Association between the membrane transporter proteins and type 2 diabetes mellitus

Novel Insight into the Effect of Probiotics in the Regulation of the Most Important Pathways Involved in the Pathogenesis of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus

Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is considered one of the most common disorders worldwide. Although several treatment modalities have been developed, the existing interventions have not yielded the desired results. Therefore, researchers have focused on finding treatment choices with low toxicity and few adverse effects that could control T2DM efficiently. Various types of research on the role of gut microbiota in developing T2DM and its related complications have led to the growing interest in probiotic supplementation. Several properties make these organisms unique in terms of human health, including their low cost, high reliability, and good safety profile. Emerging evidence has demonstrated that three of the most important signaling pathways, including nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB), phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/protein kinase B (Akt), and nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2), which involved in the pathogenesis of T2DM, play key functions in the effects of probiotics on this disease. Hence, we will focus on the clinical applications of probiotics in the management of T2DM. Then, we will also discuss the roles of the involvement of various probiotics in the regulation of the most important signaling pathways (NF-κB, PI3K/Akt, and Nrf2) involved in the pathogenesis of T2DM.

Transfer of membrane(s) matter(s)-non-genetic inheritance of (metabolic) phenotypes?

Glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored proteins (GPI-APs) are anchored at the outer phospholipid layer of eukaryotic plasma membranes exclusively by a glycolipid. GPI-APs are not only released into extracellular compartments by lipolytic cleavage. In addition, certain GPI-APs with the glycosylphosphatidylinositol anchor including their fatty acids remaining coupled to the carboxy-terminus of their protein components are also detectable in body fluids, in response to certain stimuli, such as oxidative stress, radicals or high-fat diet. As a consequence, the fatty acid moieties of GPI-APs must be shielded from access of the aqueous environment by incorporation into membranes of extracellular vesicles or into micelle-like complexes together with (lyso)phospholipids and cholesterol. The GPI-APs released from somatic cells and tissues are transferred via those complexes or EVs to somatic as well as pluripotent stem cells with metabolic consequences, such as upregulation of glycogen and lipid synthesis. From these and additional findings, the following hypotheses are developed: i) Transfer of GPI-APs via EVs or micelle-like complexes leads to the induction of new phenotypes in the daughter cells or zygotes, which are presumably not restricted to metabolism. ii) The membrane topographies transferred by the concerted action of GPI-APs and interacting components are replicated by self-organization and self-templation and remain accessible to structural changes by environmental factors. iii) Transfer from mother cells and gametes to their daughter cells and zygotes, respectively, is not restricted to DNA and genes, but also encompasses non-genetic matter, such as GPI-APs and specific membrane constituents. iv) The intergenerational transfer of membrane matter between mammalian organisms is understood as an epigenetic mechanism for phenotypic plasticity, which does not rely on modifications of DNA and histones, but is regarded as molecular mechanism for the inheritance of acquired traits, such as complex metabolic diseases. v) The missing interest in research of non-genetic matter of inheritance, which may be interpreted in the sense of Darwin's "Gemmules" or Galton's "Stirps", should be addressed in future investigations of the philosophy of science and sociology of media.

Molecular mechanism of Gan-song Yin inhibiting the proliferation of renal tubular epithelial cells by regulating miR-21-5p in adipocyte exosomes

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Gan-song Yin is derived from the classic ancient prescription " Gan-song pill " for the treatment of wasting-thirst in Ningxia combined with the characteristic "fragrant medicine". It is clinically used for the treatment of early renal fibrosis caused by diabetic nephropathy. Previous studies have shown that it has a good effect and great potential in the prevention and treatment of diabetic nephropathy, but its mechanism research is still limited.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To investigate the mechanism of GSY to improve DN by interfering with miR-21-5p and glycolipid metabolism in adipocyte exosomes using 3T3-L1 and TCMK-1 co-culture system.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The co-culture system of 3T3-L3 and TCMK-1 was established, the IR model was established, and the stability, lipid drop change, glucose consumption, triglyceride content, cell viability, cell cycle and apoptosis level, protein content and mRNA expression of the IR model were detected.

RESULTS

GSY inhibited 3T3-L1 activity, increased glucose consumption and decreased TG content. Decreased TCMK-1 cell viability, inhibited apoptosis, cell cycle arrest occurred in G0/G1 phase and S phase. Adipocyte IR model and co-culture system were stable within 48 h. After GSY intervention, lipid droplet decomposition and glucose consumption increased. The TG content of adipocytes increased, while the TG content of co-culture system decreased. GSY can regulate the expression of TGF-β1/SMAD signaling pathway protein in IR state. After GSY intervention, the expression of miR-21-5p was increased in 3T3-L1 and Exo cells, and decreased in TCMK-1 cells.

CONCLUSIONS

GSY can regulate TGF-β1/SMAD signaling pathway through the secretion of miR-21-5p from adipocytes, protect IR TCMK-1, regulate the protein and mRNA expression levels of PPARγ, GLUT4, FABP4, and improve glucose and lipid metabolism.

Gender Differences in Insulin Resistance: New Knowledge and Perspectives

Insulin resistance is the main mechanism in a whole series of pathological conditions, which are not only of metabolic interest but also of a systemic type. This phenomenon means that the body's cells become less sensitive to the hormone insulin, leading to higher levels of insulin in the blood. Insulin resistance is a phenomenon that can be found in both men and women and in particular, in the latter, it is found mainly after menopause. Premenopause, hormonal fluctuations during the menstrual cycle, and the presence of estrogen can affect insulin sensitivity. Androgens, such as testosterone, are typically higher in men and can contribute to insulin resistance. In both sexes, different human body types affect the distribution and location of body fat, also influencing the development of diabetes and cardiovascular disease. Insulin resistance is also associated with some neurological and neurogenerative disorders, polycystic ovary syndrome, atherosclerosis, and some of the main neoplastic pathologies. A healthy lifestyle, including regular physical activity, a balanced diet, and self-maintenance, can help to prevent the onset of insulin resistance, regardless of gender, although the different habits between men and women greatly affect the implementation of preventative guidelines that help in fighting the manifestations of this metabolic disorder. This review may help to shed light on gender differences in metabolic diseases by placing a necessary focus on personalized medical management and by inspiring differentiated therapeutic approaches.

The reversible effects of free fatty acids on sulfonylurea-stimulated insulin secretion are related to the expression and dynamin-mediated endocytosis of KATP channels in pancreatic β cells

Objective

Lipotoxicity-induced pancreatic β cell-dysfunction results in decreased insulin secretion in response to multiple stimulus. In this study, we investigated the reversible effects of palmitate (PA) or oleate (OA) on insulin secretion and the relationship with pancreatic β-cell ATP-sensitive potassium (KATP) channels.

Methods

MIN6 cells were treated with PA and OA for 48 h and then washed out for 24 h to determine the changes in expression and endocytosis of the KATP channels and glucose-stimulated insulin secretion (GSIS) and sulfonylurea-stimulated insulin secretion (SU-SIS).

Results

MIN6 cells exposed to PA or OA showed both impaired GSIS and SU-SIS; the former was not restorable, while the latter was reversible with washout of PA or OA. Decreased expressions of both total and surface Kir6.2 and SUR1 and endocytosis of KATP channels were observed, which were also recoverable after washout. When MIN6 cells exposed to free fatty acids (FFAs) were cotreated with 5-aminoimidazole-4-carboxamide ribonucleotide (AICAR) or dynasore, we found that endocytosis of KATP channels did not change significantly by AICAR but was almost completely blocked by dynasore. Meanwhile, the inhibition of endocytosis of KATP channels after washout could be activated by PIP2. The recovery of SU-SIS after washout was significantly weakened by PIP2, but the decrease of SU-SIS induced by FFAs was not alleviated by dynasore.

Conclusions

FFAs can cause reversible impairment of SU-SIS on pancreatic β cells. The reversibility of the effects is partial because of the changes of expression and endocytosis of Kir6.2 and SUR1 which was mediated by dynamin.

A review on interplay between obesity, lipoprotein profile and nutrigenetics with selected candidate marker genes of type 2 diabetes mellitus

BACKGROUND

Type 2 diabetes mellitus, a rapidly growing epidemic, and its frequently related complications demand global attention. The two factors commonly attributed to the epidemic are genetic factors and environmental factors. Studies indicate that the genetic makeup at an individual level and the environmental aspects influence the occurrence of the disease. However, there is insufficiency in understanding the mechanisms through which the gene mutations and environmental components individually lead to T2DM. Also, discrepancies have often been noted in the association of gene variants and type 2 diabetes when the gene factor is examined as a sole attribute to the disease.

STUDY

In this review initially, we have focused on the proposed ways through which CAPN10, FABP2, GLUT2, TCF7L2, and ENPP1 variants lead to T2DM along with the inconsistencies observed in the gene-disease association. The article also emphasizes on obesity, lipoprotein profile, and nutrition as environmental factors and how they lead to T2DM. Finally, the main objective is explored, the environment-gene-disease association i.e. the influence of each environmental factor on the aforementioned specific gene-T2DM relationship to understand if the disease-causing capability of the gene variants is exacerbated by environmental influences.

CONCLUSION

We found that environmental factors may influence the gene-disease relationship. Reciprocally, the genetic factors may alter the environment-disease relationship. To precisely conclude that the two factors act synergistically to lead to T2DM, more attention has to be paid to the combined influence of the genetic variants and environmental factors on T2DM occurrence instead of studying the influence of the factors separately.

Insulin Signal Transduction Perturbations in Insulin Resistance

Type 2 diabetes mellitus is a widespread medical condition, characterized by high blood glucose and inadequate insulin action, which leads to insulin resistance. Insulin resistance in insulin-responsive tissues precedes the onset of pancreatic β-cell dysfunction. Multiple molecular and pathophysiological mechanisms are involved in insulin resistance. Insulin resistance is a consequence of a complex combination of metabolic disorders, lipotoxicity, glucotoxicity, and inflammation. There is ample evidence linking different mechanistic approaches as the cause of insulin resistance, but no central mechanism is yet described as an underlying reason behind this condition. This review combines and interlinks the defects in the insulin signal transduction pathway of the insulin resistance state with special emphasis on the AGE-RAGE-NF-κB axis. Here, we describe important factors that play a crucial role in the pathogenesis of insulin resistance to provide directionality for the events. The interplay of inflammation and oxidative stress that leads to β-cell decline through the IAPP-RAGE induced β-cell toxicity is also addressed. Overall, by generating a comprehensive overview of the plethora of mechanisms involved in insulin resistance, we focus on the establishment of unifying mechanisms to provide new insights for the future interventions of type 2 diabetes mellitus.