Triterpenoids with neurotrophic activity fromGanoderma lucidum

Supercritical carbon-oxide extracts from cultivated and wild-grown Ganoderma lucidum mushroom: differences in ergosterol and ganoderic acids content, antioxidative and enzyme inhibitory properties

In the present study, we investigated the effect of supercritical carbon-oxide (scCO2) extraction on antioxidant capacity, enzyme inhibitory potential, and levels of ergosterol and ganoderic acid in both cultivated and wild-grown G. lucidum. Extraction yields were slightly higher for wild samples (1.29%) than for cultivated ones (1.13%). The levels of ganoderic acid and ergosterol were higher in cultivated in comparison to wild samples. In addition, the total phenolic content in cultivated samples (13.42 mg GAE g-1) was higher than in wild samples (10.38 mg GAE g-1). In general, cultivated samples exhibited stronger antioxidant potential when compared with wild ones. Regarding enzyme inhibitory properties, it was validated that the wild samples (14.01 mg OE g-1) possessed greater lipase activity in comparison to cultivated samples (5.36 mg OE g-1). Based on our findings, cultivated G. lucidum might be considered a valuable source of natural bioactive agents in the preparation of health-promoting products.

Neurotrophic Natural Products

Neurotrophins (NGF, BDNF, NT3, NT4) can decrease cell death, induce differentiation, as well as sustain the structure and function of neurons, which make them promising therapeutic agents for the treatment of neurodegenerative disorders. However, neurotrophins have not been very effective in clinical trials mostly because they cannot pass through the blood-brain barrier owing to being high-molecular-weight proteins. Thus, neurotrophin-mimic small molecules, which stimulate the synthesis of endogenous neurotrophins or enhance neurotrophic actions, may serve as promising alternatives to neurotrophins. Small-molecular-weight natural products, which have been used in dietary functional foods or in traditional medicines over the course of human history, have a great potential for the development of new therapeutic agents against neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease. In this contribution, a variety of natural products possessing neurotrophic properties such as neurogenesis, neurite outgrowth promotion (neuritogenesis), and neuroprotection are described, and a focus is made on the chemistry and biology of several neurotrophic natural products.

A Comprehensive Review on the Chemical Composition, Pharmacology and Clinical Applications of Ganoderma

Ganoderma is the dried fruiting bodiy of Ganoderma lucidum (Leyss.ex Fr.) Karst. or Ganoderma sinense Zhao, Xu et Zhang, belonging to the family Polyporaceae, which grows mainly in tropical, subtropical, and temperate regions. As a traditional Chinese medicine, Ganoderma has been used in China for more than 2000 years because of its medicinal properties, such as relieving cough and asthma, providing nourishment, and strengthening. Currently, more than 470 natural compounds have been obtained from the fungus, mainly including terpenoids, steroids, alkaloids, phenols, and other types of compounds. Modern pharmacological studies have shown that Ganoderma has antitumor, anti-inflammatory, hypoglycemic, hypolipidemic, and immunomodulatory effects. It is mainly used in clinical practice for the treatment of Diabetic Nephropathy and malignant tumors, with few side effects and high safety. This paper reviews the progress of research on its chemical composition, pharmacological effects, and clinical applications, with the goal of providing a basis for the better development and utilization of Ganoderma.

Natural Bio-Compounds from Ganoderma lucidum and Their Beneficial Biological Actions for Anticancer Application: A Review

Ganoderma lucidum (G. lucidum) has been known for many centuries in Asian countries under different names, varying depending on the country. The objective of this review is to investigate the scientific research on the natural active bio-compounds in extracts obtained from G. lucidum with significant biological actions in the treatment of cancer. This review presents the classes of bio-compounds existing in G. lucidum that have been reported over time in the main databases and have shown important biological actions in the treatment of cancer. The results highlight the fact that G. lucidum possesses important bioactive compounds such as polysaccharides, triterpenoids, sterols, proteins, nucleotides, fatty acids, vitamins, and minerals, which have been demonstrated to exhibit multiple anticancer effects, namely immunomodulatory, anti-proliferative, cytotoxic, and antioxidant action. The potential health benefits of G. lucidum are systematized based on biological actions. The findings present evidence regarding the lack of certainty about the effects of G. lucidum bio-compounds in treating different forms of cancer, which may be due to the use of different types of Ganoderma formulations, differences in the study populations, or due to drug-disease interactions. In the future, larger clinical trials are needed to clarify the potential benefits of pharmaceutical preparations of G. lucidum, standardized by the known active components in the prevention and treatment of cancer.

Neuroprotective, neurogenic, and anticholinergic evidence of Ganoderma lucidum cognitive effects: Crucial knowledge is still lacking

Ganoderma lucidum is a mushroom that has been widely used for centuries in Asian countries for its antiaging properties. It is popularly known as "Ling Zhi," "Reishi," and "Youngzhi," and because of its benefits, it is known as the "immortality mushroom." Pharmacological assays have revealed that G. lucidum ameliorates cognitive impairments through inhibition of β-amyloid and neurofibrillary tangle formation, antioxidant effect, reduction of inflammatory cytokine release and apoptosis, genic expression modulation, among other activities. Chemical investigations on G. lucidum have revealed the presence of metabolites such as triterpenes, which are the most explored in this field, as well as flavonoids, steroids, benzofurans, and alkaloids; in the literature, these have also been reported to have mnemonic activity. These properties of the mushroom make it a potential source of new drugs to prevent or reverse memory disorders, as actual medications are able to only alleviate some symptoms but are unable to stop the progress of cognitive impairments, with no impact on social, familiar, and personal relevance. In this review, we discuss the cognitive findings of G. lucidum reported in the literature, converging the proposed mechanisms through the several pathways that underlie memory and cognition processes. In addition, we highlight the gaps that deserve particular attention to support future studies.

Cytotoxic lanostane-type triterpenes from the fruiting bodies of Ganoderma lucidum

A new lanostane-type triterpene, namely 3-oxo-5α-lanosta-7,9(11)-dien-24-oic acid methyl ester (2), and three known compounds including ganoderal A (1), ganoderiol B (3) and ganodermenonol (4) were isolated from the fruiting bodies of Ganoderma lucidum by silica gel column chromatography and Sephadex LH-20 column chromatography. Their structures were determined by extensive NMR data and mass spectral analysis. The in vitro cytotoxic activity of the isolated compounds against SK-Hep-1, HepG2, Hela and Hela/VCR cancer cell lines was assessed by using MTT assay. The IC50 values of compound 1 were 43.09 ± 2.86, 42.31 ± 1.78 and 46.51 ± 1.95 μM in SK-Hep-1, HepG2 and Hela cells, respectively, after 48 h. The IC50 values of compound 4 were 44.70 ± 2.32 and 41.33 ± 2.15 μM in Hela and Hela/VCR cells, respectively, after 48 h.

A Review of Ganoderma Triterpenoids and Their Bioactivities

For centuries, Ganoderma has been used as a traditional medicine in Asian countries to prevent and treat various diseases. Numerous publications are stating that Ganoderma species have a variety of beneficial medicinal properties, and investigations on different metabolic regulations of Ganoderma species, extracts or isolated compounds have been performed both in vitro and in vivo. However, it has frequently been questioned whether Ganoderma is simply a dietary supplement for health or just a useful "medication" for restorative purposes. More than 600 chemical compounds including alkaloids, meroterpenoids, nucleobases, nucleosides, polysaccharides, proteins, steroids and triterpenes were extracted and identified from Ganoderma, with triterpenes serving as the primary components. In recent years, Ganoderma triterpenes and other small molecular constituents have aroused the interest of chemists and pharmacologists. Meanwhile, considering the significance of the triterpene constituents in the development of new drugs, this review describes 495 compounds from 25 Ganoderma species published between 1984 and 2022, commenting on their source, biosynthetic pathway, identification, biological activities and biosynthesis, together with applications of advanced analytical techniques to the characterization of Ganoderma triterpenoids.

Amelioration effect of water extract from Ganoderma resinaceum FQ23 solid-state fermentation fungal substance with high-yield ergothioneine on anxiety-like insomnia mice

Herein, a solid-state fermentation (SSF) system of Ganoderma resinaceum FQ23 with high-yield ergothioneine (EGT) was established, and the amelioration effect of the water extract from its fungal substance on anxiety-like insomnia mice was studied. The content of EGT in the G. resinaceum FQ23 SSF fungal substance increased to 1.146 ± 0.066 mg g^-1 DW in the optimization tests. Besides EGT, the common functional components of the water extract from the G. resinaceum FQ23 SSF fungal substance (GSW) were determined, including triterpenoids, polysaccharides, phenols, proteins and amino acids. The animal experiments showed that GSW could alleviate the anxiety-like behavior, improve the antioxidant capacity and protect the organ structure of the anxiety-like insomnia mice. With an increase in the dose of GSW given to the anxiety-like insomnia mice, their serum 5-HT and GABA levels increased, HPA axis hormone levels significantly decreased, BDNF level notably increased, and the response level of the BDNF/CREB signaling pathway was significantly enhanced, indicating that GSW may improve neuroendocrine regulation and neuroprotection in anxiety-like insomnia mice. A 30-times dose of GSW had no acute toxicity in the normal mice. Therefore, the SSF fungal substance of G. resinaceum FQ23 is a potential dietary source for improving sleep. It can be used as a solid drink to help people who are poor sleepers and as a substitute for tea or coffee to help people who are like to drink tea or coffee and cannot sleep.

Neurotrophic and Immunomodulatory Lanostane Triterpenoids from Wood-Inhabiting Basidiomycota

Neurotrophins such as nerve growth factor (ngf) and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (bdnf) play important roles in the central nervous system. They are potential therapeutic drugs for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease. In this study, we investigated the neurotrophic properties of triterpenes isolated from fruiting bodies of Laetiporus sulphureus and a mycelial culture of Antrodia sp. MUCL 56049. The structures of the isolated compounds were elucidated based on nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy in combination with high-resolution electrospray mass spectrometry (HR-ESIMS). The secondary metabolites were tested for neurotrophin (ngf and bdnf) expression levels on human astrocytoma 1321N1 cells. Neurite outgrowth activity using rat pheochromocytoma (PC-12) cells was also determined. Twelve triterpenoids were isolated, of which several potently stimulated the expression of neurotrophic factors, namely, ngf (sulphurenic acid, 15α-dehydroxytrametenolic acid, fomefficinic acid D, and 16α-hydroxyeburicoic acid) and bdnf (sulphurenic acid and 15α-dehydroxytrametenolic acid), respectively. The triterpenes also potentiated ngf-induced neurite outgrowth in PC-12 cells. This is, to the best of our knowledge, the first report on the compound class of lanostanes in direct relation to bdnf and ngf enhancement. These compounds are widespread in medicinal mushrooms; hence, they appear promising as a starting point for the development of drugs and mycopharmaceuticals to combat neurodegenerative diseases. Interestingly, they do not show any pronounced cytotoxicity and may, therefore, be better suited for therapy than many other neurotrophic compounds that were previously reported.

Colossolactone J, a highly modified lanostane triterpenoid from a natural fruiting body of Ganoderma colossus

Colossolactone J (1), an undescribed lanostane triterpenoid was isolated from a natural fruiting body of Ganoderma colossus using silica gel column chromatography and preparative HPLC. Its structure was elucidated on the basis of the spectroscopic method. The absolute configuration was determined by the combination of the modified Mosher's method and detailed NMR data analysis.

Antioxidant, antibacterial, antitumor, antifungal, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, and nevro-protective activity of Ganoderma lucidum: An overview

Ganoderma lucidum is a very medicinal mushroom that has been utilized in Oriental medicine for many years. It has a wide range of pharmacological and therapeutic properties, and has been used for many years as a health promoter. It contains various biologically active compounds that improve the immune system and have antioxidant, antitumor, anti-inflammatory, antifungal, and antimicrobial properties. Active compounds include triterpenoids and polysaccharides, as well as proteins, lipids, phenolics, sterols, etc. In the following review, we summarize briefly their biological activities, such as antioxidant, anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, antitumor, anti-viral, and anti-inflammatory activity. Although Ganoderma has a number of medicinal effects that have been confirmed by the in vitro and in vivo studies summarised in this review, there are some limitations. Clinical trials face mainly a lack of pure constituents. Accurate identification of the compounds obtained is also problematic. In addition, most of the included studies were small, and there were concerns about the methodological quality of each study. Studies have shown that Ganoderma has valuable potential for the prevention and treatment of cancer. In any case, G. lucidum cannot be used as first-line therapy for cancer.

Edible Mushrooms as a Potential Component of Dietary Interventions for Major Depressive Disorder

Dietary interventions for people suffering from major depressive disorder (MDD) are an ongoing field of research. In this article, we present a comprehensive background for understanding the possibility of using edible medicinal mushrooms as an adjunctive treatment for MDD. We start with a brief history of MDD, its diagnosis, epidemiology and treatment, and the effects of diet on depression symptoms, followed by a review of neurobiological, behavioral, and clinical studies of medicinal mushrooms. We specifically highlight the results of preclinical and clinical studies on dietary supplementation with three selected mushroom species: Lion’s mane (Hericium erinaceus), Caterpillar mushroom (Cordyceps militaris), and Lingzhi/Reishi (Ganoderma lucidum). Preliminary small-sample clinical studies suggest that Lion’s mane can influence well-being of humans. In the case of Reishi, the results of clinical studies are equivocal, while in the case of Caterpillar Mushroom, such studies are underway. Edible mushrooms contain 5-hydroxy-L-tryptophan (5-HTP), which is a direct precursor of serotonin—a neurotransmitter targeted in pharmacotherapy of MDD. Therefore, in light of the well-recognized role of stress as a pathogenic factor of MDD, we also describe the neurobiological mechanisms of the interaction between stress and serotonergic neurotransmission; and summarize the current state of knowledge on dietary supplementation with 5-HTP in MDD.

A new anti-tumor cytotoxic triterpene from Ganoderma lucidum

Ganoderma lucidum (G. lucidum) is a famous medicinal fungus used as a traditional medicine for generations in China. Among bioactivities that G. lucidum possesses, the anti-tumor effect has aroused extensive interests. In this study, one new triterpene (1) was isolated from 90% ethanol extract of the dried fruiting bodies of G. lucidum. Its structure was determined based on the analysis of its spectroscopic data, including 1 D and 2 D NMR and MS spectra. Furthermore, 1 elicited moderate anti-tumor activities (IC₅₀ values of 15.38 ± 0.34 and 18.61 ± 0.55 μM for A549 and HepG2 cells, respectively) compared with cisplatin which was employed as the positive drug with IC₅₀ values of 8.21 ± 0.17 and 5.36 ± 0.29 μM for A549 and HepG2 cells, respectively. The mechanism study by RT-qPCR and western blot analysis suggested that the p53/caspase-3 pathway is involved in the 1-induced apoptosis.

Ganoderma lucidum (Reishi) an edible mushroom; a comprehensive and critical review of its nutritional, cosmeceutical, mycochemical, pharmacological, clinical, and toxicological properties

Reishi owes an exceptional value in nutritional, cosmeceutical, and medical treatments; however, none of the studies has provided its future-driven critical assessment. This study documents an up-to-date review (2015-2020, wherever applicable) and provide valuable insights (preclinical and clinical evidence-based) with comprehensive and critical assessments. Various databases 'Google scholar', 'Web of Science', 'ScienceDirect', 'PubMed', 'Springer Link', books, theses, and library resources were used. The taxonomic chaos of G. lucidum and its related species was discussed in detail with solution-oriented emphasis. Reishi contains polysaccharides (α/β-D-glucans), alkaloids, triterpenoids (ganoderic acids, ganoderenic acids, ganoderol, ganoderiol, lucidenic acids), sterols/ergosterol, proteins (LZ-8, LZ-9), nucleosides (adenosine, inosine, uridine), and nucleotides (guanine, adenine). Some active drugs are explored at an optimum level to make them potential drug candidates. The pharmacological potential was observed in diabetes, inflammation, epilepsy, neurodegeneration, cancer, anxiety, sedation, cardiac diseases, depression, hepatic diseases, and immune disorders; however, most of the studies are preclinical with a number of drawbacks. In particular, quality clinical data are intensely needed to support pharmacological activities for human use. The presence of numerous micro-, macro, and trace elements imparts an essential nutritional and cosmeceutical value to Reishi, and various marketed products are available already, but the clinical studies regarding safety and efficacy, interactions with foods/drinks, chronic use, teratogenicity, mutagenicity, and genotoxicity are missing for Reishi. Reishi possesses many valuable pharmacological activities, and the number of patents and clinical trials is increasing for Reishi. Yet, a gap in research exists for Reishi, which is discussed in detail in the forthcoming sections.

Induction of Apoptosis in HeLa Cells by a Novel Peptide from Fruiting Bodies of Morchella importuna via the Mitochondrial Apoptotic Pathway

Morels (Morchella spp.) are a genus of edible fungi with important economic and medicinal value. In this study, a novel peptide (MIPP) was extracted from the fruiting bodies of Morchella importuna using gel filtration chromatography. Structural analysis showed that the molecular mass of MIPP is 831 Da, and it has a simple amino acid sequence: Ser-Leu-Ser-Leu-Ser-Val-Ala-Arg. To explore the antitumor activity of MIPP, the effect of MIPP on HeLa cell apoptosis and the underlying preventative mechanisms were investigated. Results showed that MIPP reduced the viability of HeLa cells in a concentration-dependent manner. TUNEL analysis and flow cytometric examination showed that MIPP decreased cell proliferation via a mitochondrial-dependent pathway, as manifested by downregulation of Bcl-2/Bax, promotion of the movement of cytochrome C from the mitochondria to the cytoplasm, and triggering of caspase-9 and caspase-3. Therefore, MIPP may be a promising tumor-preventive agent, especially in human cervical cancer.

Simple and robust differentiation of Ganoderma species by high performance thin-layer chromatography coupled with single quadrupole mass spectrometry QDa

In this study, a high performance thin-layer chromatography/single quadrupole mass spectrometry QDa (HPTLC-QDa) method for robust authentication of Ganoderma lucidum, a popular and valuable herbal medicine, has been developed. This method is simple and practical, which allows direct generation of characteristic mass spectra from the HPTLC plates automatically with the application of in situ solvent desorption interface. The HPTLC silica gel plates were developed with toluene-ethyl formate-formic acid (5 : 5 : 0.2, V/V) and all bands were transferred to QDa system directly in situ using 80% methanol with 0.1% formic acid as desorption solvent. The acquired HPTLC-QDa spectra showed that luminous yellow band b3, containing ganoderic acid B/G/H and ganodeneric acid B, the major active components of Ganoderma, could be found only in G. lucidum and G. lucidum (Antler-shaped), but not in G. sinense and G. applanatum. Moreover, bands b13 and b14 with m/z 475/477 and m/z 475/491/495, respectively, could be detected in G. lucidum (Antler-shaped), but not in G. lucidum, thus allowing simple and robust authentication of G. lucidum with confused species. This method is proved to be simple, practical and reproducible, which can be extended to analyze other herbal medicines.

A Mechanistic Review on Medicinal Mushrooms-Derived Bioactive Compounds: Potential Mycotherapy Candidates for Alleviating Neurological Disorders

According to the World Health Organization, neurological and neurodegenerative diseases are highly debilitating and pose the greatest threats to public health. Diseases of the nervous system are caused by a particular pathological process that negatively affects the central and peripheral nervous systems. These diseases also lead to the loss of neuronal cell function, which causes alterations in the nervous system structure, resulting in the degeneration or death of nerve cells throughout the body. This causes problems with movement (ataxia) and mental dysfunction (dementia), both of which are commonly observed symptoms in Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, and multiple sclerosis. Medicinal mushrooms are higher fungi with nutraceutical properties and are low in calories and fat. They are also a rich source of nutrients and bioactive compounds such as carbohydrates, proteins, fibers, and vitamins that have been used in the treatment of many ailments. Medicinal mushrooms such as Pleurotus giganteus, Ganoderma lucidium, and Hericium erinaceus are commonly produced worldwide for use as health supplements and medicine. Medicinal mushrooms and their extracts have a large number of bioactive compounds, such as polysaccharide β-glucan, or polysaccharide-protein complexes, like lectins, lactones, terpenoids, alkaloids, antibiotics, and metal-chelating agents. This review will focus on the role of the medicinal properties of different medicinal mushrooms that contain bioactive compounds with a protective effect against neuronal dysfunction. This information will facilitate the development of drugs against neurodegenerative diseases.

New advances and potentials of fungal immunomodulatory proteins for therapeutic purposes

Fungal immunomodulatory proteins (FIPs) are fascinating small and heat-stable bioactive proteins in a distinct protein family due to similarities in their structures and sequences. They are found in fungi, including the fruiting bodies producing fungi comprised of culinary and medicinal mushrooms. Structurally, most FIPs exist as homodimers; each subunit consisting of an N-terminal α-helix dimerization and a C-terminal fibronectin III domain. Increasing numbers of identified FIPs from either different or same fungal species clearly indicates the growing research interests into its medicinal properties which include immunomodulatory, anti-inflammation, anti-allergy, and anticancer. Most FIPs increased IFN-γ production in peripheral blood mononuclear cells, potentially exerting immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory effects by inhibiting overproduction of T helper-2 (Th2) cytokines common in an allergy reaction. Recently, FIP from Ganoderma microsporum (FIP-gmi) was shown to promote neurite outgrowth for potential therapeutic applications in neuro-disorders. This review discussed FIPs' structural and protein characteristics, their recombinant protein production for functional studies, and the recent advances in their development and applications as pharmaceutics and functional foods.

Evidence for Effective Inhibitory Actions on Hyperpolarization-Activated Cation Current Caused by Ganoderma Triterpenoids, the Main Active Constitutents of Ganoderma Spores

The triterpenoid fraction of Ganoderma (Ganoderma triterpenoids, GTs) has been increasingly demonstrated to provide effective antioxidant, neuroprotective or cardioprotective activities. However, whether GTs is capable of perturbing the transmembrane ionic currents existing in electrically excitable cells is not thoroughly investigated. In this study, an attempt was made to study whether GTs could modify hyperpolarization-activated cation currents (I_h) in pituitary tumor (GH₃) cells and in HL-1 atrial cardiomyocytes. In whole-cell current recordings, the addition of GTs produced a dose-dependent reduction in the amplitude of I_h in GH₃ cells with an IC₅₀ value of 11.7 µg/mL, in combination with a lengthening in activation time constant of the current. GTs (10 µg/mL) also caused a conceivable shift in the steady-state activation curve of I_h along the voltage axis to a more negative potential by approximately 11 mV. Subsequent addition of neither 8-cyclopentyl-1,3-dipropylxanthine nor 8-(p-sulfophenyl)theophylline, still in the presence of GTs, could attenuate GTs-mediated inhibition of I_h. In current-clamp voltage recordings, GTs diminished the firing frequency of spontaneous action potentials in GH₃ cells, and it also decreased the amplitude of sag potential in response to hyperpolarizing current stimuli. In murine HL-1 cardiomyocytes, the GTs addition also suppressed the amplitude of I_h effectively. In DPCPX (1 µM)-treated HL-1 cells, the inhibitory effect of GTs on I_h remained efficacious. Collectively, the inhibition of I_h caused by GTs is independent of its possible binding to adenosine receptors and it might have profound influence in electrical behaviors of different types of electrically excitable cells (e.g., pituitary and heart cells) if similar in vitro or in vivo findings occur.

Review of the molecular mechanisms of Ganoderma lucidum triterpenoids: Ganoderic acids A, C2, D, F, DM, X and Y

Ganoderma lucidum is a multi-purpose plant medicine that is homologous to functional food. The most attractive properties of G. lucidum are its immunomodulatory and antitumour activities, which are mainly attributed to the following two major active components: G. lucidum polysaccharides and G. lucidum triterpenoids (GLTs). GLTs are effective as supplemental therapies and improve health when combined with other medications to treat hepatitis, fatigue syndrome, and prostate cancer. However, research investigating the mechanism and application of G. lucidum or GLTs in the treatment of diseases remains preliminary in terms of both the utilization efficacy and product type. This review offers comprehensive insight into the pharmacological activities of GLTs and their potential applications in the development of functional foods and nutraceuticals. Specifically, 83 GLTs were selected, and their molecular structures and chemical formulas were described. We also describe 7 ganoderic acids that are currently at different stages of clinical trials (ganoderic acids A, C2, D, F, DM, X and Y). The related pharmacodynamic mechanisms and targeted signalling proteins were further analysed. Notably, the specific relationship between autophagy and apoptosis induced by ganoderic acid DM is summarized here for the first time.

Classification, Biological Characteristics and Cultivations of Ganoderma

Species of Ganoderma (Ling-zhi) have been widely researched and cultivated due to their highly prized medicinal value, which is famous as a traditional Chinese medicine. The aims of this chapter are to (1) review the historical taxonomy of the family Ganodermataceae, (2) provide an account of the genera and species of Ganoderma together with the distributions and habitats, (3) evaluate morphological features and phylogenetic methods to define the genera and species and (4) present two commonly used cultivated methods (wood-log cultivation and substitute cultivation) for Ganoderma.

Antitumour, Antimicrobial, Antioxidant and Antiacetylcholinesterase Effect of Ganoderma Lucidum Terpenoids and Polysaccharides: A Review

Ganoderma lucidum (Reishi) is a popular medicinal mushroom and has been used in oriental medicine because of its promoting effects on health and life expectancy. G. lucidum contains various compounds with a high grade of biological activty, which increase the immunity and show antitumour, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and acetylcholinesterase inhibitory activity. Several of these substances belong to the triterpenoids and polysaccharides classes. Proteins, lipids, phenols, sterols, etc. are also present. In the present review, an extensive overview of the presence of antitumour, antimicrobial, antioxidant and antiacetylcholinesterase compounds in G. lucidum extracts will be given, along with an evaluation of their therapeutic effects.

The potential neuritogenic activity of aqueous extracts from Morchella importuna in rat pheochromocytoma cells

The aim of this study was to explore the neuritogenic effects of aqueous extracts from the fruiting bodies of Morchella importuna (MEA). 3-(4, 5-dimethythiazol-2-yl)-2, 5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay was carried out to assess the cytotoxicity of MEA. Neurite outgrowth stimulation assay was used to evaluate the potentiation of neuritogenic activity induced by MEA. The specific inhibitors for TrkA, MEK/ERK and PI3K signaling pathway were served to clarify the mechanism of MEA's neuritogenic effects. It was shown that MEA could mimic neuritogenic activity of NGF, a kind of representative neurotrophic factors with no significant cytotoxicity, and stimulate neurite outgrowth in a dose-dependent manner of PC12 cells. The neuritogenic activity induced by MEA required activity of PI3K/Akt and MEK/ERK1/2 signaling pathways, as well as parts of TrkA receptor. Accordingly, MEA could be used as a promising neuritogenic-stimulation compound for nervous diseases treatment.

Anticancer effect of triterpenes from Ganoderma lucidum in human prostate cancer cells

Ganoderma lucidum, within the Polyporaceae family of Basidiomycota, is a popular traditional remedy medicine used in Asia to promote health and longevity. Compounds extracted from G. lucidum have revealed anticancer, antioxidant and liver protective effects. G. lucidum has been associated with prostate cancer cells. G. lucidum extracts contain numerous bioactive components; however, the exact functional monomer is unknown and the role of triterpenes from G. lucidum (GLT) in prostate cancer remain obscure. The present study investigated the effects of GLT on cell viability, migration, invasion and apoptosis in DU-145 human prostate cancer cells. The results demonstrated that a high dose (2 mg/ml) of GLT inhibits cell viability in a dose- and time-dependent manner by the regulation of matrix metalloproteases. Furthermore, GLT induced apoptosis of DU-145 cells. In general, GLT exerts its effect on cancer cells via numerous mechanisms and may have potential therapeutic use for the prevention and treatment of cancer.

Nortriterpenoids from the Fruiting Bodies of the Mushroom Ganoderma resinaceum

Ganoderma resinaceum is usually used as ethnomedicine for immune-regulation, hyperglycemia, and liver disease. To date, only a few chemical constituents have been reported from G. resinaceum. In this study, fifteen nortriterpenoids including six new nortriterpenoids (1–6) and nine known analogs (7–15), were separated and purified from the fruiting bodies of G. resinaceum. New compounds were identified as lucidone I (1), lucidone J (2), lucidone K (3), lucidone I (4), ganosineniol B (5), and ganosineniol C (6), based on analysis of extensive spectroscopic data (high resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS), nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), infrared (IR), and ultraviolet (UV)). The known compounds were assigned as lucidone A (7), lucidone B (8), lucidone H (9), lucidone E (10), lucidone F (11), lucidone D (12), lucidone C (13), ganoderense F (14), and ganosineniol A (15), by comparing their spectroscopic data with those reported in the literature. Compounds 3, 4, and 7–13 were examined for α-glucosidase inhibitory activity and display no significant activity, but the finding may support that the side chain of ganoderma triterpenoids played an important role in α-glucosidase inhibitory activity.

Therapeutic potential of culinary-medicinal mushrooms for the management of neurodegenerative diseases: diversity, metabolite, and mechanism

Mushrooms have long been used not only as food but also for the treatment of various ailments. Although at its infancy, accumulated evidence suggested that culinary-medicinal mushrooms may play an important role in the prevention of many age-associated neurological dysfunctions, including Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases. Therefore, efforts have been devoted to a search for more mushroom species that may improve memory and cognition functions. Such mushrooms include Hericium erinaceus, Ganoderma lucidum, Sarcodon spp., Antrodia camphorata, Pleurotus giganteus, Lignosus rhinocerotis, Grifola frondosa, and many more. Here, we review over 20 different brain-improving culinary-medicinal mushrooms and at least 80 different bioactive secondary metabolites isolated from them. The mushrooms (either extracts from basidiocarps/mycelia or isolated compounds) reduced beta amyloid-induced neurotoxicity and had anti-acetylcholinesterase, neurite outgrowth stimulation, nerve growth factor (NGF) synthesis, neuroprotective, antioxidant, and anti-(neuro)inflammatory effects. The in vitro and in vivo studies on the molecular mechanisms responsible for the bioactive effects of mushrooms are also discussed. Mushrooms can be considered as useful therapeutic agents in the management and/or treatment of neurodegeneration diseases. However, this review focuses on in vitro evidence and clinical trials with humans are needed.

Global Mapping of Traditional Chinese Medicine into Bioactivity Space and Pathways Annotation Improves Mechanistic Understanding and Discovers Relationships between Therapeutic Action (Sub)classes

Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) still needs more scientific rationale to be proven for it to be accepted further in the West. We are now in the position to propose computational hypotheses for the mode-of-actions (MOAs) of 45 TCM therapeutic action (sub)classes from in silico target prediction algorithms, whose target was later annotated with Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes pathway, and to discover the relationship between them by generating a hierarchical clustering. The results of 10,749 TCM compounds showed 183 enriched targets and 99 enriched pathways from Estimation Score ≤ 0 and ≥ 5% of compounds/targets in a (sub)class. The MOA of a (sub)class was established from supporting literature. Overall, the most frequent top three enriched targets/pathways were immune-related targets such as tyrosine-protein phosphatase nonreceptor type 2 (PTPN2) and digestive system such as mineral absorption. We found two major protein families, G-protein coupled receptor (GPCR), and protein kinase family contributed to the diversity of the bioactivity space, while digestive system was consistently annotated pathway motif, which agreed with the important treatment principle of TCM, “the foundation of acquired constitution” that includes spleen and stomach. In short, the TCM (sub)classes, in many cases share similar targets/pathways despite having different indications.

From 2000years of Ganoderma lucidum to recent developments in nutraceuticals

Medicinal mushrooms have been used for centuries as nutraceuticals to improve health and to treat numerous chronic and infectious diseases. One such mushroom is Ganoderma lucidum, commonly known as Lingzhi, a species revered as a medicinal mushroom for treating assorted diseases and prolonging life. The fungus is found in diverse locations, and this may have contributed to confusion regarding the correct taxonomic classification of the genus Ganoderma. G. lucidum was first used to name a specimen found in England and thereafter was naively applied to a different Ganoderma species found in Asia, commonly known as Chinese Lingzhi. Despite the taxonomic confusion, which has largely been uncorrected, the popularity of Lingzhi has escalated across the globe. The current taxonomic situation is now discussed accurately in this Special Issue on Ganoderma. Today it is a multi-billion dollar industry wherein Lingzhi is cultivated or collected from the wild and consumed as a tea, in alcoholic beverages, and as a nutraceutical to confer numerous health benefits. Consumption of nutraceuticals has grown in popularity, and it is becoming increasingly important that active ingredients be identified and that suppliers make substantiated health claims about their products. The objective of this article is to present a review of G. lucidum over the past 2000 years from prized ancient "herbal" remedy to its use in nutraceuticals and to the establishment of a 2.5 billion $ (US) industry.

Secondary metabolites from Ganoderma

Ganoderma is a genus of medicinal mushrooms. This review deals with secondary metabolites isolated from Ganoderma and their biological significance. Phytochemical studies over the last 40years led to the isolation of 431 secondary metabolites from various Ganoderma species. The major secondary compounds isolated are (a) C30 lanostanes (ganoderic acids), (b) C30 lanostanes (aldehydes, alcohols, esters, glycosides, lactones, ketones), (c) C27 lanostanes (lucidenic acids), (d) C27 lanostanes (alcohols, lactones, esters), (e) C24, C25 lanostanes (f) C30 pentacyclic triterpenes, (g) meroterpenoids, (h) farnesyl hydroquinones (meroterpenoids), (i) C15 sesquiterpenoids, (j) steroids, (k) alkaloids, (l) prenyl hydroquinone (m) benzofurans, (n) benzopyran-4-one derivatives and (o) benzenoid derivatives. Ganoderma lucidum is the species extensively studied for its secondary metabolites and biological activities. Ganoderma applanatum, Ganoderma colossum, Ganoderma sinense, Ganoderma cochlear, Ganoderma tsugae, Ganoderma amboinense, Ganoderma orbiforme, Ganoderma resinaceum, Ganoderma hainanense, Ganoderma concinna, Ganoderma pfeifferi, Ganoderma neo-japonicum, Ganoderma tropicum, Ganoderma australe, Ganoderma carnosum, Ganoderma fornicatum, Ganoderma lipsiense (synonym G. applanatum), Ganoderma mastoporum, Ganoderma theaecolum, Ganoderma boninense, Ganoderma capense and Ganoderma annulare are the other Ganoderma species subjected to phytochemical studies. Further phytochemical studies on Ganoderma could lead to the discovery of hitherto unknown biologically active secondary metabolites.

A comprehensive review of the structure elucidation and biological activity of triterpenoids from Ganoderma spp

Ganoderma triterpenes (GTs) are the major secondary metabolites of Ganoderma lucidum, a traditional Chinese medicine, popularly used for complementary cancer therapy. GTs are lanostane-tetracyclic triterpenes. They have been reported to possess anti-tumor, anti-inflammation, antioxidant, antimicrobial and blood fat reducing effects. To date, 316 GTs have been found and their similar chemical structures have proved difficult to elucidate. This paper compiles 316 naturally occurring triterpenes from Ganoderma based on the literature published through January 2013 along with their structures, physiological activities and 13C-NMR spectral data.

Neurite outgrowth stimulatory effects of culinary-medicinal mushrooms and their toxicity assessment using differentiating Neuro-2a and embryonic fibroblast BALB/3T3

Background

Mushrooms are not only regarded as gourmet cuisine but also as therapeutic agent to promote cognition health. However, little toxicological information is available regarding their safety. Therefore, the aim of this study was to screen selected ethno-pharmacologically important mushrooms for stimulatory effects on neurite outgrowth and to test for any cytotoxicity.

Methods

The stimulatory effect of mushrooms on neurite outgrowth was assessed in differentiating mouse neuroblastoma (N2a) cells. Neurite length was measured using Image-Pro Insight processor system. Neuritogenesis activity was further validated by fluorescence immunocytochemical staining of neurofilaments. In vitro cytotoxicity was investigated by using mouse embryonic fibroblast (BALB/3T3) and N2a cells for any embryo- and neuro-toxic effects; respectively.

Results

Aqueous extracts of Ganoderma lucidum, Lignosus rhinocerotis, Pleurotus giganteus and Grifola frondosa; as well as an ethanol extract of Cordyceps militaris significantly (p < 0.05) promoted the neurite outgrowth in N2a cells by 38.4 ± 4.2%, 38.1 ± 2.6%, 33.4 ± 4.6%, 33.7 ± 1.5%, and 35.8 ± 3.4%; respectively. The IC₅₀ values obtained from tetrazolium (MTT), neutral red uptake (NRU) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) release assays showed no toxic effects following 24 h exposure of N2a and 3T3 cells to mushroom extracts.

Conclusion

Our results indicate that G. lucidum, L. rhinocerotis, P. giganteus, G. frondosa and C. militaris may be developed as safe and healthy dietary supplements for brain and cognitive health.

Triterpenoids

This review covers the isolation and structure determination of triterpenoids including squalene derivatives, lanostanes, holostanes, cycloartanes, cucurbitanes, dammaranes, euphanes, tirucallanes, tetranortriterpenoids, quassinoids, lupanes, oleananes, friedelanes, ursanes, hopanes, onoceranes and saponins; 308 references are cited.

Structural characterization of minor metabolites and pharmacokinetics of ganoderic acid C2 in rat plasma by HPLC coupled with electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry

The metabolites and pharmacokinetics of ganoderic acid C2 (GAC2), a bioactive triterpenoid in Ganoderma lucidum in rat plasma were investigated by high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-ESI-MS/MS). Totally, ten minor phase I metabolites of GAC2 were characterized after oral administration of GAC2, on the basis of their mass fragmentation pathways or direct comparison with authentic compounds by high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with diode array detection and electrospray ion trap tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-DAD-ESI-MS(n)), and liquid chromatography coupled with electrospray ionization hybrid ion trap and time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LC-ESI-IT-TOF/MS) methods. Moreover, a rapid and specific method for quantification of GAC2 in rat plasma after oral administration was developed by using a liquid-liquid extraction procedure and HPLC-ESI-MS/MS analysis. It is the first time to report the metabolites and pharmacokinetics of GAC2.

Pleurotus giganteus (Berk.) Karunarathna & K.D. Hyde: Nutritional value and in vitro neurite outgrowth activity in rat pheochromocytoma cells

BACKGROUND

Drugs dedicated to alleviate neurodegenerative diseases like Parkinson's and Alzheimer's have always been associated with debilitating side effects. Medicinal mushrooms which harness neuropharmacological compounds offer a potential possibility for protection against such diseases. Pleurotus giganteus (formerly known as Panus giganteus) has been consumed by the indigenous people in Peninsular Malaysia for many years. Domestication of this wild mushroom is gaining popularity but to our knowledge, medicinal properties reported for this culinary mushroom are minimal.

METHODS

The fruiting bodies P. giganteus were analysed for its nutritional values. Cytotoxicity of the mushroom's aqueous and ethanolic extracts towards PC12, a rat pheochromocytoma cell line was assessed by using 3-[4,5-dimethythiazol-2-yl]-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay. Neurite outgrowth stimulation assay was carried out with nerve growth factor (NGF) as control. To elucidate signaling mechanisms involved by mushroom extract-induced neurite outgrowth, treatment of specific inhibitor for MEK/ERK and PI3K signalling pathway was carried out.

RESULTS

The fruiting bodies of P. giganteus were found to have high carbohydrate, dietary fibre, potassium, phenolic compounds and triterpenoids. Both aqueous and ethanolic extracts induced neurite outgrowth of PC12 cells in a dose- and time-dependant manner with no detectable cytotoxic effect. At day 3, 25 μg/ml of aqueous extract and 15 μg/ml of ethanolic extract showed the highest percentage of neurite-bearing cells, i.e. 31.7 ± 1.1% and 33.3 ± 0.9%; respectively. Inhibition treatment results suggested that MEK/ERK and PI3K/Akt are responsible for neurite outgrowth of PC12 cells stimulated by P. giganteus extract. The high potassium content (1345.7 mg/100 g) may be responsible for promoting neurite extension, too.

CONCLUSIONS

P. giganteus contains bioactive compounds that mimic NGF and are responsible for neurite stimulation. Hence, this mushroom may be developed as a nutraceutical for the mitigation of neurodegenerative diseases.