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Sarmiento LF, Lopes da Cunha P, Tabares S, Tafet G, Gouveia Jr A. Decision-making under stress: A psychological and neurobiological integrative model. Brain Behav Immun Health 2024; 38:100766. [PMID: 38694793 PMCID: PMC11061251 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbih.2024.100766] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2023] [Revised: 03/14/2024] [Accepted: 03/28/2024] [Indexed: 05/04/2024] Open
Abstract
Understanding the impact of stress on cognitive processes, particularly decision-making, is crucial as it underpins behaviors essential for survival. However, research in this domain has yielded disparate results, with inconsistencies evident across stress-induction paradigms and drug administration protocols designed to investigate specific stress pathways or neuromodulators. Building upon empirical studies, this research identifies a multifaceted matrix of variables contributing to the divergent findings. This matrix encompasses factors such as the temporal proximity between stressors and decision tasks, the nature of stressors and decision contexts, individual characteristics including psychobiological profiles and affective states at the time of decision-making and even cultural influences. In response to these complexities, we propose a comprehensive model that integrates these relevant factors and their intricate interplay to elucidate the mechanisms governing decision-making during stressful events. By synthesizing these insights, our model not only refines existing paradigms but also provides a framework for future study designs, offering avenues for theoretical advancements and translational developments in the field of stress's impact on cognitive functions. This research contributes to a deeper understanding of the nuanced relationship between stress and decision-making, ultimately advancing our knowledge of cognitive processes under challenging conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luis Felipe Sarmiento
- BioTechMed Center, Brain & Mind Electrophysiology Laboratory, Multimedia Systems Department, Faculty of Electronics, Telecommunications and Informatics, Gdansk University of Technology, Gdansk, Poland
| | - Pamela Lopes da Cunha
- Cognitive Neuroscience Center, University of San Andres, Buenos Aires, Argentina
- National Council for Scientific and Technical Research (CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Sonia Tabares
- International Foundation for the Development of Neurosciences, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Gustavo Tafet
- International Foundation for the Development of Neurosciences, Buenos Aires, Argentina
- Texas A&M University, Texas, USA
| | - Amauri Gouveia Jr
- Laboratory of Neuroscience and Behavior, Federal University from Pará, Brazil
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2
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Chen Y, He H, Ding Y, Tao W, Guan Q, Krueger F. Connectome-based prediction of decreased trust propensity in older adults with mild cognitive impairment: A resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging study. Neuroimage 2024; 292:120605. [PMID: 38615705 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2024.120605] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2023] [Revised: 03/19/2024] [Accepted: 04/08/2024] [Indexed: 04/16/2024] Open
Abstract
Trust propensity (TP) relies more on social than economic rationality to transform the perceived probability of betrayal into positive reciprocity expectations in older adults with normal cognition. While deficits in social rationality have been observed in older adults with mild cognitive impairment (MCI), there is limited research on TP and its associated resting-state functional connectivity (RSFC) mechanisms in this population. To measure TP and related psychological functions (affect, motivation, executive cognition, and social cognition), MCI (n = 42) and normal healthy control (NHC, n = 115) groups completed a one-shot trust game and additional assessments of related psychological functions. RSFC associated with TP was analyzed using connectome-based predictive modeling (CPM) and lesion simulations. Our behavioral results showed that the MCI group trusted less (i.e., had lower TP) than the NHC group, with lower TP associated with higher sensitivity to the probability of betrayal in the MCI group. In the MCI group, only negative CPM models (RSFC negatively correlated with TP) significantly predicted TP, with a high salience network (SN) contribution. In contrast, in the NHC group, positive CPM models (RSFC positively correlated with TP) significantly predicted TP, with a high contribution from the default mode network (DMN). In addition, the total network strength of the NHC-specific positive network was lower in the MCI group than in the NHC group. Our findings demonstrated a decrease in TP in the MCI group compared to the NHC group, which is associated with deficits in social rationality (social cognition, associated with DMN) and increased sensitivity to betrayal (affect, associated with SN) in a trust dilemma. In conclusion, our study contributes to understanding MCI-related alterations in trust and their underlying neural mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yiqi Chen
- School of Psychology, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China; Department of Psychology, University of Mannheim, Mannheim 68131, Germany
| | - Hao He
- School of Psychology, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China; Shenzhen-Hong Kong Institute of Brain Science-Shenzhen Fundamental Research Institutions, Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Yiyang Ding
- School of Psychology, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China
| | - Wuhai Tao
- School of Psychology, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China; Shenzhen-Hong Kong Institute of Brain Science-Shenzhen Fundamental Research Institutions, Shenzhen 518055, China.
| | - Qing Guan
- School of Psychology, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China; Shenzhen-Hong Kong Institute of Brain Science-Shenzhen Fundamental Research Institutions, Shenzhen 518055, China.
| | - Frank Krueger
- Department of Psychology, University of Mannheim, Mannheim 68131, Germany; School of Systems Biology, George Mason University, Fair, VA, USA
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Jorge H, Duarte IC, Melo M, Relvas AP, Castelo-Branco M. Trust-based health decision-making recruits the neural interoceptive saliency network which relates to temporal trajectories of Hemoglobin A1C in Diabetes Type 1. Brain Imaging Behav 2024; 18:171-183. [PMID: 37957514 PMCID: PMC10844148 DOI: 10.1007/s11682-023-00816-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/15/2023] [Indexed: 11/15/2023]
Abstract
Experimental approaches in neuroeconomics generally involve monetary utility. Utility in the health domain is relevant in diabetes because constant daily life decisions are critical for self-consequential long-term outcomes. We used fMRI to investigate self-consequent decision-making in the health and economic domains in Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus and controls (N = 50). We focused on two critical phases of decision-making: Investment and Feedback (Positive or Negative). Patients showed larger BOLD activation of limbic, and reward/dopaminergic regions in particular in the health trust game. Importantly, the worse the trajectory of metabolic control (increasing HbA1C), the higher the BOLD activity in regions of the interoceptive saliency network. This was manifested by positive correlations between brain activity during investment in anterior cingulate cortex and insula and HbA1c blood level progression. We conclude that the neural correlates of health-consequent decision-making domain involve limbic and reward related dopaminergic regions in Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus. Furthermore, the temporal trajectory of HbA1C blood levels is correlated with neural risk processing in the saliency network. Evidence for differential risk processing in the health versus the neuroeconomic context, and the discovery of a role for the saliency interoceptive network in metabolic control trajectories suggests a new perspective on the development of personalized interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Helena Jorge
- PIDFIF - Inter-University PhD Program in Clinical Psychology, Family Psychology and Family Intervention, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences of Coimbra and Faculty of Psychology of Lisbon, Portugal & Coimbra Institute for Biomedical Imaging and Translational Research, CIBIT/ ICNAS, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Isabel C Duarte
- Coimbra Institute for Biomedical Imaging and Translational Research, CIBIT/ ICNAS, University of Coimbra, Polo 3, 3000-548, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Miguel Melo
- Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism Department (SEMD), University and Hospital Center of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Ana Paula Relvas
- Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences & Center for Social Studies, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Miguel Castelo-Branco
- Coimbra Institute for Biomedical Imaging and Translational Research, CIBIT/ ICNAS, University of Coimbra, Polo 3, 3000-548, Coimbra, Portugal.
- Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism Department (SEMD), University and Hospital Center of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal.
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Hanegraaf L, Paton B, Hohwy J, Verdejo-Garcia A. Combining novel trait and neurocognitive frameworks to parse heterogeneity in borderline personality disorder. J Pers 2023; 91:1344-1363. [PMID: 36650906 DOI: 10.1111/jopy.12811] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2022] [Revised: 12/02/2022] [Accepted: 01/12/2023] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD) diagnosis comprises several constellations of trait, neurocognitive, and psychosocial alterations. Dimensional models of psychopathology provide new opportunities to parse heterogeneity and create a stronger interface between individual characterization and psychosocial outcomes. However, dimensional models have focused on either traits or neurocognitive features, lacking integration to capture the multifaceted nature of BPD. METHOD We assessed 100 participants with BPD using a combination of tools stemming from trait (Alternative Model for Personality Disorders) and neurocognitive models (Research Domain Criteria; RDoC) to examine if trait-derived subgroups display distinctive social-processing and psychosocial profiles. We used two complementary analytical approaches: person-centered (k-means clustering) and construct-based (multiple factor analysis). RESULTS Our person-centered approach identified four subgroups with separable internalizing, detached, externalizing, and low psychopathology trait profiles. These profiles revealed distinctive patterns of affiliation, emotion recognition and mentalization performance in RDoC tasks, and psychosocial measures of quality of life and social connectedness. RDoC-based measures showed close construct proximity with negative affectivity, disinhibition, and antagonism trait domains, relative to the detachment domain, which had close proximity with self-knowledge. CONCLUSIONS Altogether, findings support consilience between trait-based and neurobiological frameworks and suggest that trait models are useful to parse BPD heterogeneity leading to unique social functioning profiles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren Hanegraaf
- Turner Institute for Brain and Mental Health, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
| | - Bryan Paton
- School of Psychological Sciences, College of Engineering, Science and Environment, The University of Newcastle, Callaghan, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Jakob Hohwy
- Cognition and Philosophy Lab, Philosophy Department, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
| | - Antonio Verdejo-Garcia
- Turner Institute for Brain and Mental Health, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
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Sun L, Lu X, Zheng H, Zeng L, Zheng W, Wang J. Does rDLPFC activity alter trust? Evidence from a tDCS study. Front Neurosci 2023; 17:1213580. [PMID: 37811320 PMCID: PMC10551172 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2023.1213580] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2023] [Accepted: 09/04/2023] [Indexed: 10/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Trust plays an important role in the human economy and people's social lives. Trust is affected by various factors and is related to many brain regions, such as the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC). However, few studies have focused on the impact of the DLPFC on trust through transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS), although abundant psychology and neuroscience studies have theoretically discussed the possible link between DLPFC activity and trust. In the present study, we aimed to provide evidence of a causal relationship between the rDLPFC and trust behavior by conducting multiple rounds of the classical trust game and applying tDCS over the rDLPFC. We found that overall, anodal stimulation increased trust compared with cathodal stimulation and sham stimulation, while the results in different stages were not completely the same. Our work indicates a causal relationship between rDLPFC excitability and trust behavior and provides a new direction for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Letian Sun
- Center for Economic Behavior and Decision-Making (CEBD), Zhejiang University of Finance and Economics, Hangzhou, China
- School of Economics, Zhejiang University of Finance and Economics, Hangzhou, China
| | - Xinbo Lu
- Center for Economic Behavior and Decision-Making (CEBD), Zhejiang University of Finance and Economics, Hangzhou, China
- School of Economics, Jiaxing University, Jiaxing, China
| | - Haoli Zheng
- Center for Economic Behavior and Decision-Making (CEBD), Zhejiang University of Finance and Economics, Hangzhou, China
- School of Economics, Zhejiang University of Finance and Economics, Hangzhou, China
| | - Lulu Zeng
- Center for Economic Behavior and Decision-Making (CEBD), Zhejiang University of Finance and Economics, Hangzhou, China
- School of Economics, Zhejiang University of Finance and Economics, Hangzhou, China
| | - Wanjun Zheng
- Center for Economic Behavior and Decision-Making (CEBD), Zhejiang University of Finance and Economics, Hangzhou, China
- School of Economics, Zhejiang University of Finance and Economics, Hangzhou, China
| | - Jinjin Wang
- Center for Economic Behavior and Decision-Making (CEBD), Zhejiang University of Finance and Economics, Hangzhou, China
- School of Economics, Zhejiang University of Finance and Economics, Hangzhou, China
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6
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Prasannakumar A, Kumar V, Rao NP. Trust and psychosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychol Med 2023; 53:5218-5226. [PMID: 35975354 DOI: 10.1017/s0033291722002562] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Impaired trust in other humans is commonly seen in psychosis and it leads to poor societal functioning. However, examining trust behavior in an experimental setting is challenging. Investigators have used the trust game, a neuro-economic game to assess trust behavior in psychosis. However, the findings are inconsistent. Hence, we systematically reviewed the existing literature and conducted a meta-analysis to examine trust behavior in patients with psychosis, their relatives, and those at high risk for psychosis. METHODS We searched electronic databases for studies that have examined trust game in patients with psychosis, published up to November 2021. The primary outcome measure was the baseline trust in a trust game by patients and controls. The meta-analysis was performed if at least three data sets of control and patient groups were available for that measure/design. We conducted meta-analyses with a random-effects model. The results were described narratively wherever meta-analysis was not possible due to paucity of studies. RESULTS The searches across the databases including cross-references yielded 465 publications of which 10 studies were included in the final analysis. Baseline trust in the trust game was significantly lower in patients with psychosis compared to controls (SMD 0.39, 95% CI -0.14 to 0.64, p -0.002). However, a similar decrease in baseline trust was not present in relatives of patients (SMD 0.08, 95% CI -0.20 to 0.36, p -0.58). CONCLUSIONS The current meta-analysis suggests significant trust deficits in patients with psychosis. Future studies with a bigger sample size are required to understand the nature of trust deficits and factors affecting this impairment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akash Prasannakumar
- Department of Psychiatry, National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences, Bangalore, India
| | - Vijay Kumar
- Department of Psychiatry, National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences, Bangalore, India
| | - Naren P Rao
- Department of Psychiatry, National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences, Bangalore, India
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Ryu J, Heisig S, McLaughlin C, Katz M, Mayberg HS, Gu X. A natural language processing approach reveals first-person pronoun usage and non-fluency as markers of therapeutic alliance in psychotherapy. iScience 2023; 26:106860. [PMID: 37255661 PMCID: PMC10225921 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2023.106860] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2022] [Revised: 04/18/2023] [Accepted: 05/08/2023] [Indexed: 06/01/2023] Open
Abstract
It remains elusive what language markers derived from psychotherapy sessions are indicative of therapeutic alliance, limiting our capacity to assess and provide feedback on the trusting quality of the patient-clinician relationship. To address this critical knowledge gap, we leveraged feature extraction methods from natural language processing (NLP), a subfield of artificial intelligence, to quantify pronoun and non-fluency language markers that are relevant for communicative and emotional aspects of therapeutic relationships. From twenty-eight transcripts of non-manualized psychotherapy sessions recorded in outpatient clinics, we identified therapists' first-person pronoun usage frequency and patients' speech transition marking relaxed interaction style as potential metrics of alliance. Behavioral data from patients who played an economic game that measures social exchange (i.e. trust game) suggested that therapists' first-person pronoun usage may influence alliance ratings through their diminished trusting behavior toward therapists. Together, this work supports that communicative language features in patient-therapist dialogues could be markers of alliance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jihan Ryu
- Department of Psychiatry, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - Stephen Heisig
- Department of Neurology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - Caroline McLaughlin
- Department of Neuroscience, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - Michael Katz
- Clinical Psychology Doctoral Program, School of Health Professions and Nursing, Long Island University - CW Post Campus, Greenvale, NY, USA
| | - Helen S. Mayberg
- Department of Psychiatry, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
- Department of Neurology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
- Department of Neuroscience, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - Xiaosi Gu
- Department of Psychiatry, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
- Department of Neuroscience, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
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8
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Herzog P, Kube T, Fassbinder E. How childhood maltreatment alters perception and cognition - the predictive processing account of borderline personality disorder. Psychol Med 2022; 52:2899-2916. [PMID: 35979924 PMCID: PMC9693729 DOI: 10.1017/s0033291722002458] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2022] [Revised: 06/24/2022] [Accepted: 07/18/2022] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Borderline personality disorder (BPD) is a severe mental disorder, comprised of heterogeneous psychological and neurobiological pathologies. Here, we propose a predictive processing (PP) account of BPD to integrate these seemingly unrelated pathologies. In particular, we argue that the experience of childhood maltreatment, which is highly prevalent in BPD, leaves a developmental legacy with two facets: first, a coarse-grained, alexithymic model of self and others - leading to a rigidity and inflexibility concerning beliefs about self and others. Second, this developmental legacy leads to a loss of confidence or precision afforded beliefs about the consequences of social behavior. This results in an over reliance on sensory evidence and social feedback, with concomitant lability, impulsivity and hypersensitivity. In terms of PP, people with BPD show a distorted belief updating in response to new information with two opposing manifestations: rapid changes in beliefs and a lack of belief updating despite disconfirmatory evidence. This account of distorted information processing has the potential to explain both the instability (of affect, self-image, and interpersonal relationships) and the rigidity (of beliefs about self and others) which is typical of BPD. At the neurobiological level, we propose that enhanced levels of dopamine are associated with the increased integration of negative social feedback, and we also discuss the hypothesis of an impaired inhibitory control of the prefrontal cortex in the processing of negative social information. Our account may provide a new understanding not only of the clinical aspects of BPD, but also a unifying theory of the corresponding neurobiological pathologies. We conclude by outlining some directions for future research on the behavioral, neurobiological, and computational underpinnings of this model, and point to some clinical implications of it.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philipp Herzog
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Lübeck, Ratzeburger Allee 160, D-23562 Lübeck, Germany
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Christian-Albrechts-University of Kiel, Niemannsweg 147, D-24105 Kiel, Germany
- Department of Psychology, University of Koblenz-Landau, Ostbahnstr. 10, 76829 Landau, Germany
| | - Tobias Kube
- Department of Psychology, University of Koblenz-Landau, Ostbahnstr. 10, 76829 Landau, Germany
| | - Eva Fassbinder
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Christian-Albrechts-University of Kiel, Niemannsweg 147, D-24105 Kiel, Germany
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Aebi M, Haynes M, Bessler C, Hasler G. Associations of interpersonal trust with juvenile offending/conduct disorder, callous-unemotional traits, and criminal recidivism. Sci Rep 2022; 12:7594. [PMID: 35534545 PMCID: PMC9085823 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-11777-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2021] [Accepted: 04/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Interpersonal trust has been described as a core dimension of cooperative, mutually beneficial interpersonal relationships but it is unclear if it is related to antisocial behaviours in youth. The present study aimed at analysing a subsample of male juveniles who committed serious violent offenses and met criteria of conduct disorder (JO/CD), and a subsample of healthy controls (HC) using a series of trust games (TGs). Twenty-four male JO/CD and 24 age matched male HC performed a series of eight one-shot TGs against different unknown human respectively computer opponents. Mixed model analyses found a non-significant trend that JO/CD invested less points than HC during TGs. In the subsample of JO/CD, the overall investment in TGs was found to be negatively associated with self-reported uncaring behaviours and officially reported general re-offenses. Our findings suggest some indication of an impaired ability of JO/CD to initiate mutually trusting relationships to others that should be addressed in further research. Trust is a promising factor to predict general criminal recidivism and can be a target for treatment of juveniles who committed violent offenses, for example through the building of stable relationships to care givers. This study encourages future studies to investigate the effects of trust-increasing psychosocial interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcel Aebi
- Research and Development, Corrections and Rehabilitation, Department of Justice and Home Affairs, Canton of Zurich, Hohlstr. 552, 8090, Zurich, Switzerland. .,Department of Forensic Psychiatry, University Hospital of Psychiatry Zurich/University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.
| | - Melanie Haynes
- Translational Research Center, University Hospital of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Cornelia Bessler
- Research and Development, Corrections and Rehabilitation, Department of Justice and Home Affairs, Canton of Zurich, Hohlstr. 552, 8090, Zurich, Switzerland.,Department of Forensic Psychiatry, University Hospital of Psychiatry Zurich/University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Gregor Hasler
- Unit of Psychiatry Research, University of Fribourg, Fribourg, Switzerland
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10
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Lim IS. Stochastic evolutionary dynamics of trust games with asymmetric parameters. Phys Rev E 2020; 102:062419. [PMID: 33466027 DOI: 10.1103/physreve.102.062419] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2020] [Accepted: 12/01/2020] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Trusting in others and reciprocating that trust with trustworthy actions are crucial to successful and prosperous societies. The trust game has been widely used to quantitatively study trust and trustworthiness, involving a sequential exchange between an investor and a trustee. Deterministic evolutionary game theory predicts no trust and no trustworthiness, whereas the behavioral experiments with the one-shot anonymous trust game show that people substantially trust and respond trustworthily. To explain these discrepancies, previous works often turn to additional mechanisms, which are borrowed from other games such as the prisoner's dilemma. Although these mechanisms lead to the evolution of trust and trustworthiness to an extent, the optimal or the most common strategy often involves no trustworthiness. In this paper, we study the impact of asymmetric demographic parameters (e.g., different population sizes) on game dynamics of the trust game. We show that, in a weak-mutation limit, stochastic evolutionary dynamics with the asymmetric parameters can lead to the evolution of high trust and high trustworthiness without any additional mechanisms in well-mixed finite populations. Even full trust and near full trustworthiness can be the most common strategies. These results are qualitatively different from those of the previous works. Our results thereby demonstrate rich evolutionary dynamics of the asymmetric trust game.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ik Soo Lim
- School of Computer Science and Electrical Engineering, Bangor University, Dean Street, Bangor, Gwynedd LL57 1UT, United Kingdom
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Feng C, Zhu Z, Cui Z, Ushakov V, Dreher JC, Luo W, Gu R, Wu X, Krueger F. Prediction of trust propensity from intrinsic brain morphology and functional connectome. Hum Brain Mapp 2020; 42:175-191. [PMID: 33001541 PMCID: PMC7721234 DOI: 10.1002/hbm.25215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2020] [Revised: 08/31/2020] [Accepted: 09/09/2020] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Trust forms the basis of virtually all interpersonal relationships. Although significant individual differences characterize trust, the driving neuropsychological signatures behind its heterogeneity remain obscure. Here, we applied a prediction framework in two independent samples of healthy participants to examine the relationship between trust propensity and multimodal brain measures. Our multivariate prediction analyses revealed that trust propensity was predicted by gray matter volume and node strength across multiple regions. The gray matter volume of identified regions further enabled the classification of individuals from an independent sample with the propensity to trust or distrust. Our modular and functional decoding analyses showed that the contributing regions were part of three large‐scale networks implicated in calculus‐based trust strategy, cost–benefit calculation, and trustworthiness inference. These findings do not only deepen our neuropsychological understanding of individual differences in trust propensity, but also provide potential biomarkers in predicting trust impairment in neuropsychiatric disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chunliang Feng
- Key Laboratory of Brain, Cognition and Education Sciences (South China Normal University), Ministry of Education, Guangzhou, China.,School of Psychology, Center for Studies of Psychological Application, and Guangdong Key Laboratory of Mental Health and Cognitive Science, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Zhiyuan Zhu
- School of Artificial Intelligence, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China.,Engineering Research Center of Intelligent Technology and Educational Application of Ministry of Education, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
| | - Zaixu Cui
- Department of Psychiatry, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Vadim Ushakov
- National Research Center, Kurchatov Institute, Moscow, Russia.,National Research Nuclear University MEPhI, Moscow Engineering Physics Institute, Moscow, Russia
| | - Jean-Claude Dreher
- Neuroeconomics, Reward and Decision Making Laboratory, Institut des Sciences Cognitives Marc Jeannerod, CNRS, Bron, France
| | - Wenbo Luo
- Research Center of Brain and Cognitive Neuroscience, Liaoning Normal University, Dalian, China
| | - Ruolei Gu
- Key Laboratory of Behavioral Science, Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.,Department of Psychology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Xia Wu
- School of Artificial Intelligence, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China.,Engineering Research Center of Intelligent Technology and Educational Application of Ministry of Education, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
| | - Frank Krueger
- School of Systems Biology, George Mason University, Fairfax, Virginia, USA.,Department of Psychology, George Mason University, Fairfax, Virginia, USA
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12
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Affective evaluation of others' altruistic decisions under risk and ambiguity. Neuroimage 2020; 218:116996. [PMID: 32470571 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2020.116996] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2020] [Revised: 05/19/2020] [Accepted: 05/22/2020] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Gratitude arises when one is the target of an altruistic decision, particularly when this decision incurs cost to the agent. Here we examined how individuals evaluate others' altruistic decisions under risky (uncertainty with known probabilities) and ambiguous (uncertainty with unknown probabilities) costs and respond with gratitude and reciprocity. Participants played an interactive game in an fMRI scanner in which they would receive painful electric shocks. An anonymous co-player either intentionally (Human conditions) or unintentionally (Computer conditions) decided whether to help the participant reduce half of the pain by undertaking an amount of pain (i.e., cost) with varying level of uncertainty (Certain vs. Risky vs. Ambiguous). Participants could then transfer monetary points to the co-player knowing that the co-player was unaware of this transfer. Behaviorally, monetary allocation and gratitude rating increased as the uncertainty level of cost increased in Human conditions; these effects were reduced in Computer conditions. The effect of cost uncertainty on gratitude was mediated by the perceived kind intention behind the help. FMRI revealed both shared and differential neurocognitive substrates for evaluating the benefactor's altruistic decisions under risk and ambiguity: both were associated with fear- and anxiety-related processes, involving right lateral orbitofrontal cortex and anterior insula; ambiguity additionally recruited mentalizing- and conflict monitoring-related processes, involving dorsal medial prefrontal cortex and dorsal anterior cingulate cortex. These findings underscore the crucial role of social uncertainty perception in the generation of gratitude.
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13
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Robson SE, Repetto L, Gountouna VE, Nicodemus KK. A review of neuroeconomic gameplay in psychiatric disorders. Mol Psychiatry 2020; 25:67-81. [PMID: 31040383 PMCID: PMC6906183 DOI: 10.1038/s41380-019-0405-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2018] [Revised: 10/29/2018] [Accepted: 11/12/2018] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Abnormalities in social interaction are a common feature of several psychiatric disorders, aligning with the recent move towards using Research Domain Criteria (RDoC) to describe disorders in terms of observable behaviours rather than using specific diagnoses. Neuroeconomic games are an effective measure of social decision-making that can be adapted for use in neuroimaging, allowing investigation of the biological basis for behaviour. This review summarises findings of neuroeconomic gameplay studies in Axis 1 psychiatric disorders and advocates the use of these games as measures of the RDoC Affiliation and Attachment, Reward Responsiveness, Reward Learning and Reward Valuation constructs. Although research on neuroeconomic gameplay is in its infancy, consistencies have been observed across disorders, particularly in terms of impaired integration of social and cognitive information, avoidance of negative social interactions and reduced reward sensitivity, as well as a reduction in activity in brain regions associated with processing and responding to social information.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siân E Robson
- Centre for Genomic and Experimental Medicine, Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Linda Repetto
- Centre for Genomic and Experimental Medicine, Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Viktoria-Eleni Gountouna
- Centre for Genomic and Experimental Medicine, Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Kristin K Nicodemus
- Centre for Genomic and Experimental Medicine, Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK.
- Centre for Cognitive Ageing and Cognitive Epidemiology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK.
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14
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Fujino J, Tei S, Itahashi T, Aoki YY, Ohta H, Kubota M, Hashimoto RI, Takahashi H, Kato N, Nakamura M. Role of the right temporoparietal junction in intergroup bias in trust decisions. Hum Brain Mapp 2019; 41:1677-1688. [PMID: 31854496 PMCID: PMC7268017 DOI: 10.1002/hbm.24903] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2019] [Revised: 11/23/2019] [Accepted: 12/11/2019] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Intergroup bias, which is the tendency to behave more positively toward an in-group member than toward an out-group member, is pervasive in real life. In particular, intergroup bias in trust decisions substantially influences multiple areas of life and thus better understanding of this tendency can provide significant insights into human social behavior. Although previous functional magnetic resonance imaging studies showed the involvement of the right temporoparietal junction (TPJ) in intergroup trust bias, a causal relationship between the two has rarely been explored. By combining repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation and a newly developed trust game task, we investigated the causal role of the right TPJ in intergroup bias in trust decisions. In the trust game task, the counterpart's group membership (in-group or out-group) and reciprocity were manipulated. We applied either neuronavigated inhibitory continuous theta burst stimulation (cTBS) or sham stimulation over the right TPJ before performing the trust game task in healthy volunteers. After the sham stimulation, the participants' degrees of investments with in-group members were significantly higher than those with out-group members. However, after cTBS to the right TPJ, this difference was not observed. The current results extend previous findings by showing that the causal roles of the right TPJ can be observed in intergroup bias in trust decisions. Our findings add to our understanding of the mechanisms of human social behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junya Fujino
- Medical Institute of Developmental Disabilities Research, Showa University, Setagaya-ku, Tokyo, Japan.,Department of Psychiatry, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Shisei Tei
- Medical Institute of Developmental Disabilities Research, Showa University, Setagaya-ku, Tokyo, Japan.,Department of Psychiatry, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, Japan.,Institute of Applied Brain Sciences, Waseda University, Tokorozawa, Saitama, Japan.,School of Human and Social Sciences, Tokyo International University, Kawagoe, Saitama, Japan
| | - Takashi Itahashi
- Medical Institute of Developmental Disabilities Research, Showa University, Setagaya-ku, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yuta Y Aoki
- Medical Institute of Developmental Disabilities Research, Showa University, Setagaya-ku, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Haruhisa Ohta
- Medical Institute of Developmental Disabilities Research, Showa University, Setagaya-ku, Tokyo, Japan.,Department of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, Showa University, Setagaya-ku, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Manabu Kubota
- Medical Institute of Developmental Disabilities Research, Showa University, Setagaya-ku, Tokyo, Japan.,Department of Psychiatry, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, Japan.,Department of Functional Brain Imaging, National Institute of Radiological Sciences, National Institutes for Quantum and Radiological Science and Technology, Inage-ku, Chiba, Japan
| | - Ryu-Ichiro Hashimoto
- Medical Institute of Developmental Disabilities Research, Showa University, Setagaya-ku, Tokyo, Japan.,Department of Language Sciences, Graduate School of Humanities, Tokyo Metropolitan University, Hachioji-shi, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Hidehiko Takahashi
- Medical Institute of Developmental Disabilities Research, Showa University, Setagaya-ku, Tokyo, Japan.,Department of Psychiatry, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, Japan.,Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Nobumasa Kato
- Medical Institute of Developmental Disabilities Research, Showa University, Setagaya-ku, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Motoaki Nakamura
- Medical Institute of Developmental Disabilities Research, Showa University, Setagaya-ku, Tokyo, Japan.,Kanagawa Psychiatric Center, Yokohama, Kanagawa, Japan
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15
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Fu C, Yao X, Yang X, Zheng L, Li J, Wang Y. Trust Game Database: Behavioral and EEG Data From Two Trust Games. Front Psychol 2019; 10:2656. [PMID: 31920773 PMCID: PMC6920181 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02656] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2019] [Accepted: 11/11/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Chao Fu
- School of Economics and Management, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, China.,Center for China Social Trust Research, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, China.,Institute of Psychological and Cognitive Sciences, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, China
| | - Xiaoqiang Yao
- School of Economics and Management, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, China.,Center for China Social Trust Research, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, China.,Institute of Psychological and Cognitive Sciences, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, China
| | - Xue Yang
- School of Economics and Management, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, China.,Center for China Social Trust Research, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, China.,Institute of Psychological and Cognitive Sciences, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, China
| | - Lei Zheng
- School of Economics and Management, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, China.,Center for China Social Trust Research, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, China.,Institute of Psychological and Cognitive Sciences, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, China
| | - Jianbiao Li
- School of Economics, Institute for Study of Brain-Like Economics, Shandong University, Jinan, China
| | - Yiwen Wang
- School of Economics and Management, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, China.,Center for China Social Trust Research, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, China.,Institute of Psychological and Cognitive Sciences, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, China
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16
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Lemmers-Jansen ILJ, Fett AKJ, Shergill SS, van Kesteren MTR, Krabbendam L. Girls-Boys: An Investigation of Gender Differences in the Behavioral and Neural Mechanisms of Trust and Reciprocity in Adolescence. Front Hum Neurosci 2019; 13:257. [PMID: 31427936 PMCID: PMC6688065 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2019.00257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2019] [Accepted: 07/09/2019] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Trust and reciprocity toward others have often been found to increase from childhood to adulthood. Gender differences in these social behaviors have been reported in adults. While adolescence is a key-period of change in social behavior, gender differences in trust and reciprocity during this developmental stage have rarely been investigated. METHODS Here we investigate age-related gender differences in trust and reciprocity (n = 100, 51 female) and associated neural mechanisms (n = 44, 20 female) in adolescents between 13 and 19 years of age. Participants played two multi-round trust games with a pre-programmed cooperative and an unfair partner. Forty-four of 100 participants completed the trust game while undergoing functional brain imaging. RESULTS Participants' investments were greater toward a cooperative than unfair game partner (p < 0.01), showing sensitivity to the degree of trustworthiness. There were no gender or age or related differences in baseline trust. In repeated cooperative interactions no gender differences were found, but younger adolescents showed slightly steeper increase of investments than older adolescents. In unfair interactions, younger males reacted with stronger decrease of investments than older males. Region of interest analysis of brain areas associated with in mentalizing, reward learning, conflict processing, and cognitive control revealed gender-by-age interactions on trusting behavior in the temporo-parietal junction (TPJ) and the caudate, showing stronger influence of age in males than in females during cooperation, and the reverse in unfair interactions. Additionally, main effects of gender were found in the TPJ, with higher activation in males, and in the caudate, with females showing greater activation. CONCLUSION In first interactions and during repeated cooperative interactions, adolescent males and females showed similar trusting behavior. Younger males showed stronger responses to unfairness by others. Gender-by-age interactions in specific ROIs suggest differential development in mentalizing and reward related cognitive processes. In conjunction with previous research, our findings suggest the presence of subtle gender and age-related changes in trust and cooperation that are only detectable using larger age windows.
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Affiliation(s)
- Imke L. J. Lemmers-Jansen
- Department of Clinical, Neuro and Developmental Psychology, Faculty of Behavioral and Movement Sciences, Institute for Brain and Behavior, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Anne-Kathrin J. Fett
- Department of Clinical, Neuro and Developmental Psychology, Faculty of Behavioral and Movement Sciences, Institute for Brain and Behavior, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
- Department of Psychology, City, University of London, London, United Kingdom
- Department of Psychosis Studies, King’s College London, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, London, United Kingdom
| | - Sukhi S. Shergill
- Department of Psychosis Studies, King’s College London, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, London, United Kingdom
| | - Marlieke T. R. van Kesteren
- Department of Education Sciences, Faculty of Behavioral and Movement Sciences, Institute for Brain and Behavior, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Lydia Krabbendam
- Department of Clinical, Neuro and Developmental Psychology, Faculty of Behavioral and Movement Sciences, Institute for Brain and Behavior, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
- Department of Psychosis Studies, King’s College London, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, London, United Kingdom
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17
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Toward a Model of Interpersonal Trust Drawn from Neuroscience, Psychology, and Economics. Trends Neurosci 2019; 42:92-101. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tins.2018.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2018] [Revised: 09/28/2018] [Accepted: 10/02/2018] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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18
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Hu X, Xu Z, Li Y, Mai X. The impact of trust decision-making on outcome processing: Evidence from brain potentials and neural oscillations. Neuropsychologia 2018; 119:136-144. [PMID: 30086365 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2018.07.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2018] [Revised: 07/07/2018] [Accepted: 07/31/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
It may be beneficial, although risky, to decide to trust others during social interactions in daily life. The current study explored the time course of the effect of trust decisions on outcome evaluation processing using electroencephalographic (EEG) techniques. Twenty-two healthy young adults made trust or distrust decisions regarding a message they received from a stranger in a card game. The results showed that at the early stage of outcome processing, feedback-related negativity (FRN) was more negative for losses than for gains, and more importantly, this valence effect of FRN was greater for outcomes following trust decisions than distrust decisions. At the later stage, the P3 was larger for gains than for losses and for outcomes following trust decisions than distrust decisions. In addition, at both the early and late stages, differences in the mid-frontal theta power between losses and gains were also greater in the trust condition than in the distrust condition. These findings indicate that trust decisions could effectively modulate the processing of outcome evaluation at different stages. The trust effect at the early stage of outcome processing suggests that compared to distrust decisions, trust decisions result in greater motivation and expectancy to obtain positive outcomes. While the trust effect on the later stage of outcome processing suggests that individuals pay more attention and feel stronger emotional experience to the outcomes following trust decisions. This study sheds light on the neural mechanisms of trust decisions modulating outcome processing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinmu Hu
- Department of Psychology, Renmin University of China, Beijing 100872, China
| | - Zhenhua Xu
- Department of Psychology, Renmin University of China, Beijing 100872, China
| | - Yanju Li
- Department of Psychology, Renmin University of China, Beijing 100872, China
| | - Xiaoqin Mai
- Department of Psychology, Renmin University of China, Beijing 100872, China.
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19
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Hale J, Payne MEM, Taylor KM, Paoletti D, De C Hamilton AF. The virtual maze: A behavioural tool for measuring trust. Q J Exp Psychol (Hove) 2018; 71:989-1008. [DOI: 10.1080/17470218.2017.1307865] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Trusting another person may depend on our level of generalised trust in others, as well as perceptions of that specific person’s trustworthiness. However, many studies measuring trust outcomes have not discussed generalised versus specific trust. To measure specific trust in others, we developed a novel behavioural task. Participants navigate a virtual maze and make a series of decisions about how to proceed. Before each decision, they may ask for advice from two virtual characters they have briefly interviewed earlier. We manipulated the virtual characters’ trustworthiness during the interview phase and measured how often participants approached and followed advice from each character. We also measured trust through ratings and an investment game. Across three studies, we found participants followed advice from a trustworthy character significantly more than an untrustworthy character, demonstrating the validity of the maze task. Behaviour in the virtual maze reflected specific trust rather than generalised trust, whereas the investment game picked up on generalised trust as well as specific trust. Our data suggest the virtual maze task may provide an alternative behavioural approach to measuring specific trust in future research, and we demonstrate how the task may be used in traditional laboratories.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanna Hale
- Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, University College London, London, UK
| | - Madeleine EM Payne
- Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, University College London, London, UK
| | - Kathryn M Taylor
- Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, University College London, London, UK
| | - Davide Paoletti
- Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, University College London, London, UK
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20
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Wong S, Irish M, O’Callaghan C, Kumfor F, Savage G, Hodges JR, Piguet O, Hornberger M. Should I trust you? Learning and memory of social interactions in dementia. Neuropsychologia 2017; 104:157-167. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2017.08.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2017] [Revised: 08/10/2017] [Accepted: 08/10/2017] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
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21
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Lemmers-Jansen ILJ, Krabbendam L, Veltman DJ, Fett AKJ. Boys vs. girls: Gender differences in the neural development of trust and reciprocity depend on social context. Dev Cogn Neurosci 2017; 25:235-245. [PMID: 28258836 PMCID: PMC6987832 DOI: 10.1016/j.dcn.2017.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2016] [Revised: 01/26/2017] [Accepted: 02/06/2017] [Indexed: 11/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Trust and cooperation increase from adolescence to adulthood, but studies on gender differences in this development are rare. We investigated gender and age-related differences in trust and reciprocity and associated neural mechanisms in 43 individuals (16-27 years, 22 male). Participants played two multi-round trust games with a cooperative and an unfair partner. Males showed more basic trust towards unknown others than females. Both genders increased trust during cooperative interactions, with no differences in average trust. Age was unrelated to trust during cooperation. During unfair interactions males decreased their trust more with age than females. ROI analysis showed age-related increases in activation in the temporo-parietal junction (TPJ) and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC) during cooperative investments, and increased age-related caudate activation during both cooperative and unfair repayments. Gender differences in brain activation were only observed during cooperative repayments, with males activating the TPJ more than females, and females activating the caudate more. The findings suggest relatively mature processes of trust and reciprocity in the investigated age range. Gender differences only occur in unfair contexts, becoming more pronounced with age. Largely similar neural activation in males and females and few age effects suggest that similar, mature cognitive strategies are employed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Imke L J Lemmers-Jansen
- Department of Educational and Family Studies, Faculty of Behavioral and Movement Sciences, Institute for Brain and Behavior Amsterdam, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Van der Boechorststraat 1, 1081 BT Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - Lydia Krabbendam
- Department of Educational and Family Studies, Faculty of Behavioral and Movement Sciences, Institute for Brain and Behavior Amsterdam, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Van der Boechorststraat 1, 1081 BT Amsterdam, The Netherlands; Department of Clinical, Neuro and Developmental Psychology, Faculty of Behavioral and Movement Sciences, Institute for Brain and Behavior Amsterdam, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Van der Boechorststraat 1, 1081 BT Amsterdam, The Netherlands; Department of Psychosis Studies, King's College London, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, 16 De Crespigny Park, London SE5 8AF, United Kingdom.
| | - Dick J Veltman
- Department of Psychiatry, VU Medical Center, Van der Boechorststraat 7, 1081 BT Amsterdam, The Netherlands; Neuroscience Campus Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1117, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - Anne-Kathrin J Fett
- Department of Educational and Family Studies, Faculty of Behavioral and Movement Sciences, Institute for Brain and Behavior Amsterdam, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Van der Boechorststraat 1, 1081 BT Amsterdam, The Netherlands; Department of Clinical, Neuro and Developmental Psychology, Faculty of Behavioral and Movement Sciences, Institute for Brain and Behavior Amsterdam, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Van der Boechorststraat 1, 1081 BT Amsterdam, The Netherlands; Department of Psychosis Studies, King's College London, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, 16 De Crespigny Park, London SE5 8AF, United Kingdom.
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22
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Kirlic N, Young J, Aupperle RL. Animal to human translational paradigms relevant for approach avoidance conflict decision making. Behav Res Ther 2017; 96:14-29. [PMID: 28495358 DOI: 10.1016/j.brat.2017.04.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2016] [Revised: 04/17/2017] [Accepted: 04/20/2017] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Avoidance behavior in clinical anxiety disorders is often a decision made in response to approach-avoidance conflict, resulting in a sacrifice of potential rewards to avoid potential negative affective consequences. Animal research has a long history of relying on paradigms related to approach-avoidance conflict to model anxiety-relevant behavior. This approach includes punishment-based conflict, exploratory, and social interaction tasks. There has been a recent surge of interest in the translation of paradigms from animal to human, in efforts to increase generalization of findings and support the development of more effective mental health treatments. This article briefly reviews animal tests related to approach-avoidance conflict and results from lesion and pharmacologic studies utilizing these tests. We then provide a description of translational human paradigms that have been developed to tap into related constructs, summarizing behavioral and neuroimaging findings. Similarities and differences in findings from analogous animal and human paradigms are discussed. Lastly, we highlight opportunities for future research and paradigm development that will support the clinical utility of this translational work.
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Affiliation(s)
- Namik Kirlic
- Laureate Institute for Brain Research, 6655 S Yale Ave, Tulsa, OK 74136, United States.
| | - Jared Young
- Department of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive MC 0804, La Jolla, CA 92093, United States; VA San Diego Healthcare System, 3350 La Jolla Village Dr, San Diego, CA 92161, United States.
| | - Robin L Aupperle
- Laureate Institute for Brain Research, 6655 S Yale Ave, Tulsa, OK 74136, United States; School of Community Medicine, University of Tulsa, 800 S Tucker Dr, Tulsa, OK 74104, United States.
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23
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Li G, Wood RI. Male rats play a repeated donation game. Physiol Behav 2017; 174:95-103. [PMID: 28302575 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2017.03.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2016] [Revised: 03/09/2017] [Accepted: 03/10/2017] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
While previous studies have demonstrated direct and generalized reciprocity in female Norway rats [26], the present study determined if unrelated male laboratory rats respond on behalf of a partner in an iterated sequential game. Pairs of rats worked for food reward in an operant chamber, where participants alternated as Donor and Responder in successive trials. In each trial, the Donor chose between variable and constant reward levers, where the constant reward lever delivered 1 pellet, and the variable reward lever triggered insertion of Responder lever(s); the Donor received 2 pellets when the Responder made any response. In forced-choice constant (FC) trials, the Responder also received 1 pellet for responding on the constant reward lever. In forced-choice variable (FV) trials, the Responder received no pellets for responding on the variable reward lever. In free-choice (FR) trials, the Responder chose between constant (1 pellet) and variable reward levers (0 pellets). With their cagemate, rats earned 61.4±2.0 pellets (64.0±2.1% of 96 possible pellets). As Donor in FC trials, rats preferred the variable reward lever, and the Responder responded frequently. In FV trials, Donor preference for the variable reward lever declined as Responder lever responses decreased. In FR trials, rats alternated responding on variable and constant reward levers as Donor and Responder, respectively. When paired with a new partner, there was no effect on Donor responses, but responses by the Responder decreased in the FV block. Similar effects were observed when paired with a maximally-cooperative stooge. Importantly, rats did not adjust their behavior as Donor to receive more pellets. Results suggest that unrelated male rats will work on behalf of a partner, and that their behavior is sensitive to familiarity, and to cooperative responses by their partner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Grace Li
- Department of Cell and Neurobiology, Keck School of Medicine of the University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, United States
| | - Ruth I Wood
- Department of Cell and Neurobiology, Keck School of Medicine of the University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, United States.
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24
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW We review the literature on the use and potential use of computational psychiatry methods in Borderline Personality Disorder. RECENT FINDINGS Computational approaches have been used in psychiatry to increase our understanding of the molecular, circuit, and behavioral basis of mental illness. This is of particular interest in BPD, where the collection of ecologically valid data, especially in interpersonal settings, is becoming more common and more often subject to quantification. Methods that test learning and memory in social contexts, collect data from real-world settings, and relate behavior to molecular and circuit networks are yielding data of particular interest. SUMMARY Research in BPD should focus on collaborative efforts to design and interpret experiments with direct relevance to core BPD symptoms and potential for translation to the clinic.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Dylan Stahl
- Yale University Department of Psychiatry
- Knox College
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25
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Zheng H, Wang S, Guo W, Chen S, Luo J, Ye H, Huang D. Enhancing the Activity of the DLPFC with tDCS Alters Risk Preference without Changing Interpersonal Trust. Front Neurosci 2017; 11:52. [PMID: 28232785 PMCID: PMC5298962 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2017.00052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2016] [Accepted: 01/24/2017] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Interpersonal trust plays an essential role in economic interactions and social development. Extensive behavioral experiments have examined the nature of trust, particularly the question of whether trusting decisions are connected to risk preferences or risk attitudes. Various laboratory observations have been reported regarding the difference between trust and risk, and neural imaging studies have demonstrated that the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (rDLPFC) is more activated when individuals decide to trust other human beings compared with individuals decide to invest in a non-social risk condition. Moreover, the rDLPFC has been found to exhibit an intimate relationship with risk preference in previous neuroscience studies. However, the causal relationship between the rDLPFC and trust has rarely been revealed. Whether modulating the excitability of the rDLPFC, which shares roles in both trust and risk decisions, alters the trust or risk preference of participants remains unknown. In the present study, we aimed to provide evidence of a direct link between the neural and behavioral results through the application of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) over the rDLPFC. We found that activating the rDLPFC altered the risk preferences of our participants, whereas no such significant effect over interpersonal trust was observed. Our findings indicate that enhancing the excitability of the rDLPFC using tDCS leads to more conservative decision-makings in a risk game, and this effect is specific to non-social risk rather than social-related trust.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haoli Zheng
- School of Economics and Interdisciplinary Center for Social Sciences, Zhejiang UniversityHangzhou, China; School of Economics, Center for Economic Behavior and Decision-making, Neuro & Behavior EconLab, Zhejiang University of Finance and EconomicsHangzhou, China
| | - Siqi Wang
- School of Economics and Interdisciplinary Center for Social Sciences, Zhejiang University Hangzhou, China
| | - Wenmin Guo
- School of Economics and Interdisciplinary Center for Social Sciences, Zhejiang University Hangzhou, China
| | - Shu Chen
- School of Economics and Interdisciplinary Center for Social Sciences, Zhejiang University Hangzhou, China
| | - Jun Luo
- School of Economics, Center for Economic Behavior and Decision-making, Neuro & Behavior EconLab, Zhejiang University of Finance and Economics Hangzhou, China
| | - Hang Ye
- School of Economics and Interdisciplinary Center for Social Sciences, Zhejiang UniversityHangzhou, China; School of Economics, Center for Economic Behavior and Decision-making, Neuro & Behavior EconLab, Zhejiang University of Finance and EconomicsHangzhou, China
| | - Daqiang Huang
- School of Economics and Interdisciplinary Center for Social Sciences, Zhejiang University Hangzhou, China
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Zheng H, Huang D, Chen S, Wang S, Guo W, Luo J, Ye H, Chen Y. Modulating the Activity of Ventromedial Prefrontal Cortex by Anodal tDCS Enhances the Trustee's Repayment through Altruism. Front Psychol 2016; 7:1437. [PMID: 27713721 PMCID: PMC5031609 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2016] [Accepted: 09/07/2016] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Trust and trustworthiness are essential to an efficient economy and play crucial roles in social life. Previous evidence from behavioral experiments has revealed that the trustworthiness of individuals is closely related with their altruistic preference. It has been demonstrated that the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) is associated with decisions involving trustworthiness. Moreover, vmPFC lesion patients showed less trustworthiness and altruism than control subjects, indicating the indispensable role of this specific brain area in human social interactions. However, the causal relationship between this neural area and trustworthiness, as well as altruism, has not been fully revealed. The potential neural basis behind the behavior of trustees' repayment has also seldom been discussed. In the present study, we aimed to provide evidence of a direct link between the neural and behavioral results through the application of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) over the vmPFC of our participants. We found that activating the vmPFC could promote both the trustworthiness and altruism of our participants. We also show that enhancing the excitability of the vmPFC using tDCS increased the trustworthiness of the participants, and this promoting effect might be attributable to the enhancement of individuals' altruistic preference. In addition, we revealed that the enhancing effect in trustworthiness and altruism might be specific to the activation of the vmPFC by applying tDCS over another brain region within the prefrontal cortex as a control site. Crucially, our findings provide direct evidence supporting the critical role of the vmPFC in cooperative behaviors in economic interactions, especially the trustees' repayment in the trust game and the dictators' altruistic transfer in the dictator game.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haoli Zheng
- College of Economics and Interdisciplinary Center for Social Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou China
| | - Daqiang Huang
- College of Economics and Interdisciplinary Center for Social Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou China
| | - Shu Chen
- College of Economics and Interdisciplinary Center for Social Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou China
| | - Siqi Wang
- College of Economics and Interdisciplinary Center for Social Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou China
| | - Wenmin Guo
- College of Economics and Interdisciplinary Center for Social Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou China
| | - Jun Luo
- School of Economics, Center for Economic Behavior and Decision-making, Neuro and Behavior EconLab, Zhejiang University of Finance and Economics, Hangzhou China
| | - Hang Ye
- College of Economics and Interdisciplinary Center for Social Sciences, Zhejiang University, HangzhouChina; School of Economics, Center for Economic Behavior and Decision-making, Neuro and Behavior EconLab, Zhejiang University of Finance and Economics, HangzhouChina
| | - Yefeng Chen
- College of Economics and Interdisciplinary Center for Social Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou China
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Wang Y, Zhang Z, Jing Y, Valadez EA, Simons RF. How do we trust strangers? The neural correlates of decision making and outcome evaluation of generalized trust. Soc Cogn Affect Neurosci 2016; 11:1666-76. [PMID: 27317927 DOI: 10.1093/scan/nsw079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2015] [Accepted: 05/31/2016] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
This study investigates the brain correlates of decision making and outcome evaluation of generalized trust (i.e. trust in unfamiliar social agents)-a core component of social capital which facilitates civic cooperation and economic exchange. We measured 18 (9 male) Chinese participants' event-related potentials while they played the role of the trustor in a one-shot trust game with unspecified social agents (trustees) allegedly selected from a large representative sample. At the decision-making phase, greater N2 amplitudes were found for trustors' distrusting decisions compared to trusting decisions, which may reflect greater cognitive control exerted to distrust. Source localization identified the precentral gyrus as one possible neuronal generator of this N2 component. At the outcome evaluation phase, principal components analysis revealed that the so called feedback-related negativity was in fact driven by a reward positivity, which was greater in response to gain feedback compared to loss feedback. This reduced reward positivity following loss feedback may indicate that the absence of reward for trusting decisions was unexpected by the trustor. In addition, we found preliminary evidence suggesting that the decision-making processes may differ between high trustors and low trustors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yiwen Wang
- School of Humanities and Social Sciences, Institute of Psychological and Cognitive Sciences, Fuzhou University, China Academy of Psychology and Behavior, Tianjin Normal University, China
| | - Zhen Zhang
- School of Humanities and Social Sciences, Institute of Psychological and Cognitive Sciences, Fuzhou University, China Academy of Psychology and Behavior, Tianjin Normal University, China
| | - Yiming Jing
- Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark, DE, USA
| | - Emilio A Valadez
- Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark, DE, USA
| | - Robert F Simons
- Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark, DE, USA
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Wang G, Li J, Yin X, Li S, Wei M. Modulating activity in the orbitofrontal cortex changes trustees' cooperation: A transcranial direct current stimulation study. Behav Brain Res 2016; 303:71-5. [PMID: 26808605 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2016.01.047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2015] [Revised: 01/15/2016] [Accepted: 01/20/2016] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Trust is one of the most important factors in human society, as it pervades almost all domains of the society. The trusting behavior of trustors is dependent on the belief about the cooperative (reciprocal) level of trustees. Thence what are the motives underlying the cooperative behavior? An important explanation is that guilt aversion can motivate cooperative behavior. The right orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) is the guilt-specific region, while there is little understanding on the causal effect of this network. We explored the causal effect of the OFC on cooperative behavior using transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS). Sixty participants played the trust game as trustees, and they received either anodal tDCS over the right OFC and simultaneously cathodal electrode over the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), or sham stimulation. Experimental results showed that participants as trustees transferred back more money in the tDCS treatment than sham stimulation. This suggests that the activity of the right OFC has causal effects on cooperative behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guangrong Wang
- Neural Decision Science Laboratory, Weifang University, PR China; Selten Laboratory, Nankai University, PR China; China Academy of Corporate Governance, Nankai University, PR China.
| | - Jianbiao Li
- Selten Laboratory, Nankai University, PR China; China Academy of Corporate Governance, Nankai University, PR China
| | - Xile Yin
- Selten Laboratory, Nankai University, PR China; China Academy of Corporate Governance, Nankai University, PR China
| | - Shuaiqi Li
- Selten Laboratory, Nankai University, PR China; China Academy of Corporate Governance, Nankai University, PR China
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Wang Y, Yang LQ, Li S, Zhou Y. Game Theory Paradigm: A New Tool for Investigating Social Dysfunction in Major Depressive Disorders. Front Psychiatry 2015; 6:128. [PMID: 26441689 PMCID: PMC4569817 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2015.00128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2015] [Accepted: 09/02/2015] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Social dysfunction is a prominent source of distress and disability in patients with major depressive disorder (MDD) but is commonly omitted from current clinical studies, although some researchers propose an evolutionary strategy to understand these negative outcomes. Limited knowledge about the neural basis of social dysfunction in MDD results from traditional paradigms, which lack insights into social interactions. Game theoretical modeling offers a new tool for investigating social-interaction impairments in neuropsychiatric disorders. This review first introduces three widely used games from game theory and the major behavioral and neuroimaging findings obtained using these games in healthy populations. We also address the factors that modulate behaviors in games and their neural bases. We then summarize the current findings obtained by using these games in depressed patients and discuss the clinical implications of these abnormal game behaviors. Finally, we briefly discuss future prospects that may further elucidate the clinical use of a game theory paradigm in MDD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yun Wang
- Key Laboratory of Behavioral Science and Magnetic Resonance Imaging Research Center, Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Liu-Qing Yang
- Key Laboratory of Behavioral Science and Magnetic Resonance Imaging Research Center, Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Shu Li
- Key Laboratory of Behavioral Science and Magnetic Resonance Imaging Research Center, Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Yuan Zhou
- Key Laboratory of Behavioral Science and Magnetic Resonance Imaging Research Center, Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
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31
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Fett AKJ, Shergill SS, Krabbendam L. Social neuroscience in psychiatry: unravelling the neural mechanisms of social dysfunction. Psychol Med 2015; 45:1145-1165. [PMID: 25335852 DOI: 10.1017/s0033291714002487] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Social neuroscience is a flourishing, interdisciplinary field that investigates the underlying biological processes of social cognition and behaviour. The recent application of social neuroscience to psychiatric research advances our understanding of various psychiatric illnesses that are characterized by impairments in social cognition and social functioning. In addition, the upcoming line of social neuroscience research provides new techniques to design and evaluate treatment interventions that are aimed at improving patients' social lives. This review provides a contemporary overview of social neuroscience in psychiatry. We draw together the major findings about the neural mechanisms of social cognitive processes directed at understanding others and social interactions in psychiatric illnesses and discuss their implications for future research and clinical practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- A K J Fett
- Department of Educational Neuroscience & Research Institute LEARN!,Faculty of Psychology and Education,VU University Amsterdam,Van der Boechorststraat 1,Amsterdam,The Netherlands
| | - S S Shergill
- Department of Psychosis Studies,Institute of Psychiatry, King's College London,De Crespigny Park,London,UK
| | - L Krabbendam
- Department of Educational Neuroscience & Research Institute LEARN!,Faculty of Psychology and Education,VU University Amsterdam,Van der Boechorststraat 1,Amsterdam,The Netherlands
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Ma Q, Meng L, Shen Q. You have my word: reciprocity expectation modulates feedback-related negativity in the trust game. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0119129. [PMID: 25719408 PMCID: PMC4342159 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0119129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2014] [Accepted: 01/09/2015] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Promise is one of the most powerful tools producing trust and facilitating cooperation, and sticking to the promise is deemed as a key social norm in social interactions. The present study explored the extent to which promise would influence investors' decision-making in the trust game where promise had no predictive value regarding trustees' reciprocation. In addition, we examined the neural underpinnings of the investors' outcome processing related to the trustees' promise keeping and promise breaking. Consistent with our hypothesis, behavioral results indicated that promise could effectively increase the investment frequency of investors. Electrophysiological results showed that, promise induced larger differentiated-FRN responses to the reward and non-reward discrepancy. Taken together, these results suggested that promise would promote cooperative behavior, while breach of promise would be regarded as a violation of the social norm, corroborating the vital role of non-enforceable commitment in social decision making.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qingguo Ma
- School of Management, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
- Neuromanagement Lab, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Liang Meng
- School of Management, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
- Neuromanagement Lab, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Qiang Shen
- School of Management, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
- Neuromanagement Lab, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
- National Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
- * E-mail:
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