“It’s all outward appearance-based attractions”: A qualitative study of body image among a sample of young gay and bisexual men

Tackling bisexual erasure: An explorative comparison of bisexual, gay and straight cisgender men's body image

Previous body image research often grouped both gay and bisexual men into a single category: sexual minoritised men, limiting our understanding of how sexual identity influences body image. However, there is strong reason to believe that bisexual and gay men experience distinct body image concerns. Here, we explored motivations to alter one's leanness and muscularity, as well as (dis)satisfaction with body fat, muscularity, height and penis size, and functionality appreciation across gay, bisexual, and straight cisgender men. We sampled 378 white participants aged 18 to 85 (nbisexual = 125, ngay = 128, nstraight = 125). We found that bisexual men were significantly less motivated to be lean and showed lower muscularity dissatisfaction relative to gay men but showed comparable levels to straight men. Our findings demonstrate that despite research perceiving the body image of bisexual and gay men as homogenous, they experience differences in their body image concerning leanness and muscularity dissatisfaction. Future body image research should incorporate this understanding by not artificially grouping bisexual and gay cisgender men and instead acknowledging the potential uniqueness in their experiences.

Exploring the Relationships Between Body Image, Sexual Well-Being, and Community Connectedness among Gay, Bisexual and Queer+ Men

Sexual minority (SM) men are more likely than heterosexual men to experience body dissatisfaction due to prevailing body ideals (e.g. lean and muscular) within the SM community. Negative body image can have harmful effects on well-being, and, by extension, sexual well-being. The current study aimed to investigate whether SM men's minority identification and LGBTQ+ community connectedness moderates the relationship between drives for muscularity and sexual anxiety. To address this aim, 298 Australian-residing SM men completed an online survey that examined drive for muscularity, sexual anxiety, and connectedness or identification with the LGBTQ+ and SM-specific communities. As hypothesized, the results showed a positive relationship between drive for muscularity and sexual anxiety. Additionally, LGBTQ+ community connectedness, but importantly not SM identification, was found to moderate this relationship, showing a positive association only when connection was at low or average levels. These results highlight the beneficial effects that LGBTQ+ community connection can have for SM men, such as protecting them against the harmful impacts of poor body image on sexual well-being. These results also provide preliminary insights into the need to expand the understandings of bodily diversity, and diversity of sexual well-being experiences, among SM men less connected to the broader LGBTQ+ community.

Self-Objectification, Disordered Eating and Sexual Orientation in Men

The interplay between disordered eating, depressive symptoms and self-objectification differs between genders and sexual orientations, and merits further study in homosexual and heterosexual men. We examined disordered eating, depressive symptoms and self-objectification in a sample of Israeli heterosexual and homosexual men. Participants were 215 men aged 19-65, 108 of whom were classified by the Kinsey scale as being heterosexual and 107 as homosexual. They completed online measures of self-objectification, disordered eating and depressive symptoms. Heterosexual men reported lower levels of disordered eating and self-objectification than homosexual men, however the difference in depressive symptoms was not statistically significant. Correlations between disordered eating, self-objectification and depressive symptoms when controlling for age, BMI and number of children were all significant, with similar patterns of association for heterosexual and homosexual men. Self-objectification partially mediated the association between sexual orientation and disordered eating. However, contrary to our hypothesis, sexual orientation (homosexual/heterosexual) did not moderate the association between disordered eating and self-objectification. The tendency of homosexual men towards self-objectification is linked to unhealthy eating habits. Self-objectification helps explain the propensity of homosexual versus heterosexual men to develop disordered eating and possibly eating disorders. It should therefore be targeted in prevention and in therapy.

Eating disorders among queer and trans individuals: Implications for conceptualization, assessment, and treatment

Eating disorders (EDs) have been traditionally viewed as a disorder affecting cisgender, heterosexual women. Yet, the prevalence of EDs among queer and trans (QnT) individuals, coupled with the lack of interventions that attend to contextual factors related to sexual orientation and gender identity, underscore a critical health disparity issue requiring urgent attention. Here, we first review factors pertaining to QnT individuals' minoritized sexual and gender identities that are important to consider in ED conceptualization for this population (e.g., minority stressors, identity-based body image standards). Next, we describe problematic assumptions present in existing ED assessment and propose more inclusive approaches. Lastly, we provide suggestions for practices that providers can implement within their treatment of EDs among QnT individuals.

Sexual, gendered, and internalized racism's associations with disordered eating among sexual minority Asian American men: Emotional eating as mediator

Research related to disordered eating among sexual minority Asian American men is scarce. Thus, the present study utilized an intersectional framework to examine how three different forms of racism (i.e. sexual racism, gendered racism, and internalized racism) are associated with disordered eating among sexual minority Asian American men, as well as the mediating role of emotional eating. A cross-sectional survey containing the study's measures of interest were administered to participants. The final sample consisted of 180 sexual minority Asian American men. Both sexual racism and internalized racism were positively associated with disordered eating whereas gendered racism was not associated with disordered eating Emotional eating mediated the association between internalized racism and disordered eating, though it did not mediate the association between sexual racism and disordered eating. Researchers and practitioners are encouraged to utilize an intersectional framework that takes into account multiple forms of racism, especially sexual racism and internalized racism, when considering this underrepresented population's disordered eating. Results also demonstrate the importance of addressing racism in eating disorder prevention efforts among sexual minority Asian American men.

Gay Dating Apps Usage, Body Dissatisfaction, and Disordered Eating in Chinese Young Gay Men

There is a paucity of research on the links between gay dating apps usage and body dissatisfaction and disordered eating, especially for muscularity dissatisfaction and muscularity-oriented disordered eating in non-Western contexts. Thus, this study aimed to evaluate the associations between gay dating apps usage, body image inflexibility, body dissatisfaction, and disordered eating with the inclusion of both body fat and muscularity dissatisfaction and both thinness-and muscularity-oriented disordered eating in a sample of Chinese young gay men. A total of 247 Chinese young gay men (mean age: 21.92 ± 2.74 years) were recruited. Gay dating apps usage, body fat dissatisfaction, muscularity dissatisfaction, body image inflexibility, and thinness-and muscularity-oriented disordered eating were evaluated. Pearson correlation and mediation analyses were conducted. Gay dating apps usage was positively correlated with body fat dissatisfaction (r = .20, p = .002), muscularity dissatisfaction (r = .17, p = .006), thinness-oriented disordered eating (r = .21, p < .001), and muscularity-oriented disordered eating (r = .29, p < .001), and these relationships could be mediated by body image inflexibility. Findings support technologically-informed prevention and intervention strategies for eating and body image disturbances in gay men in the Chinese context.

Motivation, Appearance Focus, and Exclusion on Gay Dating App "Blued" in China: Content and Network Analysis of Textual Self-Presentation

Blued is the most popular gay dating app among Chinese sexual minority men. This study explored the textual self-presentation of the profiles on Blued in terms of motivation, appearance focus, and exclusion. A total of 10,000 profiles were randomly selected from a dataset of 197,516 profiles using an interval sampling method. A total of 230 features were developed, and six themes were extracted from 4,881 profiles based on content analysis. The themes were motivation, personal information, partner preference, partner non-preference, sexual preference, and communication preference. Body and age were the most commonly mentioned self-presentations, followed by attractiveness and masculinity. Self-presentations largely focused on the users' photos are prominent on Blued. Exclusion against those who were "overweight," "elderly," "unattractive," and "effeminate" was common. Network analysis was used to analyze and visualize the co-occurrence of these features. Appearance focus and exclusion features were linked with both "hookup" and "no hookup" motivations. Photo-focused communication was linked to the exclusion of others. "No hookup" motivation was associated with more social motivation (e.g., making friends and chatting) and trait-focused communication (e.g., being polite and permanent). "Hookup" motivation was associated with genital presentations (i.e., "big penis" and "like big penis"). Most self-presentation features of sexual preference were sexual role-specific. The results indicate a widespread focus on appearance and exclusion on Blued, which may negatively affect the mental health of Chinese sexual minority men.

Association between dating app use and unhealthy weight control behaviors and muscle enhancing behaviors in sexual minority men: a cross-sectional study

BACKGROUND

Body image concerns are prevalent and are viewed as risk factors for engaging in unhealthy weight control behaviors (UWCBs), such as purging, fasting, and the misuse of laxatives and diet pills. Studies have also linked UWCBs to the development of eating disorders. In the United States (U.S.), sexual minority men (e.g., bisexual, gay, and men who have sex with men) are prone to UWCBs often as a result of societal pressures to achieve certain standards of appearance - of which are often perpetuated through various media platforms. A growing number of studies have explored the possible role mobile dating applications ("dating apps") play in contributing to UWCBs. To our knowledge, such studies have not explored this possible relationship between dating apps and UWCBs in sexual minority men (SMM). To fill this gap in the scientific literature, the present study assessed the association between dating app use and UWCBs and muscle enhancing behaviors among a sample of adult SMM in the U.S.

METHOD

549 SMM participated in an anonymous survey from Qualtrics Survey Panels. UWCBs and muscle enhancing behaviors were assessed through items adapted from national surveys. Body image dissatisfaction was assessed using the Male Body Attitudes Scales. Participants also reported their history of dating app use. We performed descriptive statistics, chi-square tests, and student's t-tests. Multivariable logistic regression models assessed the relationship between dating app use and UWCBs and muscle enhancing behaviors.

RESULTS

Dating app users had significantly higher body image dissatisfaction scores than non-users. Dating app users also demonstrated significantly elevated odds of engaging in four UWCBs and muscle enhancing behaviors: laxatives, diet pills, muscle-building supplements, and protein powders.

CONCLUSIONS

This is one of the first studies to assess dating app use and its association with UWCBs and muscle enhancing behaviors in SMM. Increased surveillance and detection for such behaviors among SMM, particularly those using dating apps, are needed.

Gender and Media Representations: A Review of the Literature on Gender Stereotypes, Objectification and Sexualization

Media representations play an important role in producing sociocultural pressures. Despite social and legal progress in civil rights, restrictive gender-based representations appear to be still very pervasive in some contexts. The article explores scientific research on the relationship between media representations and gender stereotypes, objectification and sexualization, focusing on their presence in the cultural context. Results show how stereotyping, objectifying and sexualizing representations appear to be still very common across a number of contexts. Exposure to stereotyping representations appears to strengthen beliefs in gender stereotypes and endorsement of gender role norms, as well as fostering sexism, harassment and violence in men and stifling career-related ambitions in women. Exposure to objectifying and sexualizing representations appears to be associated with the internalization of cultural ideals of appearance, endorsement of sexist attitudes and tolerance of abuse and body shame. In turn, factors associated with exposure to these representations have been linked to detrimental effects on physical and psychological well-being, such as eating disorder symptomatology, increased body surveillance and poorer body image quality of life. However, specificities in the pathways from exposure to detrimental effects on well-being are involved for certain populations that warrant further research.

Social media and dating app use are differentially related to same- and next-day disordered eating pathology in young men with loss of control eating

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate whether social networking site (SNS) and dating app use is associated with disordered eating in young men.

METHODS

42 men (18-35y) who reported ≥4 loss of control (LOC) eating episodes in the prior month completed a 14-day ecological momentary assessment (EMA) protocol. Five times throughout the day, participants responded to prompts regarding their dietary restraint, body dissatisfaction, and LOC eating. Each night at ~10 pm, participants reported their total time spent on SNSs and dating apps/websites within the last day.

RESULTS

39 out of 42 cisgender men (M_age = 25.1 ± 5.3 years; 47 % non-Hispanic White, 29 % Black or African American; 63 % non-students; 87 % heterosexual) reported using SNSs and/or dating apps. Neither SNS nor dating app use was associated with body dissatisfaction. Dating app use with associated with higher same- (r² equivalent = 0.022, p = .003) and next-day dietary restraint (r² equivalent = 0.016, p = .02); SNS use was not. More SNS use was associated with lower odds of same- (OR [95 % CI] = 0.86 [0.75, 0.99], p = .044) and next-day LOC eating (OR [95 % CI] = 0.82 [0.71, 0.96], p = .011); links with dating app use were non-significant.

DISCUSSION

Non-significant links for SNS and dating app use with body dissatisfaction, and inverse associations with LOC eating, are contrary to research conducted with girls and women. Research is needed to evaluate whether the quality of SNS and dating app engagement (e.g., specific sites) are more closely related to men's disordered eating, and this work should consider muscularity concerns.

Status, sexual capital, and intraminority body stigma in a size-diverse sample of gay men

Gay men are more likely than heterosexual men to experience social pressure based on body weight, shape, and muscularity, which may drive disparities in body image concerns and eating disorders. Utilizing a sample of 1723 gay men living in the United States, the present study examined whether sociodemographic factors (used as proxies for status and sexual capital) and frequency of attending gay-specific establishments or gatherings (community involvement) were associated with gay men's experiences of negative or discriminatory pressures based on body size and shape specifically from other gay men (intraminority body stigma). Experiences of intraminority body stigma were significantly more common among gay men who identified as higher-weight (r = 0.28), less masculine (r = -0.21), less wealthy (r = -0.21), younger (r = -0.21), or people of color (ds = 0.25-0.28). Furthermore, indicators of low status and sexual capital were indirectly associated with less frequent community involvement via more frequent experiences of intraminority body stigma. In addition to frequency, the valence of interactions between gay men should be considered when assessing body image and eating disorder risk in this population. Future research is encouraged to examine intraminority body stigma as an intersectional source of intraminority stress to inform prevention and treatment efforts for gay men.

The Mediating Role of Body Acceptance in Explaining the Relation of Mindfulness, Self-Compassion and Mindful Eating to Body Image in Gay Men and Bisexual Men

Objectives

Mindfulness and mindfulness-based constructs, such as self-compassion and mindful eating, have been positively associated with healthier eating and body related perceptions. Exploration of mindfulness and related concepts have not been investigated extensively in gay and bisexual men, a population where eating and body related concerns have been found to be widespread.

Method

Participants completed an online questionnaire, assessing mindfulness, self-compassion, mindful eating, body image and body acceptance. Correlation analysis and further mediation analysis was conducted to explore the relations between these constructs within the present sample (n = 163).

Results

A community sample showed a positive association of body image to mindfulness-based concepts, and negative to body non-acceptance, within the target population. Mediation analysis showed the role of body acceptance in explaining the relation between mindfulness, self-compassion and mindful eating to body image.

Conclusions

Findings highlight the importance of body acceptance when considering the development of a mindfulness or compassion-based intervention to attenuate body related issues among gay and bisexual men.

Preregistration

This manuscript has not been preregistered.

Sexual racism and colourism among Australian men who have sex with men: A qualitative investigation

Sexual racism, referring to discrimination in the context of sexual and romantic partner-seeking, is pernicious among men who have sex with men (MSM). Two gaps exist in the literature on sexual racism among MSM: the potential role of colourism, wherein non-White MSM experience additional discrimination due to their skin tone; and the lack of current qualitative data about how Australian MSM construe sexual racism and colourism. We qualitatively investigated the manifestations and construals of sexual racism and colourism within an Australian sample of MSM (N = 39, 64% non-White) recruited via Grindr. Reflexive thematic analysis identified three themes: Manifestations of sexual racism; Recognising the racial hierarchy of desirability; and Diverse understandings of sexual racism. Participants recognised a racial hierarchy of desirability that privileges Whiteness and gives rise to multiple manifestations of sexual racism that harm non-White MSM. Notably, this hierarchy is intertwined with a skin colour hierarchy that favours lighter complexions among non-White men. Construals of sexual racism and colourism were diverse and ranged from beliefs that race-based sexual preferences are sacrosanct and beyond the purview of moral critique, through to beliefs that race-based sexual preferences are inherently political and entail a moral obligation for individuals to introspect and modify.

Internalization of muscularity and thinness ideals: Associations with body dissatisfaction, eating disorder symptoms, and muscle dysmorphic symptoms in at risk sexual minority men

OBJECTIVE

In the tripartite influence model, appearance-ideal internalization is identified as a prominent risk factor for the development of body dissatisfaction and subsequent eating disorder (ED) behaviors. For men, prior research has emphasized the importance of both thin-ideal internalization and muscular-ideal internalization in explaining later ED behaviors and muscle dysmorphia (MD) symptoms. Previous research in heterosexual men has shown that the associations between muscular-ideal internalization and ED or MD symptoms may depend on whether the individual has also internalized the thin ideal. However, this interaction has not been examined in research with sexual minority men (SMM).

METHOD

The current study collected self-report data from 452 at risk SMM (i.e., endorsed body dissatisfaction), with ages ranging from 18 to 35 years. Linear regression models were conducted to test the interaction effects between thinness and muscularity internalization on ED symptoms, MD behaviors, and general body dissatisfaction. Simple slopes and the Johnson-Neyman technique were used to investigate significant interaction terms.

RESULTS

Thin- and muscular-ideal internalization were positively associated with muscular appearance intolerance and dietary restriction with no significant interaction. Muscular drive for size was highest when both muscularity internalization and thinness internalization were high. Muscular-ideal internalization was positively associated with both cognitive restraint and general body dissatisfaction, but only at lower levels of thinness internalization.

DISCUSSION

Given the interacting association between thinness and muscularity internalization and aspects of body dissatisfaction, attitudes, and behavior, prevention and intervention programs for EDs and MDs in SMM should seek to dismantle both thinness and muscularity internalization.

PUBLIC SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT

Internalizing-or adopting as one's own-the ideal of a body with low body fat and high muscularity has been shown to lead to muscle dysmorphia and eating disorder symptoms in men. The current study examines whether the combination of thin-ideal and muscular-ideal internalization is associated with worse symptoms than either facet alone in sexual minority men. Treatment efforts in sexual minority men should address both types of internalization.

Twinks, Jocks, and Bears, Oh My! Differing subcultural appearance identifications among gay men and their associated eating disorder psychopathology

Gay men have increased risk of body dissatisfaction and disordered eating compared to heterosexual men, and it is unclear what differentiates their risk for thinness- and muscularity-oriented eating psychopathology. Differing subcultural appearance identifications (SAIs) among gay men are one potential factor that may relate to varied eating psychopathology, but this has not been studied. We examined gay men's SAIs: twinks, jocks, and bears; any "other" self-identified SAI; or no SAI, as well as the relationship between men's SAIs and traditional eating psychopathology and unhealthy dieting (both facets of thinness-oriented psychopathology), and muscularity-oriented psychopathology using univariate ANOVAs controlling for participant age. 264 U.S. gay-identified participants self-reported sexual orientation, SAIs, and eating psychopathology. Self-identified twinks did not report higher traditional eating psychopathology or unhealthy dieting than other SAIs or those without a SAI, as hypothesized. Self-identified twinks, jocks, and bears all reported greater muscularity-oriented eating pathology than those without a SAI. Self-identified jocks also reported higher muscularity-oriented disordered eating than those with an "other" self-identified SAI and bears. Thus, having a SAI may increase risk for disordered eating; specifically, identifying as a twink, jock or bear may confer greater risk for muscularity-oriented eating pathology.

"White, Tall, Top, Masculine, Muscular": Narratives of Intracommunity Stigma in Young Sexual Minority Men's Experience on Mobile Apps

What forms of intracommunity stigma do young sexual minority men narrate as they participate in communities through mobile apps? In a content analysis of 32 interviews with a racially diverse sample of young sexual minority men (ages 19-25; 84.4% non-White) from four regions of the USA, a majority of men (62.5%) spontaneously discussed mobile apps (e.g., Grindr, Scruff) when asked about their experience of community more broadly. Men's narratives revealed engagement with intracommunity stigma related to body size, race/ethnicity, gender expression, and sexual position (e.g., bottom). Stigma related to HIV status, substance use, and social class were not spontaneously narrated in response to questions about men's experience in communities. Expressions of stigma were frequently experienced intersectionally, particularly regarding racialized stereotype expectations (e.g., "Asian men are twinks, effeminate"). We discuss the ways in which sexual minority men reproduce dominant ideologies related to racism, misogyny, and masculine body ideals as they engage with one another on mobile apps. To the extent that many young men rely on mobile apps for community connection, their experiences of community might serve to exacerbate, rather than ameliorate, the deleterious impact of stigma.

Associations among romantic and sexual partner history and muscle dysmorphia symptoms, disordered eating, and appearance- and performance-enhancing drugs and supplement use among cisgender gay men

This study examined relationship status (e.g., single versus not single) and number of sexual partners in relation to muscularity- and disordered eating-related attitudes and behaviors among 1090 cisgender gay men enrolled in The PRIDE Study in 2018. Participants completed measures assessing muscle dysmorphia (MD) symptoms, disordered eating attitudes and behaviors, and appearance- and performance-enhancing drug or supplement (APEDS) use. In linear regression models adjusting for theoretically relevant covariates, neither relationship status nor number of past-month sexual partners was associated with disordered eating attitudes. In terms of MD symptoms, single (versus not single) relationship status was associated with greater appearance intolerance, and a greater number of sexual partners was associated with greater drive for size and functional impairment. In adjusted logistic regression models, a greater number of past-month sexual partners was associated with use of anabolic-androgenic steroids, synthetic performance-enhancing substances, protein supplements, and creatine supplements, as well as greater likelihood of engaging in compelled/driven exercise. Across all associations, effect sizes were generally small. Overall, results support that inquiring about sexual partners may have utility in evaluating risk for muscularity-oriented attitudes and behaviors among cisgender gay men. Future work will need to replicate these findings, particularly in more diverse samples.

Sexual orientation differences in pathways from sociocultural and objectification constructs to body satisfaction: The U.S. Body Project I

Objectification theory and the tripartite influence model provide useful frameworks for understanding the body image experiences of men and women. However, there is little systematic investigation of how sexual orientation moderates the links between these constructs and body image satisfaction. It has been hypothesized, for example, that the associations of surveillance (i.e., monitoring of one's appearance due to objectification by others) would be strongest for groups targeted by the male gaze (e.g., gay men, lesbian women, and bisexual men and women). Here we proposed an integrated sociocultural model and examined these pathways in multigroup structural equation models in a national sample of heterosexual, bisexual, and lesbian women (ns = 5395; 598; 213, respectively), and heterosexual, bisexual, and gay men (4869; 194; and 194, respectively) aged 18-65 years. Sexual orientation moderated some of these pathways. The most consistent pattern was that appearance pressures were internalized to a greater extent among bisexual participants. The pathways to poorer body image were generally similar among heterosexual and gay/lesbian men and women. These findings highlight the importance of examining sexual orientation-specific influences on body image across diverse groups, as well as the commonalities in the experiences of men and women across sexual orientations.

Association between perceived discrimination and food insecurity among sexual minority men

Background: Despite numerous studies focusing on the burden of food insecurity, few have assessed its impact among sexual minority (LGB) populations. Sexual minority individuals are subject to chronic levels of stress, including stigma, prejudice, and discrimination as a result of their sexual orientation identity. While few studies have documented food insecurity among sexual minorities, the relationship between food insecurity and discrimination among this stigmatized population remains unclear. Aim: This study aimed to assess the toll of food insecurity among a sample of sexual minority men (i.e. bisexual and gay men) in the U.S. Guided by the Minority Stress Theory, the study also assessed the relationship between food insecurity and perceived discrimination. Methods: Researchers disseminated an online survey and recruited gay and bisexual men in the U.S. The survey collected participants' demographic information, perceived discrimination, and food insecurity. Multivariable logistic regression analyses were used to examine the association between perceived discrimination and food insecurity. Results: A total of 504 sexual minority men (49.2% bisexual and 50.8% gay) completed the survey. Results from logistic regression models suggest perceived discrimination was significantly associated with food insecurity (OR = 1.14, CI: 1.11-1.18). Those living with a partner demonstrated lower odds of food insecurity (OR = 0.38, CI: 0.18-0.71). Conclusion: The present study found a significant association between perceived discrimination and food insecurity among sexual minority men. The findings need to be replicated and further explored through additional research, including qualitative methods, to better elucidate how discrimination is related to experiences with food insecurity among gay and bisexual men.

Androgen abuse among gay and bisexual men

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Androgen abuse is more prevalent among gay and bisexual (i.e. sexual minority) men than heterosexual men. We review recent research about androgen abuse in sexual minority men and provide relevant social, cultural, and historical contexts.

RECENT FINDINGS

Androgen abuse among sexual minority men is shaped by the intersections of sexuality, desirability, masculinity, and race. Muscular male bodies are desired and - in erotic settings especially - prized as literal embodiments of masculinity. Racist stereotypes unjustly diminish the desirability and masculinity of sexual minority men who belong to racial minorities, especially those who are Asian or Black, and the higher rates of androgen abuse among these racial minorities may reflect a compensatory motivation for these diminishments. The historical context for sexual minority men - decades of subjugation alongside stereotypes of masculinity-compromising effeminacy - further complicate the intersections of sexuality with androgen abuse. Harm minimization efforts led by empathetic endocrinologists stand the best chance of achieving positive outcomes for sexual minority men who use androgens.

SUMMARY

More dedicated research on androgen abuse among sexual minority men is needed as this population requires thoughtfully designed research that is incorporative - at a minimum - of the complexities of sexuality, desirability, masculinity, and race.