Cryogenic Transmission Electron Microscopy for Direct Observation of Polymer and Small-Molecule Materials and Structures in Solution

Development of an extended action fostemsavir lipid nanoparticle

An extended action fostemsavir (FTR) lipid nanoparticle (LNP) formulation prevents human immunodeficiency virus type one (HIV-1) infection. This FTR formulation establishes a drug depot in monocyte-derived macrophages that extend the drug's plasma residence time. The LNP's physicochemical properties improve FTR's antiretroviral activities, which are linked to the drug's ability to withstand fluid flow forces and levels of drug cellular internalization. Each is, in measure, dependent on PEGylated lipid composition and flow rate ratios affecting the size, polydispersity, shape, zeta potential, stability, biodistribution, and antiretroviral efficacy. The FTR LNP physicochemical properties enable the drug-particle's extended actions.

Deciphering the Lipid-Random Copolymer Interactions and Encoding Their Properties to Design a Hybrid System

Lipid/copolymer colloidal systems are deemed hybrid materials with unique properties and functionalities. Their hybrid nature leads to complex interfacial phenomena, which have not been fully encoded yet, navigating their properties. Moving toward in-depth knowledge of such systems, a comprehensive investigation of them is imperative. In the present study, hybrid lipid/copolymer structures were fabricated and examined by a gamut of techniques, including dynamic light scattering, fluorescence spectroscopy, cryogenic transmission electron microscopy, microcalorimetry, and high-resolution ultrasound spectroscopy. The biomaterials that were mixed for this purpose at different ratios were 1,2-dioctadecanoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine and four different linear, statistical (random) amphiphilic copolymers, consisting of oligo(ethylene glycol) methyl ether methacrylate as the hydrophilic comonomer and lauryl methacrylate as the hydrophobic one. The colloidal dispersions were studied for lipid/copolymer interactions regarding their physicochemical, morphological, and biophysical behavior. Their membrane properties and interactions with serum proteins were also studied. The aforementioned techniques confirmed the hybrid nature of the systems and the location of the copolymer in the structure. More importantly, the random architecture of the copolymers, the hydrophobic-to-hydrophilic balance of the nanoplatforms, and the lipid-to-polymer ratio are highlighted as the main design-influencing factors. Elucidating the lipid/copolymer interactions would contribute to the translation of hybrid nanoparticle performance and, thus, their rational design for multiple applications, including drug delivery.

Atomic Force Microscopy of Phytosterol Based Edible Oleogels

This work reviews the use of atomic force microscopy (AFM) as a tool to investigate oleogels of edible triglyceride oils. Specific attention is given to those oleogels based on phytosterols and their esters, a class of material the authors have studied extensively. This work consists of a summary of the role of AFM in imaging edible oleogels, including the processing and preparation steps required to obtain high-quality AFM images of them. Finally, there is a comparison between AFM and other techniques that may be used to obtain structural information from oleogel samples. The aim of this review is to provide a useful introduction and summary of the technique for researchers in the fields of gels and food sciences looking to perform AFM measurements on edible oleogels.

Peptide Design and Self-assembly into Targeted Nanostructure and Functional Materials

Peptides have been extensively utilized to construct nanomaterials that display targeted structure through hierarchical assembly. The self-assembly of both rationally designed peptides derived from naturally occurring domains in proteins as well as intuitively or computationally designed peptides that form β-sheets and helical secondary structures have been widely successful in constructing nanoscale morphologies with well-defined 1-d, 2-d, and 3-d architectures. In this review, we discuss these successes of peptide self-assembly, especially in the context of designing hierarchical materials. In particular, we emphasize the differences in the level of peptide design as an indicator of complexity within the targeted self-assembled materials and highlight future avenues for scientific and technological advances in this field.

Using Microemulsions: Formulation Based on Knowledge of Their Mesostructure

Microemulsions, as thermodynamically stable mixtures of oil, water, and surfactant, are known and have been studied for more than 70 years. However, even today there are still quite a number of unclear aspects, and more recent research work has modified and extended our picture. This review gives a short overview of how the understanding of microemulsions has developed, the current view on their properties and structural features, and in particular, how they are related to applications. We also discuss more recent developments regarding nonclassical microemulsions such as surfactant-free (ultraflexible) microemulsions or ones containing uncommon solvents or amphiphiles (like antagonistic salts). These new findings challenge to some extent our previous understanding of microemulsions, which therefore has to be extended to look at the different types of microemulsions in a unified way. In particular, the flexibility of the amphiphilic film is the key property to classify different microemulsion types and their properties in this review. Such a classification of microemulsions requires a thorough determination of their structural properties, and therefore, the experimental methods to determine microemulsion structure and dynamics are reviewed briefly, with a particular emphasis on recent developments in the field of direct imaging by means of electron microscopy. Based on this classification of microemulsions, we then discuss their applications, where the application demands have to be met by the properties of the microemulsion, which in turn are controlled by the flexibility of their amphiphilic interface. Another frequently important aspect for applications is the control of the rheological properties. Normally, microemulsions are low viscous and therefore enhancing viscosity has to be achieved by either having high concentrations (often not wished for) or additives, which do not significantly interfere with the microemulsion. Accordingly, this review gives a comprehensive account of the properties of microemulsions, including most recent developments and bringing them together from a united viewpoint, with an emphasis on how this affects the way of formulating microemulsions for a given application with desired properties.

Polymeric micelles in drug delivery: An insight of the techniques for their characterization and assessment in biorelevant conditions

Polymeric micelles, i.e. aggregation colloids formed in solution by self-assembling of amphiphilic polymers, represent an innovative tool to overcome several issues related to drug administration, from the low water-solubility to the poor drug permeability across biological barriers. With respect to other nanocarriers, polymeric micelles generally display smaller size, easier preparation and sterilization processes, and good solubilization properties, unfortunately associated with a lower stability in biological fluids and a more complicated characterization. Particularly challenging is the study of their interaction with the biological environment, essential to predict the real in vivo behavior after administration. In this review, after a general presentation on micelles features and properties, different characterization techniques are discussed, from the ones used for the determination of micelles basic characteristics (critical micellar concentration, size, surface charge, morphology) to the more complex approaches used to figure out micelles kinetic stability, drug release and behavior in the presence of biological substrates (fluids, cells and tissues). The techniques presented (such as dynamic light scattering, AFM, cryo-TEM, X-ray scattering, FRET, symmetrical flow field-flow fractionation (AF4) and density ultracentrifugation), each one with their own advantages and limitations, can be combined to achieve a deeper comprehension of polymeric micelles in vivo behavior. The set-up and validation of adequate methods for micelles description represent the essential starting point for their development and clinical success.

Self-assembly of dual-responsive amphiphilic POEGMA-b-P4VP-b-POEGMA triblock copolymers: effect of temperature, pH, and complexation with Cu2+

Amphiphilic and dual-responsive triblock copolymer POEGMA-b-P4VP-b-POEGMA synthesized by RAFT self-assemble into spherical or interconnected micelles depending on the external stimulus and their complexation with Cu2+ results in responsive nanogels.

Supramolecular Double Helices from Small C3-Symmetrical Molecules Aggregated in Water

Supramolecular fibers in water, micrometers long and several nanometers in width, are among the most studied nanostructures for biomedical applications. These supramolecular polymers are formed through a spontaneous self-assembly process of small amphiphilic molecules by specific secondary interactions. Although many compounds do not possess a stereocenter, recent studies suggest the (co)existence of helical structures, albeit in racemic form. Here, we disclose a series of supramolecular (co)polymers based on water-soluble benzene-1,3,5-tricarboxamides (BTAs) that form double helices, fibers that were long thought to be chains of single molecules stacked in one dimension (1D). Detailed cryogenic transmission electron microscopy (cryo-TEM) studies and subsequent three-dimensional-volume reconstructions unveiled helical repeats, ranging from 15 to 30 nm. Most remarkable, the pitch can be tuned through the composition of the copolymers, where two different monomers with the same core but different peripheries are mixed in various ratios. Like in lipid bilayers, the hydrophobic shielding in the aggregates of these disc-shaped molecules is proposed to be best obtained by dimer formation, promoting supramolecular double helices. It is anticipated that many of the supramolecular polymers in water will have a thermodynamic stable structure, such as a double helix, although small structural changes can yield single stacks as well. Hence, it is essential to perform detailed analyses prior to sketching a molecular picture of these 1D fibers.

PAINT-ing Fluorenylmethoxycarbonyl (Fmoc)-Diphenylalanine Hydrogels

Self-assembly of fluorenylmethoxycarbonyl-protected diphenylalanine (FmocFF) in water is widely known to produce hydrogels. Typically, confocal microscopy is used to visualize such hydrogels under wet conditions, that is, without freezing or drying. However, key aspects of hydrogels like fiber diameter, network morphology and mesh size are sub-diffraction limited features and cannot be visualized effectively using this approach. In this work, we show that it is possible to image FmocFF hydrogels by Points Accumulation for Imaging in Nanoscale Topography (PAINT) in native conditions and without direct gel labelling. We demonstrate that the fiber network can be visualized with improved resolution (≈50 nm) both in 2D and 3D. Quantitative information is extracted such as mesh size and fiber diameter. This method can complement the existing characterization tools for hydrogels and provide useful information supporting the design of new materials.

Breaking translational symmetry via polymer chain overcrowding in molecular bottlebrush crystallization

One of the fundamental laws in crystallization is translational symmetry, which accounts for the profound shapes observed in natural mineral crystals and snowflakes. Herein, we report on the spontaneous formation of spherical hollow crystals with broken translational symmetry in crystalline molecular bottlebrush (mBB) polymers. The unique structure is named as mBB crystalsome (mBBC), highlighting its similarity to the classical molecular vesicles. Fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) experiments show that the mBBC formation is driven by local chain overcrowding-induced asymmetric lamella bending, which is further confirmed by correlating crystalsome size with crystallization temperature and mBB's side chain grafting density. Our study unravels a new principle of spontaneous translational symmetry breaking, providing a general route towards designing versatile nanostructures.

Structure Prediction of Self-Assembled Dye Aggregates from Cryogenic Transmission Electron Microscopy, Molecular Mechanics, and Theory of Optical Spectra

Cryogenic transmission electron microscopy (cryo-TEM) studies suggest that TTBC molecules self-assemble in aqueous solution to form single-walled tubes with a diameter of about 35 Å. In order to reveal the arrangement and mutual orientations of the individual molecules in the tube, we combine information from crystal structure data of this dye with a calculation of linear absorbance and linear dichroism spectra and molecular dynamics simulations. We start with wrapping crystal planes in different directions to obtain tubes of suitable diameter. This set of tube models is evaluated by comparing the resulting optical spectra with experimental data. The tubes that can explain the spectra are investigated further by molecular dynamics simulations, including explicit solvent molecules. From the trajectories of the most stable tube models, the short-range ordering of the dye molecules is extracted and the optimization of the structure is iteratively completed. The final structural model is a tube of rings with 6-fold rotational symmetry, where neighboring rings are rotated by 30° and the transition dipole moments of the chromophores form an angle of 74° with respect to the symmetry axis of the tube. This model is in agreement with cryo-TEM images and can explain the optical spectra, consisting of a sharp red-shifted J-band that is polarized parallel to to the symmetry axis of the tube and a broad blue-shifted H-band polarized perpendicular to this axis. The general structure of the homogeneous spectrum of this hybrid HJ-aggregate is described by an analytical model that explains the difference in redistribution of oscillator strength inside the vibrational manifolds of the J- and H-bands and the relative intensities and excitation energies of those bands. In addition to the particular system investigated here, the present methodology can be expected to aid the structure prediction for a wide range of self-assembled dye aggregates.

A completely controlled sphere-to-bilayer micellar transition: the molecular mechanism and application on the growth of nanosheets

The combination of a simple modification of the sample addition method to generate a sort of continuously accumulated external stimulation with only minute increments in amplitude and the introduction of probe molecules (herein aniline) within the micelle allow the direct continuous in situ spectroscopic monitoring of possible micellar transitions. In this way, a sphere-to-ellipsoid and further an ellipsoid-to-bilayer micellar transition of sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) induced by camphor sulfuric acid (CSA) is observed to experience four stages in the time sequence: (i) the accumulated protons released from CSA in the hydration layer of the micelle stimulate the rearrangement of SDS micelles; (ii) the micelles transform into ellipsoidal shapes as evidenced by the characteristic chemical shift anisotropy and the corresponding molecular dynamic properties from probe molecules; (iii) further protonation of aniline induces the micelle to turn into lamellar structures; (iv) aniline is freed from the micelle while leaving the SDS bilayers undistorted. Moreover, polyaniline nanosheets incorporating SDS bilayers in sandwich structures, which can display excellent capacitive behavior at relatively high current densities for the fabricated supercapacitors, are prepared from the aniline oriented by the bending energy of the SDS bilayers.

Hidden structural features of multicompartment micelles revealed by cryogenic transmission electron tomography

The demand for ever more complex nanostructures in materials and soft matter nanoscience also requires sophisticated characterization tools for reliable visualization and interpretation of internal morphological features. Here, we address both aspects and present synthetic concepts for the compartmentalization of nanoparticle peripheries as well as their in situ tomographic characterization. We first form negatively charged spherical multicompartment micelles from ampholytic triblock terpolymers in aqueous media, followed by interpolyelectrolyte complex (IPEC) formation of the anionic corona with bis-hydrophilic cationic/neutral diblock copolymers. At a 1:1 stoichiometric ratio of anionic and cationic charges, the so-formed IPECs are charge neutral and thus phase separate from solution (water). The high chain density of the ionic grafts provides steric stabilization through the neutral PEO corona of the grafted diblock copolymer and suppresses collapse of the IPEC; instead, the dense grafting results in defined nanodomains oriented perpendicular to the micellar core. We analyze the 3D arrangements of the complex and purely organic compartments, in situ, by means of cryogenic transmission electron microscopy (cryo-TEM) and tomography (cryo-ET). We study the effect of block lengths of the cationic and nonionic block on IPEC morphology, and while 2D cryo-TEM projections suggest similar morphologies, cryo-ET and computational 3D reconstruction reveal otherwise hidden structural features, e.g., planar IPEC brushes emanating from the micellar core.

Cryogenic transmission electron microscopy: aqueous suspensions of nanoscale objects

Direct imaging of nanoscale objects suspended in liquid media can be accomplished using cryogenic transmission electron microscopy (cryo-TEM). Cryo-TEM has been used with particular success in microbiology and other biological fields. Samples are prepared by plunging a thin film of sample into an appropriate cryogen, which essentially produces a snapshot of the suspended objects in their liquid medium. With successful sample preparation, cryo-TEM images can facilitate elucidation of aggregation and self-assembly, as well as provide detailed information about cells and viruses. This work provides an explanation of sample preparation, detailed examples of the many artifacts found in cryo-TEM of aqueous samples, and other key considerations for successful cryo-TEM imaging.

Advances in cryogenic transmission electron microscopy for the characterization of dynamic self-assembling nanostructures

Elucidating the structural information of nanoscale materials in their solvent-exposed state is crucial, as a result, cryogenic transmission electron microscopy (cryo-TEM) has become an increasingly popular technique in the materials science, chemistry, and biology communities. Cryo-TEM provides a method to directly visualize the specimen structure in a solution-state through a thin film of vitrified solvent. This technique complements X-ray, neutron, and light scattering methods that probe the statistical average of all species present; furthermore, cryo-TEM can be used to observe changes in structure over time. In the area of self-assembly, this tool has been particularly powerful for the characterization of natural and synthetic small molecule assemblies, as well as hybrid organic-inorganic composites. In this review, we discuss recent advances in cryogenic TEM in the context of self-assembling systems with emphasis on characterization of transitions observed in response to external stimuli.

Nanomaterials design and tests for neural tissue engineering

Nanostructured scaffolds recently showed great promise in tissue engineering: nanomaterials can be tailored at the molecular level and scaffold morphology may more closely resemble features of extracellular matrix components in terms of porosity, framing and biofunctionalities. As a consequence, both biomechanical properties of scaffold microenvironments and biomaterial-protein interactions can be tuned, allowing for improved transplanted cell engraftment and better controlled diffusion of drugs. Easier said than done, a nanotech-based regenerative approach encompasses different fields of know-how, ranging from in silico simulations, nanomaterial synthesis and characterization at the nano-, micro- and mesoscales to random library screening methods (e.g. phage display), in vitro cellular-based experiments and validation in animal models of the target injury. All of these steps of the "assembly line" of nanostructured scaffolds are tightly interconnected both in their standard analysis techniques and in their most recent breakthroughs: indeed their efforts have to jointly provide the deepest possible analyses of the diverse facets of the challenging field of neural tissue engineering. The purpose of this review is therefore to provide a critical overview of the recent advances in and drawbacks and potential of each mentioned field, contributing to the realization of effective nanotech-based therapies for the regeneration of peripheral nerve transections, spinal cord injuries and brain traumatic injuries. Far from being the ultimate overview of such a number of topics, the reader will acknowledge the intrinsic complexity of the goal of nanotech tissue engineering for a conscious approach to the development of a regenerative therapy and, by deciphering the thread connecting all steps of the research, will gain the necessary view of its tremendous potential if each piece of stone is correctly placed to work synergically in this impressive mosaic.

Nanoinclusions in cryogenically quenched nanoemulsions

Nanodroplets containing mixtures of silicone oil and squalene are dispersed in a simple aqueous surfactant solution, quenched in liquid ethane, and examined using cryogenic transmission electron microscopy (CTEM). Depending on the phase of ice that forms around the nanodroplets and on the composition of the oil mixture, nanoinclusions can be observed inside oil nanodroplets, independent of surfactant type. Our observations suggest that these nanoinclusions arise from nucleation of vapor cavities as the water freezes and expands while the oil remains liquid during the quench.

Direct-Imaging Cryo-SEM of Nanostructure Evolution in Didodecyldimethylammonium Bromide-Based Microemulsions

We applied cryogenic-temperature scanning electron microscopy (cryo-SEM) to perform a first direct-imaging study of single-phase microemulsions of didodecyldimethylammonium bromide (DDAB), isooctane, and water. The structural changes from a bicontinuous network to an oil-continuous structure, observed upon the addition of water to the system, are consistent with previous indirect investigations, thus validating the model of Ninham, Evans, and coworkers, published in 1984, and demonstrating the power of this novel methodology.

Self-assembly of tunable protein suprastructures from recombinant oleosin

Using recombinant amphiphilic proteins to self-assemble suprastructures would allow precise control over surfactant chemistry and the facile incorporation of biological functionality. We used cryo-TEM to confirm self-assembled structures from recombinantly produced mutants of the naturally occurring sunflower protein, oleosin. We studied the phase behavior of protein self-assembly as a function of solution ionic strength and protein hydrophilic fraction, observing nanometric fibers, sheets, and vesicles. Vesicle membrane thickness correlated with increasing hydrophilic fraction for a fixed hydrophobic domain length. The existence of a bilayer membrane was corroborated in giant vesicles through the localized encapsulation of hydrophobic Nile red and hydrophilic calcein. Circular dichroism revealed that changes in nanostructural morphology in this family of mutants was unrelated to changes in secondary structure. Ultimately, we envision the use of recombinant techniques to introduce novel functionality into these materials for biological applications.

Microscopic analysis of the surface functionalization of polymer particles and subsequent grafting of polymer chains from the surface

The characterization of the surface functionalization of polymer particles and subsequent grafting of hydrated polymer chains from their surface by microscopic techniques are essential to obtain reliable data about the actual morphology of the system. Since the size range of morphological features of functionalized polymer surfaces has long ago reached the lower end of the nanometer scale, classical light microscopy and dynamic light scattering have been replaced by electron and atomic force microscopy techniques which provide sufficient resolution for the visualization of nano-sized structures. Moreover, only polymer particle aggregates and fine organization of hydrated polymer chains which are not efficiently characterized by particle size measurements can be detected accurately with microscopy methods. Both solid and hydrated systems can be characterized by transmission electron microscopy and scanning electron microscopy (inc. cryo-electron microscopy (EM)) after appropriate sample preparation. Moreover, analytical EM methods allow not only for the size, shape and internal structure characterization, but also for the chemical composition with high spatial resolution.

A simple approach to characterizing block copolymer assemblies: graphene oxide supports for high contrast multi-technique imaging

Block copolymers are well-known to self-assemble into a range of 3-dimensional morphologies. However, due to their nanoscale dimensions, resolving their exact structure can be a challenge. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) is a powerful technique for achieving this, but for polymeric assemblies chemical fixing/staining techniques are usually required to increase image contrast and protect specimens from electron beam damage. Graphene oxide (GO) is a robust, water-dispersable, and nearly electron transparent membrane: an ideal support for TEM. We show that when using GO supports no stains are required to acquire high contrast TEM images and that the specimens remain stable under the electron beam for long periods, allowing sample analysis by a range of electron microscopy techniques. GO supports are also used for further characterization of assemblies by atomic force microscopy. The simplicity of sample preparation and analysis, as well as the potential for significantly increased contrast background, make GO supports an attractive alternative for the analysis of block copolymer assemblies.