Defining and categorizing emotional abuse in sport

Prevalence of harassment, abuse, and mental health among current and retired senior Swedish cheerleaders

This study examined the prevalence of non-accidental violence, focusing on experienced harassment and abuse (HA), and mental health among current and retired Swedish competitive cheerleaders. An online survey was distributed to current and retired athletes in the Swedish cheerleading federation. The survey assessed perceived coach-athlete relationship, sport psychological safety, resilience, mental health, and experienced HA within the cheerleading environment. A total of 284 athletes (men = 5; women = 278; gender not disclosed = 1; current athletes = 211; retired athletes = 73) completed the survey. Psychological abuse was the most frequently reported HA form (current athletes = 21.6%; retired athletes = 53.5%), followed by neglect (current athletes = 5.4%; retired athletes: 26.8%) and physical abuse (current athletes = 3.9%; retired athletes = 12.7%). A high-quality coach-athlete relationship was identified as a protective factor for HA. Additionally, 33.1% and 8.9% of participants displayed scores indicating anxiety and depression caseness, while 63.8% reported a high level of wellbeing. Anxiety/depression scores above clinical cut-off were linked to injury episodes and a high level of wellbeing to a mentally healthy environment. Resilience was found to protect mental health overall. The high occurrence of reported psychological abuse and indications of anxiety/depression related to injury episodes suggest a need of attention towards prevention and athlete protection strategies in cheerleading environments.

Athletic identity affects prevalence and disclosure of emotional abuse in Finnish athletes

The present study offers novel insight into the topic of experienced and observed emotional abuse by researching factors that affect athletes' responses to emotional abuse by coaches. The research aimed to explore three main questions: (1) whether athletic identity was associated with the prevalence of emotionally abusive coaching practices, and (2) disclosure of emotional abuse, and (3) whether demographic variations existed in the frequency of emotional abuse, athletic identity, and disclosure of the abuse. Study participants who filled in an anonymous digital survey consisted of athletes from elite to leisure levels living in Finland (N = 3687, aged 12-80, gender 61% female, 37.7% male, 0.8% other genders). The research findings highlighted three key insights. Firstly, Pearson correlations revealed that a salient athletic identity was related to a higher prevalence of emotional abuse. Secondly, ANOVA/Kruskal-Wallis tests between-groups indicated that particularly children were susceptible to the abuse. Thirdly, a mediation analysis showed that self-identity (aspect of athletic identity) influenced the relationship between experienced emotional abuse and disclosure, by reducing disclosure. As a result, holistic identity development is recommended for athletes and particularly children in sports.

Towards an understanding of maltreatment in football

Introduction

This study explored the understanding of maltreatment from the perspective of various personnel working in roles related to safeguarding and welfare in English professional and semi-professional football.

Method

Through a social constructivist position, the present study was able to explore multiple understandings and perceptions of maltreatment in football. Individual semi-structured interviews (MDuration = 68.00 minutes, SD = 9.05 minutes) were conducted with 19 participants working across league structures ranging from the English Premier League (EPL) to the English Northern Premier League Division One, as well as individuals working with some of the principal organizations in English professional football.

Results

Through reflexive thematic analysis, three general dimensions were highlighted: "current understanding of maltreatment in football," "constituents of maltreatment," and "signs and symptoms of maltreatment." Findings from those working in a safeguarding capacity mirror the research literature around understanding the components of maltreatment but also demonstrate how wrongdoing is nuanced by the football context, in that certain forms of maltreatment are driven by the unique nature of this environment.

Discussion

From an applied perspective, the findings also outline how to distinguish both the more overt and covert signs and symptoms of maltreatment, whilst also highlighting the impact of maltreatment on individuals' mental health and their sense of self. Overall, the findings provide a platform for practitioners and researchers to consider in the design of safeguarding and welfare provision by highlighting the need to raise knowledge and awareness of maltreatment whilst intervening to challenge the prevailing workplace culture within professional football.

High time to enhance dancer welfare: a call to action to improve safeguarding and abuse prevention in dance

While there is a lack of research into abuse in elite dance, numerous allegations of emotional, sexual and physical abuse of dancers can be found anecdotally in the media, legal convictions and personal accounts. As more dancers speak out, the scale of the problem within preprofessional schools and professional companies is becoming apparent. Accordingly, effective safeguarding mechanisms for preventing, identifying and reporting abuse are urgently needed. This viewpoint is intended to raise health professionals' awareness of factors contributing to abusive practices found in dance environments and the potential clinical implications of abuse to dancers' health and well-being. We also call for research and policy engagement on safeguarding and abuse prevention designed and implemented in partnership with stakeholders, aiming to promote safe and positive dance environments for all.

Development and initial validation of the perceived instrumental effects of violence in sport scale

Introduction

A growing body of research is looking into risk factors for interpersonal violence (IV) in sport. This research suggests the existence of several important risk factors, especially organizational and social factors. One of these factors is the beliefs regarding instrumental effects of violence. Coaches may want to drive performance, deter failure, test resilience and commitment, develop toughness, assure interpersonal control, and promote internal competition. In sum, available evidence suggests the risk of IV increases when coaches believe in the effectiveness of strategies involving IV to enhance athlete performance or perceive external approval for these practices.

Methods

The studies presented in this article seeks to develop and validate the Perceived Instrumental Effects of Violence in Sport (PIEVS) Scale in order to measure those beliefs in coaches. In study 1, item generation, expert consultation, cognitive interviews, pilot test and item reduction phases led to 25 items for the PIEVS around six dimensions. In study 2, exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was conducted with 690 coaches in order to determine the PIEVS factorial structure and the convergent and divergent validity of the scale was tested (long and short form).

Results

Our results suggested a one-factor solution for the PIEVS (25 items). This one-factor model provided an excellent fit to the data and a very good internal consistency. The PIEVS and empowering motivational climate were negatively correlated, which supported divergent validity as expected. The PIEVS was positively correlated with the disempowering motivational climate and with sport ethic norms, which supported convergent validity as expected.

Discussion

These findings provide preliminary evidence for the appropriateness of the PIEVS Scale to measure perceived instrumental effects of violence in coaches.

Mental Health in Elite Coaches

CONTEXT

Coaches play an important role in promoting mental health in elite sports. However, they themselves are exposed to risks affecting their mental health, and their fears and worries are often overlooked. Moreover, it remains unclear how coaches' mental health affects their athletes' mental health.

OBJECTIVE

To create a compilation of the literature on (1) elite coaches' mental health and (2) how coaches' mental health influences elite athletes' mental health. Building on this, recommendations for improving coaches' psychological well-being should be elaborated upon and discussed.

DATA SOURCES

A literature search was conducted up to November 30, 2021, using the following databases: PubMed, PsycINFO, Scopus, Web of Science, and SportDiscus.

STUDY SELECTION

Studies reporting elite coaches' mental health symptoms and disorders and the influence of elite coaches' mental health on elite athletes' mental health were included.

STUDY DESIGN

Scoping review.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level 4.

DATA EXTRACTION

Data regarding elite coaches' mental health, as well as their influence on athletes' mental health and performance, were included in a descriptive analysis. The PRISMA guidelines were used to guide this review.

RESULTS

Little research has been done on elite coaches' mental health disorders, although studies confirm that they do experience, for example, symptoms of burnout, anxiety, and depression. The influence of coaches' mental health on their athletes is underinvestigated, with research focused mainly on the influence of coaches' stress.

CONCLUSION

Knowledge about coaches' mental health is still limited. Coaches' poor mental health diminishes coaching performance and might impair athletes' mental health. Coaches should receive more support, including sports psychiatric care and education on the importance of mental health. This could improve the mental health of both coaches and athletes, and positively affect athlete performance.

Athlete Maltreatment in Sport

The celebrated side of sports is the high-intensity display of athleticism and competition that draws spectators to the stands, televisions, and streaming services. That version of sports is presented as the hotly contested, highly sought-after glory that the competitors sacrifice their time and bodies to pursue. The competitive passion for sport can be observed at every level of sport: from youth sports leagues to elite and professional sports competitions. This chapter will peel back the layers of sports to expose the elements that are not glamorous or celebrated. It will explore the staggering costs under the surface: to athletes, members of the athlete's entourage, and teammates when maltreatment occurs. It will also outline the role of the team physician in providing a safe clinical environment and tools to navigate disclosure and beyond.

Maltreatment experiences and mental health indicators among elite athletes

This study explored the relationships between athletes' experiences of maltreatment and mental health indicators. Canadian National Team athletes completed an online, anonymous survey that assessed reported experiences of maltreatment (psychological, physical, sexual harm and neglect), and mental health indicators of well-being, eating disorders and self-harming behaviours. All forms of maltreatment had a significant, positive correlation with eating disorder and self-harming behaviours, and a negative correlation with well-being. The relationships between maltreatment and mental health indicators differed based on identity characteristics of the athletes. Further work is needed on the prevention and intervention of maltreatment in sport to reduce the behaviours associated with negative health outcomes.

"They are men, they will be looking even if you put on pants or a sweatshirt": Girl athletes' and coaches' experiences of body image in Mexico City sport settings

Body image concerns are a barrier for girls' participation in sports. Scarce evidence from Mexico suggests adolescents experience high levels of body dissatisfaction, and national statistics report low levels of physical activity among girls. This study aimed to explore girls' body image concerns and coaches' perceptions of girls' body image experiences in sport. We used reflexive thematic analysis on secondary data from semi-structured focus groups conducted in Mexico City with 12 girls aged 11-17 years and six coaches from two sports organizations. Girls expressed feelings of self-consciousness about their performance, body-related teasing, the male gaze, and harassment within and outside sports contexts. Lack of support from coaches resulted in making excuses for withdrawing or supporting one another. Coaches' accounts demonstrate gender stereotypes about girls in sport. They acknowledge that girls abandon sport because of appearance-related teasing and body image concerns. In addition, colorism and discomfort with speaking directly about bodily functions are fundamental sociocultural influences affecting their communication. This is the first qualitative study exploring girls' body image concerns and coaches' perceptions of such concerns in Mexico City. Further research in lower- and middle-income countries is key in developing effective intervention programs to help girls benefit from sport.

Empowering and disempowering climate and experiences of psychological violence in artistic gymnastics

In light of the continuing debate about coach-perpetrated violence and the maltreatment of athletes in the elite sports context, empowering and ethical approaches to coaching need to be investigated and proposed as evidence-based effective alternatives. This study aims to investigate the associations between motivational coaching climates and athletes’ experiences of psychological violence, as well as their effects on well-being. Using an anonymous cross-sectional online survey, artistic gymnasts’ perceptions of empowering and disempowering coach-created motivational climates, experiences of psychological violence in sport, well-being, and depressive symptoms were recorded quantitatively. Results indicate that a more disempowering climate predicts psychological violence, while an empowering climate was not a significant predictor. Regarding mental health outcomes, an effect of psychological violence on depressive symptoms and well-being was found, but no effect was found for the disempowering climate. Explorative analysis suggested that psychological violence mediates the relationship between disempowering coaching and mental health outcomes. Based on these findings, coach education should focus on prevention of psychological violence and minimization of disempowering climates. Further research should investigate the relations and effects of psychological violence and coaching climates more thoroughly, including the role of an empowering climate as a potential beneficiary alternative coaching method.

Exploring the design of a sport for employability program: A case study

Rates of young people who are neither in employment, education, or training (NEET) are fairly high in the European Union. Correspondingly, there has been a growing tendency to regard sport as a suitable tool to develop soft skills and raise NEETs' level of employability. However, if and how such sport for employability (SfE) programs are able to realize these major claims has been called into question. The purpose of the present study was, therefore, to explore how an actual SfE initiative constructs and delivers its program. In addition, the article assessed whether the investigated program operates in line with researchers' recent calls for theory-based approaches. Guided by a case study approach set up within an initiative located in Flanders, data were gathered through 12 semi-structured interviews with 8 program providers. Results, analyzed using thematic analysis, indicated that the program was characterized by an absence of well-defined desired outcomes, imprecision as to how the program should contribute to these outcomes, and consequently minimal attention to the follow-up of participants' progress. As such, these findings and the accompanying challenges point to the absence of a theory-based approach. Several possible sources for the lack of a systematic approach are discussed.

Navigating the Ethically Complex and Controversial World of College Athletics: A Humanistic Leadership Approach to Student Athlete Well-Being

The college athletics environment within the USA is ethically complex and often controversial. From an academic standpoint, athletes are often viewed as a privileged class receiving undue benefit. Yet closer inspection reveals that student athletes are at risk psychologically, physically, and intellectually in ways that undermine development and flourishing. This reality stands in troubling contrast to the prosocial, virtue-based goals expressed by university mission statements. Given the role of sport in many university business models, college athletics invites scrutiny from a business ethics standpoint. Using a humanistic leadership perspective (Pirson in: Humanistic management: protecting dignity and promoting well-being, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2017), we organize our analysis around three challenges facing the college athletics system: (1) navigating the tension between claiming college athletes are amateurs rather than professionals; (2) defining the ethical edge between winning and winning fairly; and (3) moderating the insatiable drive to win while protecting student athlete well-being. We then articulate three strategies for successfully addressing these challenges: leadership role modeling, putting structural supports in place and holding people accountable. We argue that humanistic leadership and a 'balanced motivational drive mindset' (Lawrence and Nohria in: J Bus Ethics 128:383-394, 2002, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-014-2090-2; Pirson 2017) could help move college athletics from an economistic model toward a more humanistic model that prioritizes the dignity and well-being of its participants, particularly student athletes.

The Ethics of Motivational Neuro-Doping in Sport: Praiseworthiness and Prizeworthiness

Motivational enhancement in sport – a form of ‘neuro-doping’ – can help athletes attain greater achievements in sport. A key question is whether or not that athlete deserves that achievement. We distinguish three concepts – praiseworthiness (whether the athlete deserves praise), prizeworthiness (whether the athlete deserves the prize), and admiration (pure admiration at the performance) – which are closely related. However, in sport, they can come apart. The most praiseworthy athlete may not be the most prizeworthy, and so on. Using a model of praiseworthiness as costly commitment to a valuable end, and situating prizeworthiness within the boundaries of the sport, we argue that motivational enhancement in some cases can be compatible with desert.

"Know That You're Not Just Settling": Exploring Women Athletes' Self-Compassion, Sport Performance Perceptions, and Well-Being Around Important Competitive Events

Self-compassion, an adaptive self-attitude, is a resource that women athletes use during emotionally difficult times and as a way to reach their potential. The relationship between self-compassion and sport performance, however, is complex. The role and experience of self-compassion within perceived important competitive events are important to explore, as athletes face unique pressures and stressors in these meaningful sport experiences. This collective case study describes women athletes' self-compassion, sport performance perceptions, and well-being around a self-identified important competitive event. Competitive women athletes (N = 9) participated in two one-on-one interviews, before and after their important competitive event. Results from the holistic, functional, and thematic analyses are represented by holistic case descriptions and an overarching theme, Continuing to Excel in Sport, and subthemes, Reframing Criticism and A Determined Approach. In important competitive events, women athletes utilize self-compassion to promote performance perceptions and well-being when preparing, competing, and reflecting to excel in sport.

The characteristics of coaches that verbally and physically abuse young baseball players using a self-reported questionnaire

BACKGROUND

Because the relationship between coaches and athletes is unequal, verbal and physical abuse remains a common problem among sports coaches. We aimed to elucidate the characteristics of baseball coaches who verbally/physically abuse young baseball players.

METHODS

A cross-sectional study was conducted on youth sports team coaches in Miyagi prefecture, Japan (n = 380), using a self-reported questionnaire. Multivariate logistic regression models were used for the analyses, evaluating the following variables: sex, age, educational level, smoking habits, years of coaching, level of baseball-playing experience, personal experience with verbal/physical abuse by former coaches, satisfaction with athletes' attitudes, number of athletes on the team, team competition level, awareness of the recommendations of the Japanese Society of Clinical Sports Medicine, limitations in the total pitch count, difficulty in coaching in other positions, number of games per year, and acceptance of former verbal/physical abuse.

RESULTS

The prevalence of verbal/physical abuse toward young athletes was 74.5% (n = 283) and 6.6% (n = 25), respectively. Verbal abuse was significantly associated with personal experience of verbal abuse by former coaches (odds ratio [OR]: 2.00, 95% confidence interval [95% CI]: 1.04-3.85), and acceptance of verbal/physical abuse (OR: 2.61, 95% CI: 1.34-5.10). Physical abuse was significantly associated with greater than 10 years of coaching experience (OR: 7.16, 95% CI: 1.36-37.78), personal experience with physical abuse by former coaches (OR: 4.25, 95% CI: 1.23-14.70), and acceptance of verbal/physical abuse (OR: 3.85, 95% CI: 1.51-9.84).

CONCLUSIONS

Coaches' experiences with verbal/physical abuse by former coaches negatively affected young athletes. Breaking this cycle is necessary to keep athletes active and interested in playing baseball.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level III.

International Olympic Committee consensus statement: harassment and abuse (non-accidental violence) in sport

Despite the well-recognised benefits of sport, there are also negative influences on athlete health, well-being and integrity caused by non-accidental violence through harassment and abuse. All athletes have a right to engage in ‘safe sport’, defined as an athletic environment that is respectful, equitable and free from all forms of non-accidental violence to athletes. Yet, these issues represent a blind spot for many sport organisations through fear of reputational damage, ignorance, silence or collusion. This consensus statement extends the 2007 IOC Consensus Statement on Sexual Harassment and Abuse in Sport, presenting additional evidence of several other types of harassment and abuse—psychological, physical and neglect. All ages and types of athletes are susceptible to these problems but science confirms that elite, disabled, child and lesbian/gay/bisexual/trans-sexual (LGBT) athletes are at highest risk, that psychological abuse is at the core of all other forms and that athletes can also be perpetrators. Harassment and abuse arise from prejudices expressed through power differences. Perpetrators use a range of interpersonal mechanisms including contact, non-contact/verbal, cyber-based, negligence, bullying and hazing. Attention is paid to the particular risks facing child athletes, athletes with a disability and LGBT athletes. Impacts on the individual athlete and the organisation are discussed. Sport stakeholders are encouraged to consider the wider social parameters of these issues, including cultures of secrecy and deference that too often facilitate abuse, rather than focusing simply on psychopathological causes. The promotion of safe sport is an urgent task and part of the broader international imperative for good governance in sport. A systematic multiagency approach to prevention is most effective, involving athletes, entourage members, sport managers, medical and therapeutic practitioners, educators and criminal justice agencies. Structural and cultural remedies, as well as practical recommendations, are suggested for sport organisations, athletes, sports medicine and allied disciplines, sport scientists and researchers. The successful prevention and eradication of abuse and harassment against athletes rests on the effectiveness of leadership by the major international and national sport organisations.

Safeguarding the child athlete in sport: a review, a framework and recommendations for the IOC youth athlete development model

Participation in sport has many physical, psychological and social benefits for the child athlete. A growing body of evidence indicates, however, that sport participation may have inherent threats for the child’s well-being. The subject of safeguarding children in sport has seen an increase in scientific study in recent years. In particular, there is increasing emphasis on identifying who is involved in abuse, the context of where it occurs and the identification of the various forms of abuse that take place in the sporting domain. Safeguarding principles developed by the International Safeguarding Children in Sport Founders Group are presented along with 8 underlying pillars which underpin the successful adoption and implementation of safeguarding strategies. This safeguarding model is designed to assist sport organisations in the creation of a safe sporting environment to ensure that the child athlete can flourish and reach their athletic potential through an enjoyable experience. The aim of this narrative review is to (1) present a summary of the scientific literature on the threats to children in sport; (2) introduce a framework to categorise these threats; (3) identify research gaps in the field and (4) provide safeguarding recommendations for sport organisations.