Effects of traditional balance and slackline training on physical performance and perceived enjoyment in young soccer players

Effects of padel activity and proprioception training on soccer players in an off-season period

BACKGROUND

Off-season periods imply considerable changes in the fitness status of soccer players. So far, no studies evaluated the effects of proprioception-focused training during soccer off-season periods. In this work, we assessed how much some players' abilities (static and dynamic balance, reaction times, quickness, strength, and technical skills) were affected by proprioception training and padel activity during an off-season period of 12 weeks.

METHODS

Twenty-eight non-professional adult male soccer players were organized into three groups: a group carried out regular padel activity, ~2 h once a week. Another group underwent a regular proprioception training program, ~ 20 min, twice a week. The third group did not perform any specific activity (control). Static and dynamic balance, reaction times, quickness, strength, and technical skills were evaluated at three time-points: before starting, after 6 weeks, and after 12 weeks.

RESULTS

Both padel activity and specific proprioception training carried out for 12 weeks significantly improved players' monopodalic static balance with eyes open and dynamic balance. No significant effects of these training regimens were found on monopodalic static balance with eyes closed, visual and acoustic reaction times, acyclic quickness, and strength. Furthermore, proprioception training considerably improved technical skills.

CONCLUSIONS

Coaches may use padel activity and proprioception exercises for off-season programs featured by ease of execution, low training volume, and high compliance.

Jumping Rope Improves the Physical Fitness of Preadolescents Aged 10-12 Years: A Meta-Analysis

To systematically review the effects of jumping rope on physical fitness among 10 to 12-year-old preadolescents, and to provide evidence-based support for its use in school physical education curriculum work. The PubMed, Web of Science, SPORTDiscus, ScienceDirect, and CNKI databases were searched for randomized controlled trials that assessed jumping rope and physical fitness among preadolescents aged 10-12 years. Meta-analyses were used to calculate the standardized mean difference (SMD) values and 95% confidence intervals (CI), and subgroup analyses were conducted on intervention duration, frequency and period. A total of 1048 subjects from 15 studies were included. Compared to regular physical education courses, jumping rope did not show a significant advantage in terms of body morphology. In terms of physical function, boys showed greater improvements in vital capacity, and girls showed greater improvements in resting HR. In terms of physical performance, boys showed greater improvements in speed, upper-body strength, lower-body strength, muscular endurance and agility, while girls showed greater improvements in coordination and balance. Boys experienced a minimal improvement in flexibility, while girls did not show a significant difference. Combining the results of the subgroup analyses, the optimal session time, frequency and intervention length of jumping rope for significantly improving the physical fitness of preadolescents were >40 min, 2 times/week and 8-12 weeks, respectively. In conclusion, jumping rope provides small to large benefits over regular physical education for both boys and girls aged 10-12 years in terms of physical function and physical performance indicators other than flexibility, while showing no significant advantage in terms of body morphology. Based on the available research, it is recommended that children aged 10-12 years participate in jump rope sessions for at least 40 minutes once or twice a week for 8-12 weeks to better develop physical fitness.

Effects of acute slackline exercise on executive function in college students

Background

Physical exercise as an intervention for improving cognitive function, especially executive function, is receiving increasing attention because it is easily accessible, cost-effective and promises many additional health-related benefits. While previous studies focused on aerobic exercise and resistance exercise, recent findings have suggested that exercise with high coordination demand elicits beneficial effects on executive function. We therefore examined the effects of an acute slackline exercise on the executive functions of young adults.

Methods

In a crossover experimental design, 47 healthy participants (21 females), ranging in age from 18 to 27 years (M = 19.17, SD = 1.94) were randomly assigned to different sequences of two conditions (slackline exercise and film-watching). Before and after the 50 min intervention, a modified Simon task was used to assess participants' executive function (inhibitory control and cognitive flexibility).

Results

College students showed better inhibitory control performance as indicated by shorter reaction times following acute slackline exercise than those who participated in the film-watching session. As there was no difference in accuracy between the slackline exercise and film-watching sessions, the shortened reaction time after slackline exercise provides evidence against a simple speed-accuracy trade-off.

Conclusion

Compared with film-watching, acute slackline exercise provides favorable effects on executive function necessitating inhibition in young adults. These findings provide insight into exercise prescription and cognition, and further evidence for the beneficial effects of coordination exercise on executive functions.

Effects of speed, agility and quickness training programme on cognitive and physical performance in preadolescent soccer players

The aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of a short-term (4 weeks) non-soccer-specific training programme based on speed, agility and quickness (SAQ) and a soccer-specific training programme based on small-sided games (SSG) on cognitive and physical performance in preadolescent soccer players. Twenty-one participants were randomly assigned to SAQ group (n = 11) or SSG group (n = 10). They were tested pre and post interventions on physical (5 m sprint, 20 m sprint and sprint with turns of 90°) and cognitive (inhibitory control by means of the Flanker task and perceptual speed by means of the visual search task) performances. Although no significant time x group interactions were observed, the main effect of time was significant for cognitive performance and 5 m and 20 m sprint, showing improvements after both SAQ and SSG. These findings highlight that 4 weeks of SAQ training programme induced comparable improvements in cognitive and physical performance with respect to a soccer-specific training programme based on SSG in preadolescent soccer players. Non-sport-specific activities targeting speed, agility and quickness combined with cognitive engagement (i.e., SAQ) should be useful strategies as soccer-specific activities to be included within a soccer training programme for promoting both physical and cognitive domain in preadolescent individuals.

Test-Retest reliability and preliminary reliable change estimates for Sway Balance tests administered remotely in community-dwelling adults

OBJECTIVE

Impaired balance and postural stability can occur with advanced age, following traumatic brain injury, in association with neurological disorders and diseases, and as the result of acute or chronic orthopedic problems. The remote assessment of balance and postural stability could be of value in clinical practice and research. We examined the test-retest reliability and reliable change estimates for Sway Balance Mobile Application tests (Sway Medical, Tulsa OK, USA) administered remotely from the participant's home.

METHOD

Primarily young, healthy community-dwelling adults completed Sway Balance Mobile Application tests remotely on their personal mobile devices once per week for three consecutive weeks while being supervised with a video-based virtual connection. Sway Balance tests include five stances (i.e., feet together, tandem right foot forward, tandem left foot forward, single leg right foot, single leg left foot), which are averaged to compute a Sway Balance composite score from 0 to 100, with higher scores indicating better postural stability. We examined test-retest reliability (measured with intraclass correlation coefficients, ICCs) and preliminary reliable change estimates for 70%, 80%, and 90% confidence intervals.

RESULTS

Participants included 55 healthy adults (ages = 26.7 ± 9.9 years, interquartile range = 20-30, range = 18-58; 38 [69%] women). Test-retest reliability for the Sway Balance composite score across three weeks was.88. Test-retest reliability for individual stances ranged from 62 to 83 (all ps < 0.001). At the 80% confidence interval, preliminary reliable changes estimates were 9 points for the Sway Balance composite score.

CONCLUSIONS

For a remote administration, test-retest reliability was moderate-to-good for all Sway Balance stances, as well as for the Sway Balance composite score. Reliable change estimates may allow clinicians to determine whether an improvement or decline in performance is greater than the expected improvement or decline due to measurement error in young adults.

Effects of a Short-Term Slackline Training Program on Energy Expenditure and Balance in Healthy Young Adults: A Preliminary Report of a Randomized Controlled Trial

The development of technology and a fast-paced lifestyle has caused a significant decrease in physical activity, especially among young people. These worrying trends can be countered by the use of attractive forms of physical recreation, including the increasingly popular slackline. The aim of this study was to evaluate energy expenditure during slackline training and to analyze changes in dynamic and static balance parameters after supervised slackline training sessions. The study enrolled 28 healthy volunteers (14 men and 14 women aged 21−25) who were randomly divided into two groups: experimental and passive control. The energy expenditure level was the primary outcome and was assessed using the SenseWear Armband. Each participant underwent an initial and final balance assessment using two selected protocols on the Balance Master platform. The intervention lasted 5 days, with 15 min of supervised training per day. The average energy expenditure expressed in MET was 6.0 (±0.7) MET per training session. An analysis of the results regarding static and dynamic balance showed that the group participating in slackline training significantly improved stability on foam surfaces with their eyes open (p < 0.003), as well as tandem walk speeds (p < 0.05), both with small effect sizes. The results suggested that slackline training has the potential to produce significant positive effects on general health statuses following the World Health Organization’s (WHO) recommendations on physical activity. The significant improvement in task-specific balance suggests that slackline training could become an important element of the prevention and rehabilitation of many injuries.

Task-Related Hemodynamic Response Alterations During Slacklining: An fNIRS Study in Advanced Slackliners

The ability to maintain balance is based on various processes of motor control in complex neural networks of subcortical and cortical brain structures. However, knowledge on brain processing during the execution of whole-body balance tasks is still limited. In the present study, we investigated brain activity during slacklining, a task with a high demand on balance capabilities, which is frequently used as supplementary training in various sports disciplines as well as for lower extremity prevention and rehabilitation purposes in clinical settings. We assessed hemodynamic response alterations in sensorimotor brain areas using functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) during standing (ST) and walking (WA) on a slackline in 16 advanced slackliners. We expected to observe task-related differences between both conditions as well as associations between cortical activity and slacklining experience. While our results revealed hemodynamic response alterations in sensorimotor brain regions such as primary motor cortex (M1), premotor cortex (PMC), and supplementary motor cortex (SMA) during both conditions, we did not observe differential effects between ST and WA nor associations between cortical activity and slacklining experience. In summary, these findings provide novel insights into brain processing during a whole-body balance task and its relation to balance expertise. As maintaining balance is considered an important prerequisite in daily life and crucial in the context of prevention and rehabilitation, future studies should extend these findings by quantifying brain processing during task execution on a whole-brain level.

Effects of Non-Sport-Specific Versus Sport-Specific Training on Physical Performance and Perceptual Response in Young Football Players

This study aimed to compare the effects of non-sport-specific and sport-specific training methods on physical performance and perceptual response in young football players. Seventy-nine under 11 participants were selected and assigned to non-sport-specific (NSSG), sport-specific (SSG), and control (CNTG) groups. The NSSG training protocol consisted of combined stimuli based on balance, agility, and jump rope drills. The SSG training protocol included technical exercises, defensive and offensive game-based drills, and a small-sided game. The CNTG included the participants not taking part in any sport training. All participants were tested for general motor coordination (Harre test), dynamic balance (Lower Quarter Y-balance test), and dribbling before and after 10 weeks of training (NSSG and SSG) or habitual activity (CNTG). At post-intervention, perceived enjoyment was requested by the Physical Activity Enjoyment Scale (PACES). A two-way repeated measure analysis of covariance was used to detect interactions and main effects of time and groups controlling for baseline values. Whereas, a one-way analysis of variance was used to evaluate PACES-related differences between groups. NSSG gained greater improvements (p < 0.05) compared with SSG in the Harre and Lower Quarter Y-balance tests, while dribbling skills improved similarly in both groups. Regarding PACES, NSSG and SSG presented a comparable perceived enjoyment. These findings suggest that a 10-week non-sport-specific training is an enjoyable practice capable to promote greater improvements in general motor coordination and dynamic balance compared with sport-specific training in youth football players. This can occur without impairment of football-specific skills.

Differences in inhibitory control and motor fitness in children practicing open and closed skill sports

The aim of the present study was to investigate the differences between types of sport (i.e., closed vs. open skills sport) on inhibitory control and motor fitness in children. Forty-nine children were allocated into three groups based on their sports participation, which comprised an open skill sport group, a closed skill sport group, and a sedentary group. Participants were tested on cognitive performance (inhibitory control by the Flanker task) and motor fitness (reaction time, speed, agility, power, balance). Open skill sport group appeared to display higher inhibitory control (response time and accuracy of incongruent condition of the Flanker task) and motor fitness performance (reaction time, speed, agility, power) than sedentary group, whereas its superiority over closed skill sport group was found only in speed and agility. Moreover, closed skill sport group had only a better reaction time than sedentary group. Our data supports the framework according to which cognitive demands in complex motor actions may contribute to explain the beneficial effects of exercise on inhibitory control. This might suggest that the complexity of the environment (typical in open skill sports) in which sport training is performed plays a key role for both cognitive and motor development in children.

Relationship between Cognitive Functions and Sport-Specific Physical Performance in Youth Volleyball Players

The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between basic cognitive functions and sport-specific physical performance in young volleyball players. Forty-three female volleyball players (age 11.2 ± 0.8 years) were tested for cognitive performance by measuring simple reaction time (clinical reaction time), executive control (Flanker task), and perceptual speed (visual search task). Moreover, a set of tests was used to assess physical abilities as volleyball-specific skills (accuracy of setting, passing, and serving) and motor skills (change of direction, vertical jump, and balance). A cumulated value for both cognitive and sport-specific physical performance tests was computed by adding up each test’s domain outcomes. Pearson’s r correlation analysis showed a large positive correlation (r = 0.45, d-value = 1.01) of the cumulated score summarizing cognitive functions with the cumulated score summarizing sport-specific physical performance. Moreover, small-to-medium correlations (d-value from 0.63 to 0.73) were found between cognitive and motor skills. Given the cumulative scores, these results suggest that volleyball athletes with superior basic cognitive functions present better sport-specific physical performance. Our findings encourage to extend the knowledge of the associations between cognitive and motor skills within a sports performance context.

Change of direction asymmetry across different age categories in youth soccer

Background

In youth, the development of change of direction (COD) and sprint performance is a key component for successfully competing in soccer across age. During a COD, the presence of directional asymmetries may be detrimental due to the unpredictable nature of the sport. Therefore, the aims of the study were to investigate asymmetries in COD ability and to examine the differences in COD and sprint performance across age in young soccer players.

Methods

Sixty-eight sub-elite soccer players of different age categories (U18, U17, U16, U15) were tested on a 10-m linear sprint test and 90°COD (5-m entry and exit) test in both directions. Asymmetric index (AI) of COD deficit was obtained for dominant (fastest) and non-dominant directions (slowest).

Results

The results showed that U16 were more asymmetrical than U18, U17, and U15 from large to moderate effects. The sprint time improved linearly across age with U18 and U15 displaying the fastest and slowest 10-m sprint performance (p < 0.01), respectively. Moreover, COD ability measured by COD deficit did not change across age (p > 0.05).

Conclusion

Given the results of this study, practitioners are encouraged to assess asymmetries between dominant and non-dominant directions rather than solely players’ COD ability in young soccer players.

Effects of a 10 vs. 20-Min Injury Prevention Program on Neuromuscular and Functional Performance in Adolescent Football Players

Background

Regular injury prevention training is not only effective in reducing sports injury rates, but also in improving neuromuscular and performance-related variables. However, it is currently unknown if this effect can be modified by varying the training dosage.

Objective

To compare the effects of two injury prevention programmes with a different training duration on neuromuscular control and functional performance in adolescent football players.

Methods

342 (15.4 ± 1.7 years) male football players from 18 teams were initially included. The teams were cluster-randomized into two intervention groups. Both groups performed an injury prevention program twice a week during one football season (10 months) using the same exercises but a different duration. One intervention group (INT10, n = 175) performed the program for 10 min, while the other intervention group (INT20, n = 167) for 20 min. At the beginning and end of the season, balance control (Balance Error Scoring System = BESS), jump performance (Squat Jump, Countermovement Jump) and flexibility (Sit and Reach Test, ankle flexibility, hip flexibility) tests were performed. For the final analysis, nine teams with 104 players were considered.

Results

Significant group by time interactions were found for the sit and reach test (p < 0.001) and ankle flexibility (p < 0.001) with higher improvements in the INT20 group. Improvements over the period of one season but no group differences were found for the BESS, Squat Jump and hip flexibility.

Conclusion

Within a single training session, performing structured neuromuscular training with a longer duration is more effective than a shorter duration for improving lower extremity flexibility.

Acute Effect of Exercise on Cognitive Performance in Middle-Aged Adults: Aerobic Versus Balance

BACKGROUND

Recent evidence has suggested that chronic physical activities including balance exercises have positive effects on cognition, but their acute effects are still unknown. In the present study, the authors tested the hypothesis that an acute bout of balance exercise would enhance cognitive performance compared with aerobic activity.

METHODS

A total of 20 healthy middle-aged adults completed 2 acute 30-minute balance and moderate-intensity aerobic exercise sessions on 2 counterbalanced separate occasions. To assess cognitive functions, performance tasks in executive control, perceptual speed, and simple reaction time were tested before and immediately after each exercise session.

RESULTS

Although there were no significant interactions (time × exercise condition, P > .05), the main effects of time were significant in executive control (P < .05), perceptual speed (P < .05), and simple reaction time (P < .001), showing improvements after both exercises.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings highlight that both types of exercise (aerobic, more metabolic and less cognitively demanding; balance, more cognitively and less metabolically demanding) were able to positively affect simple reaction time performance, perceptual speed, and executive control independently of physiological adjustments occurring during aerobic or balance exercise.

Short-Term Compound Training on Physical Performance in Young Soccer Players

This study aimed to investigate the effects of a five-week compound training (with strength and plyometric exercises performed on separate days) on sprint, change of direction, and vertical jump in young soccer players. Eighteen novices in strength and plyometric training were assigned to either a compound training (CMPT) or a control condition (CNT). Both groups trained three times per week. One session was dedicated to soccer-specific drills. The other two weekly sessions were dedicated to circuit-based training routines employing on one-day strength exercises and on the other day plyometric exercises in the CMPT group. At the same time, the CNT group performed two weekly soccer-specific training sessions. All players were tested by 15-m sprint, change-of-direction and acceleration test (CODAT), squat jump, and countermovement jump with arms swing tests. CMPT group improved CODAT, squat jump and countermovement jump to a higher extent compared to CNT group (large vs small or trivial effects, p < 0.05), while both groups had similar 15-m sprint performance (p > 0.05). These results support the use of compound training to improve change of direction and vertical jump performances in young novice soccer players, which are unfamiliar with structured and advanced strength and plyometric training.

Agreement Between Dribble and Change of Direction Deficits to Assess Directional Asymmetry in Young Elite Football Players

This study aimed to examine the agreement between asymmetries of dribble and change of direction (COD) deficits and to determine their potential difference to each other. Sixteen young elite football players were recruited and tested for sprint (over 10 m), dribbling (90°CODdribbling) and COD (90°CODrunning) performance in dominant (fastest) and non-dominant (slowest) directions. Dribble and COD deficits were computed to express dribbling and COD ability without the influence of acceleration. The asymmetric index (AI%) of both dribble and COD deficits were obtained for both directions. The level of agreement between dribble and COD deficits was assessed by Cohen’s kappa statistic (κ). Results showed that AI% measured by dribble and COD deficits presented a poor level of agreement (κ = −0.159), indicating their imbalance did not favor the same direction. Moreover, AI% of the dribble deficit was significantly higher than those of the COD deficit. This study demonstrated that asymmetries in dribbling and change of direction performance (measured by dribble and COD deficit) were not in agreement to favor the same direction, also displaying a significant difference to each other. Practitioners should consider the task-specificity of asymmetry to reduce the imbalance in dribbling and COD performance.

Comparing Balance Control Between Soccer Players and Non-Athletes During a Dynamic Lower Limb Reaching Task

Background: Balance control is an essential element of locomotion that enhances biomotor abilities and physical performance. Individuals with extensive soccer experience display superior static single leg balance control compared to athletes of other sports as well as non-athletes. However, during a match, players often encounter greater challenges to single leg balance that require rapid decision-making skills and dynamic stability. Purpose: The purpose of this study was to determine if individuals with extensive soccer training demonstrate superior single-leg balance control compared to non-athletes during a dynamic lower limb reaching task. Method: 22 varsity soccer players were matched with 21 non-athlete controls. Single-leg balance control was assessed during a Go/No-Go lower limb reaching task. Centre of pressure displacement (dCOP) was measured for both the dominant and non-dominant feet and compared between groups. Results: Soccer players displayed reduced dCOP during All Go trials compared to non-athletes, particularly in the medial-lateral plane. Additionally, soccer players displayed reduced anterior-posterior dCOP during Go/No-Go trials compared to non-athletes, particularly on their dominant foot. Conclusion: Athletes with soccer-specific training demonstrate improved executive control and use of proprioceptive information, which results in an improved ability to maintain single-support balance and corral COP during a dynamic visuomotor lower limb-reaching task. As such, balance training may be a useful addition to athlete training regimes to improve sport-specific performance. Future research would compare these results to athletes of other sports to explore balance control during a visuomotor reaching task and how it may differ based on sport training history.

Injury prevalence and risk factors in a Greek team's professional football (soccer) players: a three consecutive seasons survey

This study investigated the prevalence and risk factors of injuries on a cohort of 123 Greek team's professional football players during three consecutive seasons, 2015/16-to-2017/18. Injuries were assessed and regression analysis was used to evaluate the potential risk factors. Three-quarters of the players were recorded as injured with 2.3 injuries/injured player, and the injury incidence was 55 injuries/1,000 match-playing-exposure-hours. The mean rehabilitation days were 29.3/injured player (95%CI 22.4-36.8) and 13.0/injury (95%CI 8.6-17.4). The majority of injured players has been found to have moderate-to-major/severe injuries and most of the injuries were traumatic than overuse (p < 0.05). The number of injuries were related to the recurrence of injury (beta = 0.646, p < 0.001) and the rehabilitations days (beta = 0.271, p < 0.001). High prevalence of injuries was found as the recurrence of injury and rehabilitation days were their main predictive risk factors. In order to reduce the risk of injuries, continuous effort is required in the rehabilitation of players.

Three months of slackline training elicit only task-specific improvements in balance performance

Slackline training is a challenging and motivating type of balance training, with potential usefulness for fall prevention and balance rehabilitation. However, short-term slackline training seems to elicit mostly task-specific performance improvements, reducing its potential for general fall prevention programs. It was tested whether a longer duration slackline training (three months, 2 sessions per week) would induce a transfer to untrained tasks. Balance performance was tested pre and post slackline training on the slackline used during the training, on a slackline with different slack, and in 5 different non-trained static and dynamic balance tasks (N training = 12, N control = 14). After the training, the training group increased their performance more than the control group in both of the slackline tasks, i.e. walking on the slackline (time × group interaction with p < 0.001 for both tasks). However, no differences between groups were found for the 5 non-trained balance tasks, only a main effect of time for four of them. The long-term slackline training elicited large task-specific performance improvements but no transfer to other non-trained balance tasks. The extensive slackline training that clearly enhanced slackline performance did not improve the capability to keep balance in other tasks and thus cannot be recommended as a general fall prevention program. The significant test-retest effect seen in most of the tested tasks emphasizes the need of a control group to adequately interpret changes in performance following balance training.

The association between physical performance and match-play activities of field and assistants soccer referees

The aims of this study were to compare the external and internal match responses and fitness performance of national field referees (FRs) and assistant referees (ARs), and to examine the relationships between these fitness measures and physical and physiological responses during match play. Forty-four national soccer match officials (e.g. FRs and ARs) participated in this study. The distance covered and the VO_2max in Yo-Yo Intermittent recovery test (YYIR1) and the 30 m sprint test correlated with high speed and high intensity activities during match play in FRs (r = -0.48-0.63, moderate to large, very likely to most likely, p < 0.05). In addition, YYIR1 performance was related to high accelerations (r = 0.41, moderate, likely, p < 0.05) and high decelerations (r = 0.44, moderate, very likely, p < 0.05) for FRs. Better sprint and cardiovascular fitness could be relevant to the performance of FRs during match play.