Simultaneous analysis of mycotoxins in corn flour using LC/MS-MS combined with a modified QuEChERS procedure

Mycotoxins in grains (products), Gansu province, China and risk assessment

This study aimed to estimate the dietary exposure towards mycotoxins of residents in Gansu province, China, from 2014-2020 through surveillance data on mycotoxins in grains and grain products. Fumonisin B1 (FB1), Deoxynivalenol (DON), 3- and 15-Acetyl-deoxynivalenol (3-ADON and 15-ADON), Tentoxin (TEN), Tenuazonic acid (TeA) and Zearalenone (ZEN) in 863 grains and grain products were detected by HPLC-MS and UPLC-MS. DON was the most detected mycotoxin of all samples. For women, the average dietary exposure to DON was 1.49 μg/kg bw/day, with 55.8% of the individuals eating dried noodles exceeding tolerable daily intake. The hazard quotient values were 1.24-12.60, so greater than 1 for DON at the average, 90th percentile, 95th percentile, and maximum levels: 44.6% of the HQ values for men and 45.7% for women were greater than 1.

Recent developments and applications of surface enhanced Raman scattering spectroscopy in safety detection of fruits and vegetables

This article reviewed the latest research progress of Surface-enhanced Raman Spectroscopy (SERS) in the security detection of fruits and vegetables in recent years, especially in three aspects: pesticide residues, microbial toxin contamination and harmful microorganism infection. The binding mechanism and application potential of SERS detection materials (including universal type and special type) and carrier materials (namely rigid and flexible materials) were discussed. Finally, the application prospect of SERS in fruit and vegetable safety detection was explored, and the problems to be solved and development trends were put forward. The poor stability and reproducibility of SERS substrates make it difficult for practical applications. It is necessary to continuously optimize SERS substrates and develop small and portable Raman spectroscopy analyzers. In the future, SERS technology is expected to play an important role in human health, food safety and economy.

Artificial neural network-facilitated V2C MNs-based colorimetric/fluorescence dual-channel biosensor for highly sensitive detection of AFB1 in peanut

In this work, V2C Mxene nano-enzyme materials (V2C MNs) with excellent peroxidase-like activity and fluorescence quenching performance were prepared, and it was modified using 6-carboxyfluorescein-labelled aptamers (ssDNA-FAM) to construct a novel dual-mode sensor V2C@ssDNA-FAM, with detection limits of 0.0477 ng mL-1 and 0.2789 ng mL-1 of fluorescence (linear range of 0.1-550 ng mL-1) and colorimetric (linear range of 1-1000 ng mL-1) modes, respectively. Meanwhile, an ANN intelligent detection platform has been constructed, which could automatically track and analyze the fluorescence and colorimetric signal of the detection system through machine learning and immediately obtain the AFB1 concentration, and the detection limits of the fluorescence (linear range of 0.1-500 ng mL-1) and colorimetric (linear range of 1-800 ng mL-1) channels of it were 0.0905 ng mL-1 and 0.6845 ng mL-1, respectively. The recovery rates of fluorescence, colorimetric sensing detection and ANN-assisted fluorescence and colorimetric sensing detection of real samples ranged from 95.40% to 101.76%. The method constructed in this work was superior to most existing literature reports and had great potential for application in the field of food quality testing.

High Bioaffinity Controllable Assembly Nanocarrier UiO-66-NH2@Quantum Dot-Based Immunochromatographic Assay for Simultaneous Detection of Five Mycotoxins in Cereals and Feed

Herein, the UiO-66-NH2@quantum dot (NU66@QD) was synthesized with excellent fluorescence intensity and biocompatibility, which was used to develop a multiple immunochromatographic assay (ICA) for the detection of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), fumonisin B1 (FB1), deoxynivalenol (DON), T-2 toxins (T-2), and zearalenone (ZEN) in cereals and feed. Five monoclonal antibodies and NU66@QD were efficiently labeled by a one-step mixed method to form a multiple detection probe. The limits of detection of the proposed NU66@QD-ICA for AFB1/FB1/DON/T-2/ZEN were 0.04/0.28/0.25/0.09/0.08 μg/kg. The recoveries ranged from 82.83-117.44%, with the coefficient of variation from 2.88-11.80%. A parallel analysis in 35 naturally contaminated cereal and feed samples was confirmed by LC-MS/MS, and the results showed a good correlation (R2 > 0.9), indicating the practical reliability of the multiple NU66@QD-ICA. Overall, the introduction of the novel nanomaterial NU66@QD provides a highly sensitive and efficient multiplex detection strategy for the development of ICA.

Development and validation of a QuEChERS-LC-MS/MS method for determination of multiple mycotoxins in maize and sorghum from Botswana

Climatic conditions such as drought, high temperatures, and pre-harvest rainfalls promote the occurrence of mycotoxins in grains. Contamination of staple food sources such as maize and sorghum means that many populations are at risk of being poisoned by mycotoxins. Hence the need for sensitive methods for their simultaneous analysis. Herein, a quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged, and safe liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (QuEChERS-LC-MS/MS) method for the simultaneous determination of ten mycotoxins in maize and sorghum is presented. The QuEChERS extraction procedure was optimized to maximize extraction recovery and minimize matrix effects while using relatively small quantities of organic solvents and acids. This method was validated according to Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2021/808, Commission Regulation (EC) No 1881/2006, and Regulation (EC) no. 401/2006. The developed method met the specified requirements. Recoveries of 80.77% to 109.83% and CVs below 15% were obtained. The correlation coefficient values (R2) were all above 0.98, and low limits of quantification ranging from 0.53 to 89.28 µg/Kg were recorded. The method was applied to 10 maize and 10 sorghum samples collected from markets in Botswana. Half of the samples had detectable mycotoxins, Aflatoxins, Fumonisins, T2-toxin, HT2-toxin, and Zearalenone. Two maize samples had levels of aflatoxin B1 above the maximum permitted level (2.55, 4.07 µg/Kg). These findings point to the necessity of more stringent monitoring of mycotoxins, particularly AFB1 in maize, as well as the value of regular assessment using LC-MS/MS.

Determination of Multimycotoxin in Cereal-Based Products Sold in Open-Air Markets

In this study, a total of 140 cereal-based foods sold in temporary open-air markets were analyzed by LC-MS/MS for aflatoxin B₁, B₂, G₁, G₂, ochratoxin (OTA), zearalenone (ZEN), deoxynivalenol (DON), fumonisin B₁, fumonisin B₂, citrinin (CIT), HT-2, and T-2 toxins. Breakfast cereals (n:27), cornmeal (n:41), extruded maize (n:32), and oatmeal (n:40) purchased from these alternative shopping areas created to meet the food needs of low-income people in the suburbs formed the sample set of the study. These foods, which are sold in areas that are out of legal control and greatly affected by external environmental conditions, are more open to health risks. Mycotoxins, chemicals of a biological origin, are some of the most important of these risks. In terms of public health, it is important to investigate the presence of mycotoxins in foods, which can cause acute and chronic diseases such as immunosuppression, genotoxic, estrogenic, teratogenic effect, cancer, and liver and kidney dysfunctions. Grain-based foods are often contaminated with a large number of mycotoxins, but legal regulations have not been prepared that consider the health risks associated with the co-existence of mycotoxins. Many of the studies have focused on the presence of a single mycotoxin and the risks it poses. As a result, aflatoxin B₁ levels in 28.57% of the samples and total aflatoxin (B₁ + B₂ + G₁ + G₂) levels in 26.43% of the samples were determined to exceed the limits defined in the "Turkish Food Codex Contaminants Regulation". Citrinin could not be detected in any of the samples. The rate of mycotoxin occurrences above the limit of detection (LOD) in grain-based food samples ranged from 22.86% to 99.29%. Total aflatoxin (TAF) + Total Fumonisin (FUM) were found in 83.57% of the samples; TAF + FUM + OTA in 82.14%; TAF + FUM + OTA + T-2 in 44.29%; TAF + FUM + OTA + DON + HT-2, TAF + FUM + OTA + DON + T-2, and TAF + FUM + OTA + DON + ZEN in 22.86% of the samples.

The occurrence of aflatoxin M1 in milk samples of Iran: a systematic review and meta-analysis

In this study, the average level of aflatoxin M1 in various types of milk from 107 articles (297 studies with 16,274 milk samples) were meta-analyzed using random-effect model based on the milk varieties (animal species and heating processes), geographical regions, seasons, detection techniques and dairy farming subgroups. Studies on milk contamination with aflatoxin M1 in Iran were collected using universal and Persian databanks from January 1974 to the end of November 2021. The overall aflatoxin M1 mean concentration and prevalence in milk samples of Iran were 39.65 ng/l (95% CI: 36.00-43.30) and 80% (95% CI: 76-85%), respectively. The rank order of importance of various variables in mean levels of aflatoxin M1 in milk samples included milk type (animal species) > geographical regions > detection techniques > dairy farming types > milk types (heating processes) > seasons. Findings revealed that the overall content of aflatoxin M1 in milk samples of Iran was lower than that allowed by the European Union, Institute of Standards and Industrial Research of Iran, and the USA, possibly due to the milk monitoring by the Iranian regulatory systems.

Development of QuEChERS clean-up based on EMR-lipid for simultaneous analysis of 9 mycotoxins, acaylamide and 5-Hydroxymethylfurfural in biscuit by UHPLC-MS/MS

A robust and sensitive analytical method for the simultaneous determination of 9 mycotoxins, AA, and 5-HMF by UHPLC-MS/MS was developed. Clean-up of the extracts was achieved by d-SPE with EMR-lipid. A new column phase (C₁₈-PFP) was selected for HPLC separation after comparison with the C₁₈ column. Finally, the method gave good linear relations with regression coefficients R² > 0.99. The recovery of all the tested compounds was within the range of 70.67 to 104.88%, and the intraday and interday relative standard deviations (RSD) were lower than 12.49. The proposed method was then applied to investigate the mycotoxins, AA and 5-HMF in 20 food samples sold in the retail market. AA and 5-HMF were widely detected, and half of the samples were found to contain at least one mycotoxin contamination. Therefore, this method is potential to be used as a convenient and effective method for the cookies product quality control in the future.

Determination of Regulated and Emerging Mycotoxins in Organic and Conventional Gluten-Free Flours by LC-MS/MS

Gluten-free cereal products have grown in popularity in recent years as they are perceived as "healthier" alternatives and can be safely consumed by celiac patients, and people with gluten intolerance or wheat allergies. Molds that produce mycotoxins contaminate cereal crops, posing a threat to global food security. Maximum levels have been set for certain mycotoxins in cereal flours; however, little is known about the levels of emerging mycotoxins in these flours. The aim of this study was to develop an efficient, sensitive, and selective method for the detection of four emerging (beauvericin and enniatins A1, B, and B1) and three regulated (aflatoxin B1, zearalenone, and deoxynivalenol) mycotoxins in gluten-free flours. Ultrasound-assisted matrix solid-phase dispersion was used in the extraction of these mycotoxins from flour samples. The validated method was utilized for the LC-MS/MS analysis of conventional and organic wholegrain oat and rice flours. Six of the seven target mycotoxins were detected in these samples. Multi-mycotoxin contamination was found in all flour types, particularly in conventional wholegrain oat flour. Despite the low detection frequency in rice flour, one sample was found to contain zearalenone at a concentration of 83.2 μg/kg, which was higher than the level set by the European Commission for cereal flours. The emerging mycotoxins had the highest detection frequencies; enniatin B was present in 53% of the samples at a maximum concentration of 56 μg/kg, followed by enniatin B1 and beauvericin, which were detected in 46% of the samples, and at levels reaching 21 μg/kg and 10 μg/kg, respectively. These results highlight the need to improve the current knowledge and regulations on the presence of mycotoxins, particularly emerging ones, in gluten-free flours and cereal-based products.

Fast and Accurate Determination of Minute Ochratoxin A Levels in Cereal Flours and Wine with the Label-Free White Light Reflectance Spectroscopy Biosensing Platform

Ochratoxin A (OTA) is one of the most toxic naturally encountered contaminants and is found in a variety of foods and beverages, including cereals and wine. Driven by the strict regulations regarding the maximum allowable OTA concentration in foodstuff and the necessity for on-site determination, the development of fast and sensitive methods for the OTA determination in cereal flours and wine samples, based on white light reflectance spectroscopy, is presented. The method relied on appropriately engineered silicon chips, on top of which an OTA-protein conjugate was immobilized. A polyclonal antibody against OTA was then employed to detect the analyte in the framework of a competitive immunoassay; followed by the subsequent addition of a biotinylated secondary antibody and streptavidin for signal enhancement. A small size instrument performed all assay steps automatically and the bioreactions were monitored in real time as the software converted the spectral shifts into effective biomolecular adlayer thickness increase. The assay developed had a detection limit of 0.03 ng/mL and a working range up to 200 ng/mL. The assay lasted 25 min (less than 1h, including calibrators/antibody pre-incubation) and was accomplished following a simple sample preparation protocol. The method was applied to corn and wheat flour samples and white and red wines with recovery values ranging from 87.2 to 111%. The simplicity of the overall assay protocol and convenient instrumentation demonstrates the potential of the immunosensor developed for OTA detection at the point of need.

Aflatoxins in Cereals and Cereal-Based Products: Occurrence, Toxicity, Impact on Human Health, and Their Detoxification and Management Strategies

Cereals and cereal-based products are primary sources of nutrition across the world. However, contamination of these foods with aflatoxins (AFs), secondary metabolites produced by several fungal species, has raised serious concerns. AF generation in innate substrates is influenced by several parameters, including the substrate type, fungus species, moisture content, minerals, humidity, temperature, and physical injury to the kernels. Consumption of AF-contaminated cereals and cereal-based products can lead to both acute and chronic health issues related to physical and mental maturity, reproduction, and the nervous system. Therefore, the precise detection methods, detoxification, and management strategies of AFs in cereal and cereal-based products are crucial for food safety as well as consumer health. Hence, this review provides a brief overview of the occurrence, chemical characteristics, biosynthetic processes, health hazards, and detection techniques of AFs, along with a focus on detoxification and management strategies that could be implemented for food safety and security.

Analysis of aflatoxins and ochratoxin a in chilli powder using ultrahigh performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection and tandem mass spectrometry

Chilli powder, a popular spice, is predominantly contaminated with aflatoxins (AFs) and ochratoxin A (OTA), posing a menace to public health. As no validated method exists for the simultaneous and direct analysis of AFs and OTA in chilli powder, it was imperative to develop one to ensure their effective monitoring and promote trade. In this research, we developed and validated a multi-mycotoxin analysis method that allows the simultaneous determination of AFs (AFB₁, AFB₂, AFG₁ and AFG₂) and OTA in chilli powder with high sensitivity, accuracy and precision. The optimised sample preparation workflow started with the extraction of chilli powder (25 g) with methanol-water (100 mL, 80:20). An aliquot (3 mL) was cleaned on a multi-mycotoxin, immunoaffinity column (AFLAOCHRA PREP^®) and analysed using ultrahigh performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence (UHPLC-FLD) and tandem mass spectrometric (LC-MS/MS) detection in a single chromatographic run. The method performance was evaluated through intra- and inter-laboratory validation (ILV) studies, and also by analysing a certified reference material. A direct analysis using UHPLC-FLD (without derivatisation) provided the limits of quantification (LOQ) of 0.25 and 1 ng/g for AFs and OTA, respectively, while the LOQ for all these mycotoxins in LC-MS/MS was 0.5 ng/g. These LOQs are much lower than the maximum levels (MLs) specified by the European Commission. The recoveries of these analytes at LOQ and higher levels were above 75% (RSD_r < 12%). The ILV study demonstrated satisfactory method-reproducibility (RSD_R < 25%). The analysis of the certified reference material provided accuracies of AFs and OTA in the range of 83-101%. The analysis by UHPLC-FLD and LC-MS/MS provided very similar results. The incurred levels of B1 in market samples were estimated with a precision-RSD of < 6%. Considering its efficiency and alignment with the regulatory requirements, this method can be implemented for the routine analysis of AFs and OTA in chilli powder.

Effects of Turmeric Powder on Aflatoxin M1 and Aflatoxicol Excretion in Milk from Dairy Cows Exposed to Aflatoxin B1 at the EU Maximum Tolerable Levels

Due to the climatic change, an increase in aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) maize contamination has been reported in Europe. As an alternative to mineral binders, natural phytogenic compounds are increasingly used to counteract the negative effects of AFB1 in farm animals. In cows, even low dietary AFB1 concentrations may result in the milk excretion of the genotoxic carcinogen metabolite aflatoxin M1 (AFM1). In this study, we tested the ability of dietary turmeric powder (TP), an extract from Curcuma longa (CL) rich in curcumin and curcuminoids, in reducing AFM1 mammary excretion in Holstein–Friesian cows. Both active principles are reported to inhibit AFM1 hepatic synthesis and interact with drug transporters involved in AFB1 absorption and excretion. A crossover design was applied to two groups of cows (n = 4 each) with a 4-day washout. Animals received a diet contaminated with low AFB1 levels (5 ± 1 µg/kg) for 10 days ± TP supplementation (20 g/head/day). TP treatment had no impact on milk yield, milk composition or somatic cell count. Despite a tendency toward a lower average AFM1 milk content in the last four days of the treatment (below EU limits), no statistically significant differences with the AFB1 group occurred. Since the bioavailability of TP active principles may be a major issue, further investigations with different CL preparations are warranted.

Visual detection of aflatoxin B1 based on specific aptamer recognition combining with triple amplification strategy

A highly sensitive and specific visual detection method for aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) based on the target specificity of aptamer, rolling circle amplification (RCA) and enzyme catalysis biological amplification effect has been established. In this work, AFB1 aptamer immobilized on the surface of magnetic beads (MB) serves as a molecular recognition probe. In the absence of AFB1, the aptamer and auxiliary linking probe (LP) maintain a double stranded state due to partial base pair complementarities. By contrast, in the presence of AFB1, the aptamer preferentially binds to AFB1 specifically, and the LP later restores to a single stranded state. Subsequently, the RCA reaction is triggered by above-mentioned single stranded LP to generate long DNA strands, which are employed to capture amounts of signal probes (SP) and horse radish peroxidases (HRP). Finally, amounts of HRP catalyze the oxidation of 3,3',5,5'-tetramethylbenzidine (TMB) by H₂O₂ and leads to a dramatic color change of the solution from colorlessness to deep blue as a signal indicator, obtaining a high sensitivity, high specificity and visual detection of AFB1. Under optimal conditions, a good linear detection range (0.5-40 pg·mL^-1) was achieved, and the limit of detection (LOD) was 0.13 pg·mL^-1. Besides, the proposed aptasensor showed excellent specificity for AFB1 compared with five other mycotoxins. More than that, all reactions occur on the surface of the magnetic beads, which not only facilitates the detection operation process including the efficient isolation and collection of AFB1 from sample matrix, but also gets better selectivity and stronger resistibility to target analyte in complex sample matrix, adequately indicating its potential application in AFB1 practical detection.

Fate of aflatoxins M1 and B1 within the period of production and storage of Tarkhineh: A traditional Persian fermented food

The objective of the study was to assess the amount of aflatoxin M₁ (AFM₁) and aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) during fermentation, drying, and storage of Tarkhineh-a traditional Persian fermented food-over four months. Tarkhineh samples were produced based on a traditional method. Various concentrations of AFB₁ (2.5, 5, 7.5, and 10 µg/kg) and AFM₁, stood at 0.25, 0.5, 0.75, and 1 µg/kg, were added to Iranian yogurt drink, called doogh, samples. Tarkhineh samples were evaluated for AFB₁ and AFM₁ on days 0, 2, 6, and 8 and also after drying and four months of storage. In cases of repeatability, recovery, and reproducibility, the high-performance liquid chromatography through fluorescence detector (HPLC-FD) method was successfully done to demonstrate aflatoxins (AFs) in Tarkhineh samples. The fermentation process had a considerable consequence on the reduction in AFM₁ and AFB₁ as compared to the control group, evidenced by 65.10%-81.20% and 55.80%-74.10%, respectively, after eight days of fermentation (p < .05). The highest reduction in AFB₁ existed in samples containing 2.5 µg/kg toxin, followed by 5, 7.5, and 10 µg/kg, respectively. A similar trend was found for AFM₁, as the highest concentration was found in samples containing 0.25 µg/kg toxin, followed by 0.5, 0.75, and 1 µg/kg, respectively.

The Fungal Microbiome of Wheat Flour Includes Potential Mycotoxin Producers

Consumers are increasingly demanding higher quality and safety standards for the products they consume, and one of this is wheat flour, the basis of a wide variety of processed products. This major component in the diet of many communities can be contaminated by microorganisms before the grain harvest, or during the grain storage right before processing. These microorganisms include several fungal species, many of which produce mycotoxins, secondary metabolites that can cause severe acute and chronic disorders. Yet, we still know little about the overall composition of fungal communities associated with wheat flour. In this study, we contribute to fill this gap by characterizing the fungal microbiome of different types of wheat flour using culture-dependent and -independent techniques. Qualitatively, these approaches suggested similar results, highlighting the presence of several fungal taxa able to produce mycotoxins. In-vitro isolation of fungal species suggest a higher frequency of Penicillium, while metabarcoding suggest a higher abundance of Alternaria. This discrepancy might reside on the targeted portion of the community (alive vs. overall) or in the specific features of each technique. Thus, this study shows that commercial wheat flour hosts a wide fungal diversity with several taxa potentially representing concerns for consumers, aspects that need more attention throughout the food production chain.

Optimization of the QuEChERS-Based Analytical Method for Investigation of 11 Mycotoxin Residues in Feed Ingredients and Compound Feeds

Mycotoxins are toxic substances naturally produced by various fungi, and these compounds not only inflict economic damage, but also pose risks to human and animal health. The goal of the present study was to optimize the QuEChERS-based extraction and liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (LC–MS/MS) method for the analysis of 11 mycotoxins, such as aflatoxins (AFs), ochratoxin A (OTA), fumonisins (FBs), T-2 toxin, HT-2 toxin, zearalenone (ZEN), and deoxynivalenol (DON), commonly found in feed. The QuEChERS method, characterized by being “quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged, and safe”, has become one of the most common extractions and clean-up procedures for mycotoxin analyses in food. Therefore, in this experiment, an optimal method for the analysis of 11 mycotoxins in feed was established by modifying the general QuEChERS method. In this process, it was confirmed that even if feed samples of different weights were extracted, the quantitative value of mycotoxins in the feed was not affected. To reduce matrix effects, 13C-labeled compounds and deuterium were used as internal standards. This optimized method was then applied in the determination of 11 mycotoxins in 736 feed ingredients and compound feeds obtained from South Korea. The results showed that the occurrence rates of FBs, ZEN, and DON were 59.4%, 38.0%, and 32.1%, respectively, and OTA, AFs, and T-2 toxin and HT-2 toxin were found in fewer than 1% of the 736 feeds. The mean concentration ranges of FBs, ZEN, and DON were 757–2387, 44–4552, and 248–9680 μg/kg, respectively. Among the samples in which DON and ZEN were detected, 10 and 12 samples exceeded the management recommendation standards presented by the Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs (MAFRA). However, when the detected concentrations of DON and ZEN were compared with guideline levels in foreign countries, such as the US, Japan, China, and the EU, the number of positive samples changed. In addition, the co-occurrence of mycotoxins in the feed was analyzed, and the results showed that 43.8% of the samples were contaminated with two or three mycotoxins, among which the co-occurrence rate of FBs, ZEN, and DON was the highest. In conclusion, these results suggest the need for stricter management standards for FBs, DON, and ZEN in South Korea, and emphasize the importance of the continuous monitoring of feeds.

Fatty acid profile and safety aspects of the edible oil prepared by artisans' at small-scale agricultural companies

The aim of this study was to analyze the fatty acid (FA) profiles and mycotoxin and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) concentrations in sea buckthorn (SB1, SB2), flaxseed (FL3, FL4, FL5), hempseed (HE6, HE7, HE8), camelina (CA9, CA10), and mustard (MU11) edible oils, prepared by artisans' by artisanal at small-scale agricultural companies in Lithuania. The dominant FAs were palmitic and oleic acids in SB; palmitic, stearic, oleic, linoleic, and α-linolenic acids in FL; palmitic, stearic, oleic, linoleic, and α-linolenic acids in HE; palmitic, oleic, linoleic, α-linolenic, eicosenoic, and erucic acids in CA; and oleic, linoleic, α-linolenic, eicosenoic, and erucic acids in MU. In SB2 oil samples, T-2 toxin and zearalenone concentrations higher than 1.0 µg/kg were found (1.7 and 3.0 µg/kg, respectively). In sample FL4, an ochratoxin A concentration higher than 1.0 µg/kg was established (1.2 µg/kg); also, in HE8 samples, 2.0 µg/kg of zearalenone was found. None of the tested edible oils exceeded the limits for PAH concentration. Finally, because of the special place of edible oils in the human diet, not only should their contamination with mycotoxins and PAHs be controlled but also their FA profile, as an important safety characteristic, must be taken into consideration to ensure higher safety standards.

Trichothecenes in Food and Feed, Relevance to Human and Animal Health and Methods of Detection: A Systematic Review

Trichothecene mycotoxins are sesquiterpenoid compounds primarily produced by fungi in taxonomical genera such as Fusarium, Myrothecium, Stachybotrys, Trichothecium, and others, under specific climatic conditions on a worldwide basis. Fusarium mold is a major plant pathogen and produces a number of trichothecene mycotoxins including deoxynivalenol (or vomitoxin), nivalenol, diacetoxyscirpenol, and T-2 toxin, HT-2 toxin. Monogastrics are sensitive to vomitoxin, while poultry and ruminants appear to be less sensitive to some trichothecenes through microbial metabolism of trichothecenes in the gastrointestinal tract. Trichothecene mycotoxins occur worldwide however both total concentrations and the particular mix of toxins present vary with environmental conditions. Proper agricultural practices such as avoiding late harvests, removing overwintered stubble from fields, and avoiding a corn/wheat rotation that favors Fusarium growth in residue can reduce trichothecene contamination of grains. Due to the vague nature of toxic effects attributed to low concentrations of trichothecenes, a solid link between low level exposure and a specific trichothecene is difficult to establish. Multiple factors, such as nutrition, management, and environmental conditions impact animal health and need to be evaluated with the knowledge of the mycotoxin and concentrations known to cause adverse health effects. Future research evaluating the impact of low-level exposure on livestock may clarify the potential impact on immunity. Trichothecenes are rapidly excreted from animals, and residues in edible tissues, milk, or eggs are likely negligible. In chronic exposures to trichothecenes, once the contaminated feed is removed and exposure stopped, animals generally have an excellent prognosis for recovery. This review shows the occurrence of trichothecenes in food and feed in 2011-2020 and their toxic effects and provides a summary of the discussions on the potential public health concerns specifically related to trichothecenes residues in foods associated with the exposure of farm animals to mycotoxin-contaminated feeds and impact to human health. Moreover, the article discusses the methods of their detection.

Application of new technologies in decontamination of mycotoxins in cereal grains: Challenges, and perspectives

Emerging decontamination technologies have been attracted considerable attention to address the consumers' demand for high quality and safe food products. As one of the important foods in the human diet, cereals are usually stored for long periods, resulting in an increased risk of contamination by different hazards. Mycotoxins comprise one of the significant contaminants of cereals that lead to enormous economic losses to the industry and threats to human health. While prevention is the primary approach towards reducing human exposure to mycotoxins, decontamination methods have also been developed as complementary measures. However, some conventional methods (chemical treatments) do not fulfill industries' expectations due to limitations like safety, efficiency, and the destruction of food quality attributes. In this regard, novel techniques have been proposed to food to comply with the industry's demand and overcome conventional methods' limitations. Novel techniques have different efficiencies for removing or reducing mycotoxins depending on processing conditions, type of mycotoxin, and the food matrix. Therefore, this review provides an overview of novel mycotoxin decontamination technologies such as cold plasma, irradiation, and pulse light, which can be efficient for reducing mycotoxins with minimum adverse effects on the quality and nutritional properties of produce.

Mycotoxins Analysis in Cereals and Related Foodstuffs by Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry Techniques

In the entire world, cereals and related foodstuffs are used as an important source of energy, minerals, and vitamins. Nevertheless, their contamination with mycotoxins kept special attention due to harmful effects on human health. The present paper was conducted to evaluate published studies regarding the identification and characterization of mycotoxins in cereals and related foodstuffs by liquid chromatography coupled to (tandem) mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) techniques. For sample preparation, published studies based on the development of extraction and clean-up strategies including solid-phase extraction, solid-liquid extraction, and immunoaffinity columns, as well as on methods based on minimum clean-up (quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged, and safe (QuEChERS)) technology, are examined. LC-MS/MS has become the golden method for the simultaneous multimycotoxin analysis, with different sample preparation approaches, due to the range of different physicochemical properties of these toxic products. Therefore, this new strategy can be an alternative for fast, simple, and accurate determination of multiclass mycotoxins in complex cereal samples.

Mycotoxins in food: a review on liquid chromatographic methods coupled to mass spectrometry and their experimental designs

The development of a multi-mycotoxins method using LC-MS/MS is necessary and it is clear that the development of such method involves many compromises in the choice of the different parameters. This review summarizes applications using conventional experimental designs and some recent studies using response surface methodology (RSM) as a mathematical modeling tool for the optimization of extraction procedures. The authors also discuss pros and cons of the different procedures. To our knowledge, it is the first review on experimental design for the development of multi-mycotoxin methods. This review could be useful in the development and optimization of LC-MS/MS methods with the aim of describing experimental design and variables (factors) that are likely to affect sensitivity and specificity.

In vitro and in vivo capacity of yeast-based products to bind to aflatoxins B1 and M1 in media and foodstuffs: A systematic review and meta-analysis

The aflatoxins are hepatotoxic and carcinogenic metabolites produced by Aspergillus species during growth on crop products. In this regard, a systematic review to collect the quantitative data regarding the in vitro capacity of yeasts-based products to bind to aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) and/or aflatoxin M₁ (AFM₁) was performed. After screening, 31 articles which met the inclusion criteria was included and then the pooled decontamination of aflatoxins in the defined subgroups (the type of foods, pH, contact time, temperature, yeast species, and aflatoxin type) was calculated by the random effect model (REM). The overall binding capacity (BC) of aflatoxins by yeast was 52.05% (95%CI: 49.01-55.10), while the lowest and highest aflatoxins' BC were associated with Yeast Extract Peptone (2.79%) and ruminal fluid + artificial saliva (96.21%), respectively. Regarding the contact time, temperature, pH and type of aflatoxins subgroups, the binding percentages varied from 50.83% (>300 min) to 52.66% (1-300 min), 50.71% (0-40 °C) to 88.39% (>40 °C), 43.03% (pH: 3.1-6) to 44.56% (pH: 1-3) and 59.35% (pH > 6), and 48.47% (AFB₁) to 69.03% AFM₁, respectively. The lowest and highest aflatoxins' BC was related to C. fabianii (18.45%) and Z. rouxii (86.40%), respectively. The results of this study showed that variables such as temperature, yeast, pH and aflatoxin type can be considered as the effective factors in aflatoxin decontamination.

Nanobody-alkaline phosphatase fusion-mediated phosphate-triggered fluorescence immunoassay for ochratoxin a detection

Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a kind of mycotoxin that seriously harms the health of humans and animals. In this study, a nanobody-alkaline phosphatase fusion-mediated phosphate-triggered fluorescence immunoassay (Nb-AP-mediated PT-FIA) was developed for detecting OTA. Based on the constructed phosphate-triggered fluorescence sensing system for Nb-AP and the optimal working conditions, the Nb-AP-mediated PT-FIA has a half maximal inhibition concentration (IC₅₀) of 0.46 ng/mL, a limit of detection (IC₁₀) of 0.12 ng/mL, and a linear range (IC_20-80) of 0.2-1.26 ng/mL, respectively. The recovery experiment indicated acceptable accuracy and precision of the Nb-AP-mediated PT-FIA, and the results were validated by high performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detector. Thus this proposed method is applicable to sensitive, rapid, and low-cost detection of OTA and other toxic analytes with low molecular weight in food and environment.

Quantification and confirmation of four aflatoxins using a LC-MS/MS QTRAP system in multiple reaction monitoring, enhanced product ion scan, and MS3 modes

A simple, rapid, and efficient liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method, operated in electrospray ionization and quadrupole linear ion trap modes, has been developed for the identification and structural characterization of aflatoxins in peanuts and its derivative products or bean sauce. Samples (5 g) were extracted with acetonitrile/water/formic acid (79:20:1, v/v). After centrifugation and dilution, the extracts were separated on a C18 analytical column by gradient elution (acetonitrile/0.2% formic acid) and analyzed by UPLC-MS/MS. External calibration was used for qualification. The developed multiple reaction monitoring-information-dependent acquisition-enhanced product ion method enabled quantification and confirmation of the analytes in a single run. Enhanced product ion mode was used for qualitative analysis, while multiple reaction monitoring mode was used for quantitative analysis. An in-house library was constructed for identification. Calibration curves showed good linearity with correlation coefficients (r) higher than 0.994. Limits of detection were determined to be below 0.26 µg kg^-1 for most analytes. The recoveries for those substances were in the acceptable range of 80.2%-119.1%. A new LC-MS³ method was established for further confirmation. One pickled pepper peanut was found to contain aflatoxins B1, B2, and G1 with contents of 90.93, 26.64, and 1.92 µg kg^-1, respectively.

Isolation, Molecular Identification and Mycotoxin Profile of Fusarium Species Isolated from Maize Kernels in Iran

Fusarium species are among the most important fungal pathogens of maize, where they cause severe reduction of yield and accumulation of a wide range of harmful mycotoxins in the kernels. In order to identify the Fusarium species and their mycotoxin profiles associated to maize ear rot and kernel contamination in Iran, a wide sampling was carried out from field in ten major maize-producing provinces in Iran, during 2015 and 2016. From 182 samples of maize kernels, 551 strains were isolated and identified as belonging to Fusarium genus. Among the 234 representative strains identified at species level by translation elongation factor (EF-1α) sequences, the main Fusarium species were F. verticillioides and F. proliferatum, together representing 90% of the Iranian Fusarium population, and, to a lesser extent, F. incarnatum equiseti species complex (FIESC), F. thapsinum and F. redolens. Fumonisin (FBs) production by F. verticillioides and F. proliferatum representative strains was analysed, showing that all strains produced FB₁. None of F. verticillioides strains produced FB₂ nor FB₃, while both FB₂ and FB₃ were produced only by F. proliferatum. Total mean of FBs production by F. verticillioides was higher than F. proliferatum. The occurrence of different Fusarium species on Iranian maize is reason of great concern because of the toxigenic risk associated to these species. Moreover, the diversity of the species identified increases the toxigenic risk associated to Fusarium contaminated maize kernels, because of the high possibility that a multi-toxin contamination can occur with harmful consequences on human and animal health.

Concentration and Prevalence of Aflatoxin M1 in Human Breast Milk in Iran: Systematic Review, Meta-Analysis, and Carcinogenic Risk Assessment: A Review

This meta-analysis was designed to review the published reports regarding the concentration and/or prevalence of aflatoxin M₁ (AFM₁) in human breast milk in Iran. The carcinogenic risk for Iranian infants consuming this milk was estimated with the hazard index. The PubMed and Scopus databases and the Scientific Information Database were screened for relevant studies between 1995 and 2017, and 11 of the 112 collected studies were included in the systematic review and meta-analysis. The mean (95% confidence interval) concentration of AFM₁ was 5.85 ng/L (4.54 to 7.15 ng/L), which was lower than the European Union standard (25 ng/L). The mean prevalence of AFM₁ in breast milk in Iran was 42% (11 to 77%). The estimated daily intakes for male and female infants were 0.02 to 5.57 ng/kg and 0.02 to 3.68 ng/kg of body weight per day, respectively. The rank order of estimated daily intake for both male and female infants according to age was 1 week > 1 month > 6 months > 12 months. The hazard index for all age groups of infants in all provinces in Iran was less than 1. Therefore, infants in Iran were not considered at carcinogenic risk from AFM₁ in human breast milk.

Thin Films Sensor Devices for Mycotoxins Detection in Foods: Applications and Challenges

Mycotoxins are a group of secondary metabolites produced by different species of filamentous fungi and pose serious threats to food safety due to their serious human and animal health impacts such as carcinogenic, teratogenic and hepatotoxic effects. Conventional methods for the detection of mycotoxins include gas chromatography and high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry or other detectors (fluorescence or UV detection), thin layer chromatography and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. These techniques are generally straightforward and yield reliable results; however, they are time-consuming, require extensive preparation steps, use large-scale instruments, and consume large amounts of hazardous chemical reagents. Rapid detection of mycotoxins is becoming an increasingly important challenge for the food industry in order to effectively enforce regulations and ensure the safety of food and feed. In this sense, several studies have been done with the aim of developing strategies to detect mycotoxins using sensing devices that have high sensitivity and specificity, fast analysis, low cost and portability. The latter include the use of microarray chips, multiplex lateral flow, Surface Plasmon Resonance, Surface Enhanced Raman Scattering and biosensors using nanoparticles. In this perspective, thin film sensors have recently emerged as a good candidate technique to meet such requirements. This review summarizes the application and challenges of thin film sensor devices for detection of mycotoxins in food matrices.