Acrylamide in Romanian food using HPLC-UV and a health risk assessment

Dietary acrylamide disrupts the functioning of the biological clock

Acrylamide (ACR) is a known carcinogen and neurotoxin. It is chronically consumed in carbohydrate-rich snacks processed at high temperatures. This calls for systematic research into the effects of ACR intake, best performed in an experimental model capable of detecting symptoms of its neurotoxicity at both high and low doses. Here, we study the influence of 10 µg/g (corresponding to the concentrations found in food products) and, for comparison, 60, 80 and 110 µg/g dietary ACR, on the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster. We show that chronic administration of ACR affects lifespan, activity level and, most importantly, the daily and circadian pattern of locomotor activity of Drosophila. ACR-treated flies show well-defined and concentration-dependent symptoms of ACR neurotoxicity; a reduced anticipation of upcoming changes in light conditions and increased arrhythmicity in constant darkness. The results suggest that the rhythm-generating neural circuits of their circadian oscillator (biological clock) are sensitive to ACR even at low concentrations if the exposure time is sufficiently long. This makes the behavioural readout of the clock, the rhythm of locomotor activity, a useful tool for studying the adverse effects of ACR and probably other compounds.

Acrylamide in heat-treated carbohydrate-rich foods in Turkey

This study was conducted to provide data on the amount of acrylamide (AA) in 270 heat-treated carbohydrate-rich foods in Turkey, determined by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). A total of 270 samples were analysed and it was found that 85% of potato chips, 80% of biscuits, 85% of cakes, 80% of bread, 80% of roasted peanuts, 80% of roasted nuts and 85% of pretzels contained AA above the limit of quantification (LOQ). Analytical results indicated that 10 corn chips samples, 4 biscuits samples, all bread samples, all wheat bread samples, 2 dried bread samples and 1 pretzel sample contained AA levels above the benchmark levels of 150, 350, 50, 50, 300 and 300 µg/kg, respectively, as set by the European Commission.

Acrylamide in potato chips in Iran, health risk assessment and mitigation

This study aimed to determine the acrylamide content in potato chips sold in Kermanshah, Iran and assess the potential health concerns associated with acrylamide exposure. HPLC-DAD was used to analyse 120 samples across 40 brands. The possible non-carcinogenic risk index for adults was below 1 for all 40 brands (100%), but for children it was only below 1 for 9 brands (22.5%) and above 1 for 31 brands (77.5%). Regarding the possible carcinogenic risk index, for adults only 1 out of 40 brands rated > 10-4, whereas for children all brands rated > 10-4. This shows that children's exposure to acrylamide through potato chips consumption in Kermanshah can be considered a risk on cancer and exposure of adults requires attention and monitoring. The best way to reduce acrylamide in potato chips and associated health risks is to improve the production process, especially temperature and time.

Probabilistic Risk Assessment of Metals, Acrylamide and Ochratoxin A in Instant Coffee from Brazil, Colombia, Mexico and Peru

This study analysed the probabilistic risk to consumers associated with the presence of iAs, Cd, Cr, Hg, Pb, acrylamide (AA) and ochratoxin A (OTA) in instant coffee from Brazil, Colombia, Mexico and Peru. The results found iAs to be the metal with the highest concentrations (3.50 × 10-2 to 6.00 × 10-2 mg/kg), closely followed by Pb (1.70 × 10-2 to 2.70 × 10-2 mg/kg) and Cr (5.00 × 10-3 to 1.00 × 10-2 mg/kg), although these differences were not significant between countries. Cd and Hg were not detected. Focusing on AA, the concentrations ranged from 1.77 × 10-1 mg/kg (Peru) to 4.77 × 10-1 mg/kg (Brazil), while OTA ranged from 1.32 × 10-3 (Peru) to 1.77 × 10-3 mg/kg (Brazil) with significant differences between countries in both cases. As regards risk, the hazard quotient and hazard index were less than 1, meaning that the consumption of instant coffee represents a low level of concern for non-genotoxic effects. The results of the combination of margin of exposure and probability of exceedance indicated that the non-genotoxic effects of Pb, AA and OTA pose no threat. However, the probability values of suffering cancer from iAs and AA (between 1 × 10-6 and 1 × 10-4) indicated a moderate risk and that management measures should be taken.

Toxicity, metabolism, and mitigation strategies of acrylamide: a comprehensive review

Acrylamide, a food-borne chemical toxicant, has raised global concern in recent decades. It mainly originated from reducing sugar and free amino acid interactions in the carbohydrate-rich foodstuffs heated at high temperatures. Due to the neurotoxicity and carcinogenicity of AA, the mechanism of formation, toxic effects on health, and mitigation strategies, including conventional approaches and innovative technologies, have been of great interest since its discovery in food. Potato products (especially French fries and crisps), coffee, and cereals(bread and biscuit) are renowned contributors to AA's daily intake. The best preventive methods discussed in the literature include time/temperature optimization, blanching, enzymatic treatment, yeast treatment, additives, pulsed electric fields, ultrasound, vacuum roasting, air frying, and irradiation, exhibiting a high efficacy in AA elimination in food products.

Biochemical Characterization of Thermostable Acrylamide Amidohydrolase from Aspergillus fumigatus with Potential Activity for Acrylamide Degradation in Various Food Products

Acrylamide is the major by-product of the Maillard reactions in foods with the overheating processes of L-asparagine-rich foods with reducing sugars that usually allied with neurotoxicity and carcinogenicity. Several approaches have been used to prevent the formation of acrylamide, however, degrading the already formed acrylamide in foods remains unequivocal. Acrylamide hydrolyzing enzyme "amidohydrolase" is one of the most promising enzymes for acrylamide degradation in foods. So, amidohydrolase "amidase" from thermotolerant Aspergillus fumigatus EFBL was purified to their electrophoretic homogeneity by gel-filtration and ion-exchange chromatography, with overall purification folds 2.8 and yield 9.43%. The apparent molecular subunit structure of the purified A. fumigatus amidase was 50 kDa, with highest activity at reaction temperature of 40 °C and pH of 7.5 The enzyme displayed a significant thermal stability as revealed from the value of T1/2 (13.37 h), and thermal denaturation rate (Kr 0.832 × 10-3 min) at 50 °C, with metalloproteinic identity. The purified enzyme had a significant activity for acrylamide degradation in various food products such as meat, cookies, potato chips, and bread as revealed from the HPLC analysis and LC-MS analysis. So, with the purified amidase, the acrylamide in the food products was degraded by about 95% to acrylic acid, ensuring the possibility of using this enzyme in abolishing the toxic acrylamide in the foods products. This is the first report exploring the potency of A. fumigatus amidase for an actual degradation of acrylamide in foods efficiently. Further biochemical analyses are ongoing to assess the affinity of this enzyme for selective hydrolyses of acrylamide in foods, without affecting the beneficial stereochemical related compounds.

Determination of Acrylamide in Selected Foods from the Romanian Market

Several processed food products may contain toxic compounds considered risk factors for human health. Known for its possible carcinogenic effects, acrylamide is an organic compound periodically analyzed by the entities responsible for consumer safety. Knowing the acrylamide content of food offers the possibility of implementing corrective measures when needed, targeted at lowering its level. The aim of the paper was to screen for the presence of acrylamide in four products consumed almost daily in Romania and calculate acrylamide exposure by consuming one serving. Expressed in µg/kg coffee has the highest average acrylamide content (199), followed by potato chips (134), pretzels (120), and bread (14). Results regarding the acrylamide content in one serving showed the highest levels of acrylamide in pretzels (10.20 µg/serving), followed by potato chips (4.00 µg/serving), coffee (2.20 µg/cup), and bread (0.40 µg/slice). The calculation of the acrylamide content for one serving of the studied products will facilitate the following studies on the dietary acrylamide intake of the Romanian population, studies which, to our knowledge, have not been performed so far.

Acrylamide in bread: a review on formation, health risk assessment, and determination by analytical techniques

Acrylamide is a water-soluble toxicant found in high-protein and carbohydrate-containing foods exposed to high temperature like bread as the staple foodstuff. This toxicant is mainly formed via Maillard reaction. The potential adverse effects of acrylamide especially possible carcinogenicity in human through dietary exposure necessitate its monitoring. Regarding the existence of its precursors in wheat bread formulation as well as extreme consumption of bread by most population and diversity of bread types, its acrylamide level needs to be investigated. The indicative value for acrylamide in wheat bread is set at 80 μg/kg. Consequently, its determination using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS), gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), or capillary electrophoresis can be helpful considering both the risk assessment and quality control aspects. In this respect, methods based on LC-MS/MS show good recovery and within laboratory repeatability with a limit of detection of 3-20 μg/kg and limit of quantification of 10-50 μg/kg which is suitable for the immediate requirements for food product monitoring and calculation of consumer exposure.

Biomedical rationale for acrylamide regulation and methods of detection

Acrylamide is the product of the Maillard reaction, which occurs when starchy, asparagine-rich foods including potato or grain products and coffee are fried, baked, roasted, or heated. Studies in rodents provide evidence that acrylamide is carcinogenic and a male reproductive harmful agent when administered in exceedingly high levels. A 2002 study identified acrylamide in popular consumer food and beverage products, stimulating the European Union (EU) and California to legislate public notice of acrylamide presence in fried and baked foods, and coffee products. The regulatory legislation enacted in the EU and California has scientists working to develop foods and processes aimed at reducing acrylamide formation and advancing rapid and accurate analytical methods for the quantitative and qualitative determination of acrylamide in food and beverage products. The purpose of this review is to survey the studies performed on rodents and humans that identified the potential health impact of acrylamide in the human diet, and provide insight into established and emerging analytical methods used to detect acrylamide in blood, aqueous samples, and food.

Comparative evaluation of acrylamide and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons contents in Robusta coffee beans roasted by hot air and superheated steam

Although hot air (HA) is a conventional roasting medium for coffee beans, HA roasting is known to result in possible formation of toxic compounds, including acrolein, acrylamide and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Superheated steam (SHS) roasting is therefore proposed as an alternative means to alleviate the formation of these toxic compounds in roasted coffee beans. Robusta coffee beans were roasted either with HA or SHS in a fluidized bed roaster at 210-250 °C until the bean color reached the targeted roast levels. The contents of acrolein, acrylamide and 16 PAHs in the roasted beans were determined; only acrylamide and 5 PAHs were nevertheless found. SHS roasting interestingly resulted in lower acrylamide contents in dark-roasted beans; similar trend was noted in the beans medium-roasted at 250 °C. The contents of three-ring PAHs, namely fluorene, phenanthrene and anthracene, in dark-roasted beans were significantly lower upon SHS roasting at 250 °C.

Contents of key bioactive and detrimental compounds in health performance coffees compared to conventional types of coffees sold in the United States market

The United States is the largest coffee consuming country worldwide. Recently, in addition to cup quality, the focus on health promotion has increased significantly in the country, with launching of many brands with health claims, mainly highlighting the antioxidative and stimulating properties of the beverage. On the other hand, mycotoxins and, to a lesser extent, acrylamide, have raised concerns among consumers and health authorities. This study investigated the contents of the main bioactive compounds (caffeine, chlorogenic acids and their 1,5-γ-quinolactones, and trigonelline) in health performance coffees and compared them to those of conventional roasted coffees available on the U.S. market. The following categories were compared by ANOVA at p ≤ 0.05, followed by Fisher's test: 1 - health performance, 2 - gourmet and 3 - traditional, totaling 127 samples. As complementary results, the contents of acrylamide and ochratoxin A were evaluated in part of the samples (n = 58). The mean contents (g per 100 g) of bioactive compounds for categories 1 to 3, respectively, were 1.09, 1.11 and 1.07 for caffeine; 1.75, 1.88 and 1.34 for chlorogenic acids/lactones, and 0.63, 0.64 and 0.56 for trigonelline. The mean contents (μg kg-1) of acrylamide for categories 1 to 3, respectively, were 82, 71 and 85. Only about 7% of the evaluated samples presented quantifiable amounts of OTA and all of them were within the maximum limits established by health authorities. In general, the contents of bioactive and potentially harmful compounds were not consistently different among categories, with high and low individual amounts in all of them. Most health claims on labels related to the amount of bioactive compounds in health performance coffees were unjustified, suggesting the need for improvement in coffee labeling regulation in the U.S.

Optimization of the roasting conditions to lower acrylamide content and improve the nutrient composition and antioxidant properties of Coffea arabica

Roasting is the most common method of processing coffee. During roasting, aromatic compounds are generated due to various reactions, which are important for developing color, flavor and aroma. Acrylamide is an undesirable carcinogenic substance that is metabolically activated and formed during the coffee roasting process. Coffea arabica was first found in Ethiopia, and Ethiopia can produce a large volume of coffee. The major coffee-producing areas in Ethiopia are Hararghe, Sidama, Gimbi/Nekemte, Yergachefe and Limu. The primary purpose of this study was to quantify the acrylamide contents of brewed and roasted coffee collected from street coffee sellers and industrial processors found in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, and optimize the roasting conditions for Sidama coffee. The acrylamide contents were determined by HPLC using a DAD at 210 nm, the antioxidant property were examined using a UV-spectrophotometer, and moisture and nutrient composition of coffee was determined using the method described by the AOAC (Association of Official Analytical Chemists). The roasting temperature and time were optimized based on the acrylamide content, nutritional composition and antioxidant property of the coffee using central composite design. The roasting temperature and time significantly affected (p<0.05) the acrylamide level, nutritional composition and antioxidant property of the coffee. The acrylamide contents of street and industrial processed powdered coffee were 346 ±19 to 701±38μg/kg and 442±14 to 906±7μg/kg, respectively. Brewed coffee from street vendors and industrial processing had acrylamide contents of 25±2 to 49±1μg/L and 63±2 to 89±4μg/L, respectively. The EC50 values for scavenging radicals for the optimized coffee ranged from 171±0 to 111±4 μg/L. The optimal roasting temperature and time were 190°C and 6 minutes, at this temperature and time the acrylamide content decreased, and the antioxidant and nutritional compositions of the coffee improved.

The effect of superfine tea powder addition on the acrylamide content of innovative Xinjiang nang products (tea nang)

In the present study, tea variety and proportions and tea nang production conditions were optimised to improve tea nang flavour, and dynamic changes in polyphenols and acrylamide content were determined. Orthogonal experimental design was adopted to optimise processing of low-acrylamide tea nang through a multi-index integrated evaluation method (MIEM) and a single-index balanced evaluation method (SBEM). Tea nang acrylamide content, polyphenol content and flavour quality were analysed by HPLC, colorimetry and sensory evaluation, respectively. A 180°C baking temperature, 7% matcha tea powder (MTP) content and 11 min of baking time were optimum. From the 11 kinds of tea from four categories, tea nang with 7% Biluochun tea powder exhibited the best comprehensive quality: decreased acrylamide, increased polyphenols, and the highest sensory scores (11.55 μg/kg, 6.1 mg/g and 92, respectively). This tea nang exhibited flavour senses of harmony, a strong tea flavour, and slight sweetness in back.

Acrylamide content of collected food products from Tehran's market: a risk assessment study

Acrylamide concentration in food products collected from the Tehran market was investigated by the aid of a dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction (DLLME) system coupled with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Also, the dietary exposure distribution and related potential risk for acrylamide ingestion were estimated by the Monte Carlo simulation (MCS). The highest and lowest mean concentration of acrylamide was detected in coffee and roasted nuts samples as 549 and 133 μg/kg, respectively. The mean acrylamide dietary exposure values for children (3-10 years), adolescents (11-17 years), adults (18-60 years), and seniors (61-96 years) were estimated to be 1.81, 1.02, 0.61, and 0.53 μg/kg body weight (BW)/day, respectively. In all age groups, except children, the estimated exposure in men and boys was higher than that in women and girls. Bread, despite containing low acrylamide content groups (157 μg/kg while compared with other, except roasted nuts), showed with the highest contribution rate in all age groups due to its high consumption rate. The estimated incremental lifetime cancer risk (ILCR) for all age groups was noted as greater than 10^-4 indicating serious risk to the population. Moreover, the margin of exposure (MOE) values based on carcinogenicity showed health concern to all age groups (< 10,000). Regarding the non-carcinogenic risk, the target hazard quotient (THQ) was lower than 1, and MOE based on neurotoxicity was higher than 125 (safety thresholds), which represented negligible and ignorable risk in all age groups except in a small group of children and adolescents. Graphical abstract.

Strawberry-like SiO2/Ag nanocomposites immersed filter paper as SERS substrate for acrylamide detection

In this work, based on the strawberry-like SiO₂/Ag nanocomposites (SANC) immersed filter paper, a newly surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) substrate was constructed for the detection of acrylamide (AAm) in food products. To construct filter paper-based SANC (F-SANC) SERS substrates, SiO₂ nanoparticles (SNP) were firstly synthesized and acted as carriers. After that, the in-situ preparation of silver nanoparticles (Ag NP) on SNP surface was carried out to form the strawberry-like three-dimensional (3D) structure of SANC. Finally, SANC were entangled into the filter paper to produce nanoarchitecture, thus providing enhanced plasmon resonance between SANC with strong SERS signal. Under the optimized conditions, the method exhibited good performance toward AAm with a vast linear response from 0.1 nM to 50 μM (R = 0.9935), limit of detection (LOD) of 0.02 nM (S/N = 3), and the recoveries of 80.5%~105.6% for practical samples. This strategy showed good robustness in the rapid and sensitive detection of AAm, which could be a promising strategy in food analysis and verification.

Simultaneous Determination of Acrylamide and 5-Hydroxymethylfurfural in Heat-Processed Foods Employing Enhanced Matrix Removal-Lipid as a New Dispersive Solid-Phase Extraction Sorbent Followed by Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry

The goal of this study was to develop a method for simultaneous determination of acrylamide (AA) and 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (5-HMF) in heat-processed foods by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry analysis. Several cleanup methods for the quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged, and safe (QuEChERS) protocol were investigated and compared: (a) dispersive solid-phase extraction (d-SPE) with Enhanced Matrix Removal-Lipid (EMR-Lipid), (b) d-SPE with primary secondary amine, (c) without the cleanup step, and (d) cleanup with n-hexane. It is the first time that EMR-Lipid sorbent has been used as a d-SPE material to detect AA and 5-HMF in heat-processed foods, and among the four cleanup methods, the EMR-Lipid method provided the best cleanup of co-extracted matrix interferences and the highest extraction efficiency. Validation experiments were carried out for the method using EMR-Lipid as the d-SPE sorbent. Excellent linearity ( R² > 0.999) was achieved, and the limits of detection (LODs) of AA and 5-HMF were 2.5 and 12.5 μg/kg, respectively. The recoveries of AA and 5-HMF levels obtained were in the ranges of 87.3-103.3 and 83.2-104.3%, with precision [relative standard deviations (RSDs)] of 1.2-6.8 and 1.4-7.4% ( n = 3), respectively. The method is accurate and reliable and was successfully applied to analyze the AA and 5-HMF in eight categories of Chinese heat-processed foods.

Asparaginase conjugated magnetic nanoparticles used for reducing acrylamide formation in food model system

Acrylamide is a potent carcinogen and neurotoxin formed by the Maillard reaction when l-asparagine reacts with starch at high temperature. It is formed in food materials mainly deep fried and bakery products. Enzymatic pretreatment of these food products with asparaginase enzyme leads to reduction in acrylamide. However, enzymatic process is quite expensive due to high cost, low catalytic efficiency as well as problem with enzyme reusability. Present work deals with these problems by exploring l-asparaginase from Bacillus aryabhattai. Asparaginase enzyme was immobilized on APTES modified magnetic nanoparticles. It was found to be more than three-fold increase their thermal stability from free enzyme and retained 90% activity after fifth cycle. The immobilized enzyme also showed better affinity towards its substrate. During pretreatment of asparagine in a starch-asparagine food model system and it was clearly demonstrated that asparaginase nanoconjugates had reduced the formation of acrylamide by more than 90% within 30 min.