSA) was evaluated using DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl radical) and ABTS (2,2'-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid) assays. The extract-loaded materials were characterized by Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, N2 adsorption-desorption isotherms, thermogravimetric analysis, as well as RSA (DPPH and ABTS assays). The polyphenols release profiles from pristine and functionalized (with mercaptopropyl, propyl sulfonic acid, cyanoethyl and propionic acid moieties) MCM-41-type supports were determined in phosphate buffer solution (PBS) pH 5.7. For selected materials containing embedded phytochemicals, cellular viability, and oxidative stress level on immortalized mouse embryonic fibroblast cell line (NIH3T3) were evaluated. A more acidic functional groups linked on silica pore walls determined a higher amount of phytochemicals released in PBS. The extract-loaded materials showed a good cytocompatibility on tested concentrations. The embedded extract preserved better the RSA over time than the free extract. The polyphenols-loaded MCM-41-type silica materials, especially MM@MCM-COOH material, demonstrated a good in vitro antioxidant effect on NIH3T3 cells, being potential candidates for nutraceutical or cosmetic formulations.

Update on the development of molecular imaging and nanomedicine in China: Optical imaging

Molecular imaging has received increased attention worldwide, including in China, because it offers noninvasive characterization of widely diverse clinically significant pathologies. To achieve these goals, nanomedicine has evolved into a broad interdisciplinary field with flexible designs to accommodate and concentrate imaging and therapeutic payloads into pathological cells through selective binding to disease specific cell membrane biomarkers. This concept of personalized medicine reflects the vision of "magic bullets" proposed by German biochemist Paul Ehrlich over 100 years ago. As happening worldwide, Chinese scientists are contributing to this tsunami of science and technologies through impactful national programs and international research collaborations. This review provides a comprehensive update of Chinese innovations to address intractable unmet medical need in China and worldwide in the optical sciences. This article is categorized under: Diagnostic Tools > in vivo Nanodiagnostics and Imaging.

Fe/Mg-Modified Carbonate Apatite with Uniform Particle Size and Unique Transport Protein-Related Protein Corona Efficiently Delivers Doxorubicin into Breast Cancer Cells

Breast cancer is the abnormal, uncontrollable proliferation of cells in the breast. Conventional treatment modalities like chemotherapy induce deteriorating side effects on healthy cells. Non-viral inorganic nanoparticles (NPs) confer exclusive characteristics, such as, stability, controllable shape and size, facile surface modification, and unique magnetic and optical properties which make them attractive drug carriers. Among them, carbonate apatite (CA) particles are pH-responsive in nature, enabling rapid intracellular drug release, but are typically heterogeneous with the tendency to self-aggregate. Here, we modified the nano-carrier by partially substituting Ca²⁺ with Mg²⁺ and Fe³⁺ into a basic lattice structure of CA, forming Fe/Mg-carbonate apatite (Fe/Mg-CA) NPs with the ability to mitigate self-aggregation, form unique protein corona in the presence of serum and efficiently deliver doxorubicin (DOX), an anti-cancer drug into breast cancer cells. Two formulations of Fe/Mg-CA NPs were generated by adding different concentrations of Fe³⁺ and Mg²⁺ along with a fixed amount of Ca²⁺ in bicarbonate buffered DMEM (Dulbecco's Modified Eagle's Medium), followed by 30 min incubation at 37 °C. Particles were characterized by turbidity analysis, z-average diameter and zeta potential measurement, optical microscopy, field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), energy dispersive X-ray (EDX), flame atomic absorption spectroscopy (FAAS), pH dissolution, drug binding, cellular uptake, thiazolyl blue tetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay, stability analysis, and protein corona study by LCMS (Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry). Both formulations of Fe/Mg-CA displayed mostly uniform nano-sized particles with less tendency to aggregate. The EDX and FAAS elemental analysis confirmed the weight (%) of Ca, Fe and Mg, along with their Ca/P ratio in the particles. A constant drug binding efficiency was noticed with 5 μM to 10 μM of initial DOX concentration. A pH dissolution study of Fe/Mg-CA NPs revealed the quick release of DOX in acidic pH. Enhancement of cytotoxicity for the chemotherapy drug was greater for Fe/Mg-CA NPs as compared to CA NPs, which could be explained by an increase in cellular internalization as a result of the small z-average diameter of the former. The protein corona study by LCMS demonstrated that Fe/Mg-CA NPs exhibited the highest affinity towards transport proteins without binding with opsonins. Biodistribution study was performed to study the effect of DOX-loaded Fe/Mg-CA NPs on the tissue distribution of DOX in Balb/c 4T1 tumor-bearing mice. Both formulations of Fe/Mg-CA NPs have significantly increased the accumulation of DOX in tumors. Interestingly, high Fe/Mg-CA NPs exhibited less off-target distribution compared to low Fe/Mg-CA NPs. Furthermore, the blood plasma analysis revealed prolonged blood circulation half-life of DOX-loaded low and high Fe/Mg-CA NPs compared to free DOX solution. Modifying CA NPs with Fe³⁺ and Mg²⁺, thereby, led to the generation of nano-sized particles with less tendency to aggregate, enhancing the drug binding efficiency, cellular uptake, and cytotoxicity without hampering drug release in acidic pH, while improving the circulation half-life and tumor accumulation of DOX. Therefore, Fe/Mg-CA which predominantly forms a transport protein-related protein corona could be a proficient carrier for therapeutic delivery in breast cancer.

Emerging Strategies in Stimuli-Responsive Nanocarriers as the Drug Delivery System for Enhanced Cancer Therapy

The conventional Drug Delivery System (DDS) has limitations such as leakage of the drug, toxicity to normal cells and loss of drug efficiency, while the stimuli-responsive DDS is non-toxic to cells, avoiding the leakage and degradation of the drug because of its targeted drug delivery to the pathological site. Thus nanomaterial chemistry enables - the development of smart stimuli-responsive DDS over the conventional DDS. Stimuliresponsive DDS ensures spatial or temporal, on-demand drug delivery to the targeted cancer cells. The DDS is engineered by using the organic (synthetic polymers, liposomes, peptides, aptamer, micelles, dendrimers) and inorganic (zinc oxide, gold, magnetic, quantum dots, metal oxides) materials. Principally, these nanocarriers release the drug at the targeted cells in response to external and internal stimuli such as temperature, light, ultrasound and magnetic field, pH value, redox potential (glutathione), and enzyme. The multi-stimuli responsive DDS is more promising than the single stimuli-responsive DDS in cancer therapy, and it extensively increases drug release and accumulation in the targeted cancer cells, resulting in better tumor cell ablation. In this regard, a handful of multi-stimuli responsive DDS is in clinical trials for further approval. A comprehensive review is crucial for addressing the existing knowledge about multi-stimuli responsive DDS, and hence, we summarized the emerging strategies in tailored ligand functionalized stimuli-responsive nanocarriers as the DDS for cancer therapies.

Graphene and other 2D materials: a multidisciplinary analysis to uncover the hidden potential as cancer theranostics

Cancer represents one of the main causes of death in the world; hence the development of more specific approaches for its diagnosis and treatment is urgently needed in clinical practice. Here we aim at providing a comprehensive review on the use of 2-dimensional materials (2DMs) in cancer theranostics. In particular, we focus on graphene-related materials (GRMs), graphene hybrids, and graphdiyne (GDY), as well as other emerging 2DMs, such as MXene, tungsten disulfide (WS2), molybdenum disulfide (MoS2), hexagonal boron nitride (h-BN), black phosphorus (BP), silicene, antimonene (AM), germanene, biotite (black mica), metal organic frameworks (MOFs), and others. The results reported in the scientific literature in the last ten years (>200 papers) are dissected here with respect to the wide variety of combinations of imaging methodologies and therapeutic approaches, including drug/gene delivery, photothermal/photodynamic therapy, sonodynamic therapy, and immunotherapy. We provide a unique multidisciplinary approach in discussing the literature, which also includes a detailed section on the characterization methods used to analyze the material properties, highlighting the merits and limitations of the different approaches. The aim of this review is to show the strong potential of 2DMs for use as cancer theranostics, as well as to highlight issues that prevent the clinical translation of these materials. Overall, we hope to shed light on the hidden potential of the vast panorama of new and emerging 2DMs as clinical cancer theranostics.

Nanoscale delivery systems for microRNAs in cancer therapy

Concomitant with advances in research regarding the role of miRNAs in sustaining carcinogenesis, major concerns about their delivery options for anticancer therapies have been raised. The answer to this problem may come from the world of nanoparticles such as liposomes, exosomes, polymers, dendrimers, mesoporous silica nanoparticles, quantum dots and metal-based nanoparticles which have been proved as versatile and valuable vehicles for many biomolecules including miRNAs. In another train of thoughts, the general scheme of miRNA modulation consists in inhibition of oncomiRNA expression and restoration of tumor suppressor ones. The codelivery of two miRNAs or miRNAs in combination with chemotherapeutics or small molecules was also proposed. The present review presents the latest advancements in miRNA delivery based on nanoparticle-related strategies.

Cyclodextrin Based Nanoparticles for Drug Delivery and Theranostics

Colloidal nanoparticulate technology has been described in the literature as a versatile drug delivery system. But it possesses some inherent lacunae in their formulation. Cyclodextrins (CDs) have been extensively reported for the solubility enhancement of poorly water-soluble drugs. The CDs can cause intervention in aspects related to nanoparticles (NPs) that include improving drug loading in nano-system, improving stability, site-specific/targeted drug delivery, improving solubility profile and absorption of the drug in nanosystem with consequent improvement in bioavailability, with the possibility of controlled release, safety and efficacy. They find application in for simultaneous diagnosis and therapeutics for better treatment procedures. The current communication is focused on the application of CDs to overcome troubles in nanoparticulate formulation and enhancement of their performance. It also envisages the theranostic aspects of CDs.

Development of A Novel System Based on Green Magnetic / Graphene Oxide / Chitosan /Allium Sativum / Quercus / Nanocomposite for Targeted Release of Doxorubicin Anti-Cancer Drug

BACKGROUND

Doxorubicin, as a strong anti-cancer agent for clinical treatment of various cancer types along with other drugs, is widely utilized. Due to the physiology of the human body and cancerous tissues, the applicability of doxorubicin is still limited and the targeted treatment of the different types of cancers is considered. Also, the side effects of the conventional forms of chemotherapy medicines, damaging and stressing the normal cells are considerable.

OBJECTIVE

This study introduces a novel and effective system for the targeted release of doxorubicin by successfully fabricating the green magnetic graphene oxide, chitosan, allium sativum, and quercus nanocomposite.

METHODS

The in vitro release of doxorubicin loaded on the nanocomposite was evaluated and investigated at pH 7.4 and 6.5, respectively. The drug diffusivity in the plasma environment was assessed for a more accurate analysis of the drug diffusion process. The nanocomposite loaded drug release mechanism and kinetics, as well as cytotoxicity assay was investigated.

RESULTS

The efficiency of the drug encapsulation was significantly enhanced using natural extract ingredients and consequently, the efficacy of the targeted treatment of cancerous tissues was improved. The developed nanocomposite provided a controlled release of doxorubicin in similar acidic conditions of the normal and cancerous cells and affirming that the fabricated system is thoroughly pH-dependent.

CONCLUSION

The cytotoxicity assay confirmed that the fabricated nanocomposite at a high growth rate of cancerous cells has an anticancer property and acts as a toxic agent against tumor cells, suggesting that in conjunction with doxorubicin, it can be highly improved for killing cancerous cells.

Synthesis, Bioapplications, and Toxicity Evaluation of Chitosan-Based Nanoparticles

The development of advanced nanomaterials and technologies is essential in biomedical engineering to improve the quality of life. Chitosan-based nanomaterials are on the forefront and attract wide interest due to their versatile physicochemical characteristics such as biodegradability, biocompatibility, and non-toxicity, which play a promising role in biological applications. Chitosan and its derivatives are employed in several applications including pharmaceuticals and biomedical engineering. This article presents a comprehensive overview of recent advances in chitosan derivatives and nanoparticle synthesis, as well as emerging applications in medicine, tissue engineering, drug delivery, gene therapy, and cancer therapy. In addition to the applications, we critically review the main concerns and mitigation strategies related to chitosan bactericidal properties, toxicity/safety using tissue cultures and animal models, and also their potential environmental impact. At the end of this review, we also provide some of future directions and conclusions that are important for expanding the field of biomedical applications of the chitosan nanoparticles.

Recent Progress and Advances of Multi-Stimuli-Responsive Dendrimers in Drug Delivery for Cancer Treatment

Despite the fact that nanocarriers as drug delivery systems overcome the limitation of chemotherapy, the leakage of encapsulated drugs during the delivery process to the target site can still cause toxic effects to healthy cells in other tissues and organs in the body. Controlling drug release at the target site, responding to stimuli that originated from internal changes within the body, as well as stimuli manipulated by external sources has recently received significant attention. Owning to the spherical shape and porous structure, dendrimer is utilized as a material for drug delivery. Moreover, the surface region of dendrimer has various moieties facilitating the surface functionalization to develop the desired material. Therefore, multi-stimuli-responsive dendrimers or 'smart' dendrimers that respond to more than two stimuli will be an inspired attempt to achieve the site-specific release and reduce as much as possible the side effects of the drug. The aim of this review was to delve much deeper into the recent progress of multi-stimuli-responsive dendrimers in the delivery of anticancer drugs in addition to the major potential challenges.

Metal-organic framework-coated magnetite nanoparticles for synergistic magnetic hyperthermia and chemotherapy with pH-triggered drug release

In nanoplatform-based tumor treatment, combining chemotherapy with hyperthermia therapy is an interesting strategy to achieve enhanced therapeutic efficacy with low dose of delivery drugs. Compared to photothermal therapy, magnetic hyperthermia has few restrictions on penetrating tissue by an alternating magnetic field, and thereby could cure various solid tumors, even deep-tissue ones. In this work, we proposed to construct magnetic nanocomposites (Fe3O4@PDA@ZIF-90) by the external growth of metal-organic framework ZIF-90 on polydopamine (PDA)-coated Fe3O4 nanoparticles for synergistic magnetic hyperthermia and chemotherapy. In such multifunctional platform, Fe3O4 nanoparticle was utilized as a magnetic heating seed, PDA layer acted as an inducer for the growth of ZIF-90 shell and porous ZIF-90 shell served as drug nanocarrier to load doxorubicin (DOX). The well-defined Fe3O4@PDA@ZIF-90 core-shell nanoparticles were displayed with an average size of ca. 200 nm and possessed the abilities to load high capacity of DOX as well as trigger drug release in a pH-responsive way. Furthermore, the Fe3O4@PDA@ZIF-90 nanoparticles can raise the local temperature to meet hyperthermia condition under an alternating magnetic field owing to the magnetocaloric effect of Fe3O4 cores. In the in vitro experiments, the Fe3O4@PDA@ZIF-90 nanoparticles showed a negligible cytotoxicity to Hela cells. More significantly, after cellular internalization, the DOX-loaded Fe3O4@PDA@ZIF-90 nanoparticles exhibited distinctively synergistic effect to kill tumor cells with higher efficacy compared to chemotherapy or magnetic hyperthermia alone, presenting a great potential for efficient tumor therapy.

Horizons of nanotechnology applications in female specific cancers

Female-specific cancers are the most common cancers in women worldwide. Early detection methods remain unavailable for most of these cancers, signifying that most of them are diagnosed at later stages. Furthermore, current treatment options for most female-specific cancers are surgery, radiation and chemotherapy. Although important milestones in molecularly targeted approaches have been achieved lately, current therapeutic strategies for female-specific cancers remain limited, ineffective and plagued by the emergence of chemoresistance, which aggravates prognosis. Recently, the application of nanotechnology to the medical field has allowed the development of novel nano-based approaches for the management and treatment of cancers, including female-specific cancers. These approaches promise to improve patient survival rates by reducing side effects, enabling selective delivery of drugs to tumor tissues and enhancing the uptake of therapeutic compounds, thus increasing anti-tumor activity. In this review, we focus on the application of nano-based technologies to the design of novel and innovative diagnostic and therapeutic strategies in the context of female-specific cancers, highlighting their potential uses and limitations.

A responsive porous hydrogel particle-based delivery system for oncotherapy

Liver cancer is one of the malignant cancers that seriously threatens human health. Although some common treatments including chemotherapy have been applied in oncotherapy, there are often serious shortcomings such as frequent and uncontrollable drug infusion. To overcome these limitations, here, we introduced responsive porous hydrogel microparticles loaded with 5-fluorouracil and metformin for oncotherapy. Because of the interconnected porous structures, various forms of active molecules could be loaded into the particles. In addition, the relatively higher temperature of the tumor site and the temperature-responsive shape transition of pNIPAM hydrogel enabled controllable drug release. The porous pNIPAM particles not only exhibited large loading efficiency and sustained release for the 5-fluorouracil and metformin co-delivery, but also protected drugs from being resolved. Thus, it can be anticipated that the porous microparticles will have great potential in oncotherapy.

Metal-Organic Framework-Based Stimuli-Responsive Systems for Drug Delivery

With the rapid development of nanotechnology, stimuli-responsive nanomaterials have provided an alternative for designing controllable drug delivery systems due to their spatiotemporally controllable properties. As a new type of porous material, metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) have been widely used in biomedical applications, especially drug delivery systems, owing to their tunable pore size, high surface area and pore volume, and easy surface modification. Here, recent progress in MOF-based stimuli-responsive systems is presented, including pH-, magnetic-, ion-, temperature-, pressure-, light-, humidity-, redox-, and multiple stimuli-responsive systems for the delivery of anticancer drugs. The remaining challenges and suggestions for future directions for the rational design of MOF-based nanomedicines are also discussed.

PEGylated liposomes: immunological responses

A commonly held view is that nanocarriers conjugated to polyethylene glycol (PEG) are non-immunogenic. However, many studies have reported that unexpected immune responses have occurred against PEG-conjugated nanocarriers. One unanticipated response is the rapid clearance of PEGylated nanocarriers upon repeat administration, called the accelerated blood clearance (ABC) phenomenon. ABC involves the production of antibodies toward nanocarrier components, including PEG, which reduces the safety and effectiveness of encapsulated therapeutic agents. Another immune response is the hypersensitivity or infusion reaction referred to as complement (C) activation-related pseudoallergy (CARPA). Such immunogenicity and adverse reactivities of PEGylated nanocarriers may be of potential concern for the clinical use of PEGylated therapeutics. Accordingly, screening of the immunogenicity and CARPA reactogenicity of nanocarrier-based therapeutics should be a prerequisite before they can proceed into clinical studies. This review presents PEGylated liposomes, immunogenicity of PEG, the ABC phenomenon, C activation and lipid-induced CARPA from a toxicological point of view, and also addresses the factors that influence these adverse interactions with the immune system.

Recent advances with optical upconverters made from all-organic and hybrid materials

The growing interest in near-infrared (NIR) imaging is explained by the increasing number of applications in this spectral range, which includes process monitoring and medical imaging. NIR-to-visible optical upconverters made by integrating a NIR photosensitive unit with a visible emitting unit convert incident NIR light to visible light, allowing imaging of a NIR scene directly with the naked eye. Optical upconverters made entirely from organic and hybrid materials - which include colloidal quantum dots, and metal-halide perovskites - enable low-cost and pixel-free NIR imaging. These devices have emerged as a promising addition to current NIR imagers based on inorganic semiconductor photodiode arrays interconnected with read-out integrated circuitry. Here, we review the recent progress in the field of optical upconverters made from organic and hybrid materials, explain their functionality and characterization, and identify open challenges and opportunities.