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Leca JB. Towards a three-level neo-Tinbergenian approach to object play: Structure, causes and consequences of a behavioral puzzle. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2023; 152:105290. [PMID: 37348665 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2023.105290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2023] [Revised: 05/11/2023] [Accepted: 06/19/2023] [Indexed: 06/24/2023]
Abstract
My main goal in this paper is to propose a reformulation of foundational models in behavioral research, including Tinbergen's (1963) well-known four levels of analysis (namely, ontogenetic, mechanistic, functional, and evolutionary questions) and Mayr's (1961) dichotomy between proximate and ultimate causations. After critically evaluating these influential but problematic models, I present a three-level neo-Tinbergenian approach to behavior that considers the triadic integration of behavioral causes, structure, and consequences along a single temporal continuum. I then argue that object-directed play is a good candidate behavior to apply this new paradigm by presenting significant examples of the combined analysis of at least two of these three levels. Finally, I show how stone handling, a form of culturally-transmitted object play in macaques, is perfectly amenable to this unified three-level explanatory framework. My proposed approach fits recent theoretical and empirical advances in behavioral biology, has a heuristic value, and may provide numerous benefits to a range of behavioral scientists.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean-Baptiste Leca
- Department of Psychology, University of Lethbridge, AB, Canada; School of Natural and Engineering Sciences National Institute of Advanced Studies, Bangalore, India.
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2
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Cankaya O, Rohatyn-Martin N, Leach J, Taylor K, Bulut O. Preschool Children's Loose Parts Play and the Relationship to Cognitive Development: A Review of the Literature. J Intell 2023; 11:151. [PMID: 37623534 PMCID: PMC10456023 DOI: 10.3390/jintelligence11080151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2023] [Revised: 07/11/2023] [Accepted: 07/25/2023] [Indexed: 08/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Play is an integrative process, and the skills acquired in it-overcoming impulses, behavior control, exploration and discovery, problem-solving, reasoning, drawing conclusions, and attention to processes and outcomes are foundational cognitive structures that drive learning and motivation. Loose parts play is a prominent form of play that many scholars and educators explicitly endorse for cognitive development (e.g., divergent thinking, problem-solving). It is unique among play types because children can combine different play types and natural or manufactured materials in one occurrence. While educators and policymakers promote the benefits of loose parts play, no previous research has explored the direct relationship between preschool-age children's indoor loose parts play experiences and cognitive development. We address this gap by bringing together the relevant literature and synthesizing the empirical studies on common play types with loose parts, namely object and exploratory, symbolic and pretend, and constructive play. We also focus on studies that examine children's experiences through loose parts, highlighting the impact of different play types on learning through the reinforcement of cognitive skills, such as executive function, cognitive self-regulation, reasoning, and problem-solving. By examining the existing literature and synthesizing empirical evidence, we aim to deepen our understanding of the relationship between children's play with loose parts and its impact on cognitive development. Ultimately, pointing out the gaps in the literature that would add to the body of knowledge surrounding the benefits of play for cognitive development and inform educators, policymakers, and researchers about the significance of incorporating loose parts play into early childhood education.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ozlem Cankaya
- Department of Human Services and Early Learning, MacEwan University, Edmonton, AB T5J 4S2, Canada;
| | - Natalia Rohatyn-Martin
- Department of Human Services and Early Learning, MacEwan University, Edmonton, AB T5J 4S2, Canada;
| | - Jamie Leach
- Department of Child and Youth Study, Mount Saint Vincent University, Halifax, NS B3M 2J6, Canada;
| | - Keirsten Taylor
- Department of Psychology, MacEwan University, Edmonton, AB T5J 4S2, Canada;
| | - Okan Bulut
- Centre for Research in Applied Measurement and Evaluation, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2R3, Canada;
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3
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Lew-Levy S, Andersen MM, Lavi N, Riede F. Hunter-Gatherer Children's Object Play and Tool Use: An Ethnohistorical Analysis. Front Psychol 2022; 13:824983. [PMID: 35645867 PMCID: PMC9132165 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.824983] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2021] [Accepted: 03/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Learning to use, make, and modify tools is key to our species' success. Researchers have hypothesized that play with objects may have a foundational role in the ontogeny of tool use and, over evolutionary timescales, in cumulative technological innovation. Yet, there are few systematic studies investigating children's interactions with objects outside the post-industrialized West. Here, we survey the ethnohistorical record to uncover cross-cultural trends regarding hunter-gatherer children's use of objects during play and instrumental activities. Our dataset, consisting of 434 observations of children's toys and tools from 54 hunter-gatherer societies, reveals several salient trends: Most objects in our dataset are used in play. Children readily manufacture their own toys, such as dolls and shelters. Most of the objects that children interact with are constructed from multiple materials. Most of the objects in our dataset are full-sized or miniature versions of adult tools, reflecting learning for adult roles. Children also engage with objects related to child culture, primarily during play. Taken together, our findings show that hunter-gatherer children grow up playing, making, and learning with objects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sheina Lew-Levy
- Department of Human Behavior, Ecology and Culture, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany
- Department of Comparative Cultural Psychology, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Marc Malmdorf Andersen
- Interacting Minds Centre, School of Culture and Society, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Noa Lavi
- Department of Anthropology, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Felix Riede
- Department of Archaeology and Heritage Studies, Aarhus University, Højbjerg, Denmark
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Reindl E, Tennie C, Apperly IA, Lugosi Z, Beck SR. Young children spontaneously invent three different types of associative tool use behaviour. EVOLUTIONARY HUMAN SCIENCES 2022; 4:e5. [PMID: 37588934 PMCID: PMC10426097 DOI: 10.1017/ehs.2022.4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
Associative Tool Use (ATU) describes the use of two or more tools in combination, with the literature further differentiating between Tool set use, Tool composite use, Sequential tool use and Secondary tool use. Research investigating the cognitive processes underlying ATU has shown that some primate and bird species spontaneously invent Tool set and Sequential tool use. Yet studies with humans are sparse. Whether children are also able to spontaneously invent ATU behaviours and at what age this ability emerges is poorly understood. We addressed this gap in the literature with two experiments involving preschoolers (E1, N = 66, 3 years 6 months to 4 years 9 months; E2, N = 119, 3 years 0 months to 6 years 10 months) who were administered novel tasks measuring Tool set, Metatool and Sequential tool use. Participants needed to solve the tasks individually, without the opportunity for social learning (except for enhancement effects). Children from 3 years of age spontaneously invented all of the types of investigated ATU behaviours. Success rates were low, suggesting that individual invention of ATU in novel tasks is still challenging for preschoolers. We discuss how future studies can use and expand our tasks to deepen our understanding of tool use and problem-solving in humans and non-human animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- E. Reindl
- School of Psychology, University of Birmingham, Brimingham, UK
- Department of Anthropology, Durham University, Durham, UK
- School of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, UK
| | - C. Tennie
- Department for Early Prehistory and Quaternary Ecology, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - I. A. Apperly
- School of Psychology, University of Birmingham, Brimingham, UK
| | - Z. Lugosi
- Division of Psychology, University of Stirling, Stirling, UK
| | - S. R. Beck
- School of Psychology, University of Birmingham, Brimingham, UK
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Lew-Levy S, Pope SM, Haun DBM, Kline MA, Broesch T. Out of the empirical box: A mixed-methods study of tool innovation among Congolese BaYaka forager and Bondongo fisher-farmer children. J Exp Child Psychol 2021; 211:105223. [PMID: 34273734 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2021.105223] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2021] [Revised: 06/03/2021] [Accepted: 06/03/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Tool innovation has played a crucial role in human adaptation. Yet, this capacity seems to arise late in development. Before 8 years of age, many children struggle to solve the hook task, a common measure of tool innovation that requires modification of a straight pipe cleaner into a hook to extract a prize. Whether these findings are generalizable beyond postindustrialized Western children remains unclear. In many small-scale subsistence societies, children engage in daily tool use and modification, experiences that theoretically could enhance innovative capabilities. Although two previous studies found no differences in innovative ability between children from Western and small-scale subsistence societies, these did not account for the latter's inexperience with pipe cleaners. Thus, the current study investigated how familiarity with pipe cleaners affected hook task success in 132 Congolese BaYaka foragers (57 girls) and 59 Bondongo fisher-farmers (23 girls) aged 4-12 years. We contextualized these findings within children's interview responses and naturalistic observations of how pipe cleaners were incorporated into daily activities. Counter to our expectation, prior exposure did not improve children's performance during the hook task. Bondongo children innovated significantly more hooks than BaYaka children, possibly because they participate in hook-and-line fishing. Observations and interviews showed that children imagined and innovated novel uses for pipe cleaners outside the experimental context, including headbands, bracelets, and suspenders. We relate our findings to ongoing debates regarding systematic versus unsystematic tool innovation, the importance of prior experience for the ontogeny of tool innovation, and the external validity of experimental paradigms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sheina Lew-Levy
- Department of Psychology, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia V5A 1S6, Canada; Aarhus University, Moesgård Allé 20 8270 Højbjerg, Denmark
| | - Sarah M Pope
- Department of Cultural and Comparative Psychology, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, 04103 Leipzig, Germany.
| | - Daniel B M Haun
- Department of Cultural and Comparative Psychology, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Michelle A Kline
- Centre for Culture and Evolution, Department of Psychology, Brunel University London, London, Uxbridge UB8 3PH, UK
| | - Tanya Broesch
- Department of Psychology, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia V5A 1S6, Canada
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van Elk M. A predictive processing framework of tool use. Cortex 2021; 139:211-221. [PMID: 33878688 DOI: 10.1016/j.cortex.2021.03.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2020] [Revised: 02/01/2021] [Accepted: 03/22/2021] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
In this paper I introduce the theory of predictive processing as a unifying conceptual framework to account for the human ability to use and innovate tools. I explain the basic concepts of predictive processing and illustrate how this framework accounts for the development of tool use in young infants and for findings in the neuropsychological and neuroscientific literature. Then, I argue that the predictive processing model needs to be complemented with a functional-evolutionary perspective, according to which the developmental and neurocognitive mechanisms should be understood in relation to the adaptive function that tools subserve. I discuss cross-cultural and comparative studies on tool use to illustrate how tools could facilitate a process of cumulative cultural and technological evolution. Furthermore, I illustrate how central premises of the predictive processing framework, such as the notion of Bayesian inference as a general principle and the role of prediction-error-updating, speak to central debates in evolutionary psychology, such as the massive modularity hypothesis and the trade-off between exploitation and innovation. Throughout the paper I make several concrete suggestions for future studies that could be used to put the predictive processing model of tool use to the test.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michiel van Elk
- Institute of Psychology, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands.
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Lew-Levy S, Milks A, Lavi N, Pope SM, Friesem DE. Where innovations flourish: an ethnographic and archaeological overview of hunter-gatherer learning contexts. EVOLUTIONARY HUMAN SCIENCES 2020; 2:e31. [PMID: 37588392 PMCID: PMC10427478 DOI: 10.1017/ehs.2020.35] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Research in developmental psychology suggests that children are poor tool innovators. However, such research often overlooks the ways in which children's social and physical environments may lead to cross-cultural variation in their opportunities and proclivity to innovate. In this paper, we examine contemporary hunter-gatherer child and adolescent contributions to tool innovation. We posit that the cultural and subsistence context of many hunter-gatherer societies fosters behavioural flexibility, including innovative capabilities. Using the ethnographic and developmental literature, we suggest that socialisation practices emphasised in hunter-gatherer societies, including learning through autonomous exploration, adult and peer teaching, play and innovation seeking may bolster children's ability to innovate. We also discuss whether similar socialisation practices can be interpreted from the archaeological record. We end by pointing to areas of future study for understanding the role of children and adolescents in the development of tool innovations across cultures in the past and present.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sheina Lew-Levy
- Simon Fraser University, Department of Psychology, Burnaby, BC, Canada
- Department of Archaeology and Heritage Studies, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Annemieke Milks
- Institute of Archaeology, University College London, London, UK
| | - Noa Lavi
- Department of Anthropology, University College London, London, UK
| | - Sarah M. Pope
- Department of Comparative and Cultural Psychology, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany
| | - David E. Friesem
- McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
- Zinman Institute of Archaeology, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel
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Neldner K, Reindl E, Tennie C, Grant J, Tomaselli K, Nielsen M. A cross-cultural investigation of young children's spontaneous invention of tool use behaviours. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2020; 7:192240. [PMID: 32537212 PMCID: PMC7277275 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.192240] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2020] [Accepted: 04/15/2020] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Through the mechanisms of observation, imitation and teaching, young children readily pick up the tool using behaviours of their culture. However, little is known about the baseline abilities of children's tool use: what they might be capable of inventing on their own in the absence of socially provided information. It has been shown that children can spontaneously invent 11 of 12 candidate tool using behaviours observed within the foraging behaviours of wild non-human apes (Reindl et al. 2016 Proc. R. Soc. B 283, 20152402. (doi:10.1098/rspb.2015.2402)). However, no investigations to date have examined how tool use invention in children might vary across cultural contexts. The current study investigated the levels of spontaneous tool use invention in 2- to 5-year-old children from San Bushmen communities in South Africa and children in a large city in Australia on the same 12 candidate problem-solving tasks. Children in both cultural contexts correctly invented all 12 candidate tool using behaviours, suggesting that these behaviours are within the general cognitive and physical capacities of human children and can be produced in the absence of direct social learning mechanisms such as teaching or observation. Children in both cultures were more likely to invent those tool behaviours more frequently observed in great ape populations than those less frequently observed, suggesting there is similarity in the level of difficulty of invention across these behaviours for all great ape species. However, children in the Australian sample invented tool behaviours and succeeded on the tasks more often than did the Bushmen children, highlighting that aspects of a child's social or cultural environment may influence the rates of their tool use invention on such task sets, even when direct social information is absent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karri Neldner
- Early Cognitive Development Centre, School of Psychology, University of Queensland, Queensland, Australia
| | - Eva Reindl
- School of Psychology, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, West Midlands B15 2TT, UK
- School of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of St Andrews, St Mary's Quad, St Andrews KY16 9JP, UK
| | - Claudio Tennie
- Department of Early Prehistory and Quaternary Ecology, University of Tübingen, Tubingen, Germany
| | - Julie Grant
- Department of Communication, University of Johannesburg, Auckland Park, South Africa
| | - Keyan Tomaselli
- Department of Communication, University of Johannesburg, Auckland Park, South Africa
| | - Mark Nielsen
- Early Cognitive Development Centre, School of Psychology, University of Queensland, Queensland, Australia
- Department of Communication, University of Johannesburg, Auckland Park, South Africa
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Riede F, Johannsen NN, Högberg A, Nowell A, Lombard M. The role of play objects and object play in human cognitive evolution and innovation. Evol Anthropol 2018; 27:46-59. [PMID: 29446561 PMCID: PMC5838546 DOI: 10.1002/evan.21555] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/12/2017] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
In this contribution, we address a major puzzle in the evolution of human material culture: If maturing individuals just learn their parental generation's material culture, then what is the origin of key innovations as documented in the archeological record? We approach this question by coupling a life‐history model of the costs and benefits of experimentation with a niche‐construction perspective. Niche‐construction theory suggests that the behavior of organisms and their modification of the world around them have important evolutionary ramifications by altering developmental settings and selection pressures. Part of Homo sapiens' niche is the active provisioning of children with play objects — sometimes functional miniatures of adult tools — and the encouragement of object play, such as playful knapping with stones. Our model suggests that salient material culture innovation may occur or be primed in a late childhood or adolescence sweet spot when cognitive and physical abilities are sufficiently mature but before the full onset of the concerns and costs associated with reproduction. We evaluate the model against a series of archeological cases and make suggestions for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Felix Riede
- Department of Archaeology and Heritage Studies, Aarhus University Moesgård, Denmark.,Interacting Minds Centre, Aarhus University, Denmark.,Centre for Biocultural History, Aarhus University, Denmark
| | - Niels N Johannsen
- Department of Archaeology and Heritage Studies, Aarhus University Moesgård, Denmark.,Interacting Minds Centre, Aarhus University, Denmark
| | - Anders Högberg
- Department of Cultural Sciences, Linnaeus University, Faculty of Arts and Humanities, Sweden.,Centre for Anthropological Research and Department of Anthropology and Development Studies, University of Johannesburg, South Africa.,Stellenbosch Institute for Advanced Study (STIAS), Wallenberg Research Centre at Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa
| | - April Nowell
- Department of Anthropology, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC, Canada
| | - Marlize Lombard
- Centre for Anthropological Research and Department of Anthropology and Development Studies, University of Johannesburg, South Africa.,Stellenbosch Institute for Advanced Study (STIAS), Wallenberg Research Centre at Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa
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