Hen egg carotenoids (lutein and zeaxanthin) and nutritional impacts on human health: a review

Early-Life Silver Spoon Improves Survival and Breeding Performance of Adult Zebra Finches

AbstractDevelopmental plasticity allows organisms to increase the fit between their phenotype and their early-life environment. The extent to which such plasticity also enhances adult fitness is not well understood, however, particularly when early-life and adult environments differ substantially. Using a cross-factorial design that manipulated diet at two life stages, we examined predictions of major hypotheses-silver spoon, environmental matching, and thrifty phenotype-concerning the joint impacts of early-life and adult diets on adult morphology/display traits, survival, and reproductive allocation. Overall, results aligned with the silver spoon hypothesis, which makes several predictions based on the premise that development in poor-quality environments constrains adult performance. Males reared and bred on a low-protein diet had lower adult survivorship than other male treatment groups; females' survivorship was higher than males' and not impacted by early diet. Measures of allocation to reproduction primarily reflected breeding diet, but where natal diet impacted reproduction, results supported the silver spoon. Both sexes showed reduced expression of display traits when reared on a low-protein diet. Results accord with other studies in supporting the relevance of the silver spoon hypothesis to birds and point to significant ramifications of sex differences in early-life viability selection on the applicability/strength of silver spoon effects.

Effects of supplementation of different selenium sources on lipid profile, selenium, and vitamin E concentration of yolk

Egg preference as a source of protein also provides beneficial fatty acids, vital for human consumption. However, rich in lipid products are prone to oxidative damage. The study aims to determine the effect of supplementing biogenic selenium (Se) from Stenotrophomonas maltophilia, ADS18 (ADS18) in laying hens' diet on yolk lipid oxidation status (MDA), beta-carotene (β-carotene) content, cholesterol, fatty acids, Se, and vitamin E (VE) level. A total of one hundred and twenty (120) laying hens of Lohmann Brown strains aged 50 weeks, weighing 1500 to 2000 g were reared individually in A-shape two-tier stainless-steel cages sized 30 cm x 50 cm x 40 cm (width, depth height). The hens were randomly allotted into four treatments with six replications in a complete randomised design for the period of 12 weeks. The basal diet contains 100 mg/kg VE. Treatment diets consist of basal diet as control, SS containing 0.3 mg/kg sodium selenite, Se-yeast containing 0.3 mg/kg selenised yeast, and VADS18 containing 0.3 mg/kg of ADS18. Forty-eight eggs were collected and freeze-dried biweekly for analysis. The results of the present study showed that hens supplemented ADS18 had significantly (P < 0.05) lower MDA and cholesterol levels while their egg yolks had higher levels of Se and mono-unsaturated fatty acids (MUFA). The control group had significantly (P < 0.05) higher saturated fatty acid (SFA) contents than the VE and dietary Se-supplemented groups, while the ADS18 group had the lowest SFA contents. Conversely, in comparison to the inorganic and control groups, the VE content of the egg yolk was significantly (P < 0.05) higher in organic Se-supplemented (Se-yeast and VADS18) groups. Hens with SS supplementation had significantly (P < 0.05) higher egg yolk β-carotene content. When compared to other treatment groups, the control group had higher (P < 0.05) polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) content. The ADS18 is therefore deemed comparable to other Se sources. To prevent Se toxicity, however, a better understanding of the levels of ADS18 incorporation in poultry diets is required.

Lutein and Zeaxanthin Content in 21 Plant Species from a Very Humid Premontane Forest in Colombia Palatable for Free-Range Laying Hens

Xanthophylls, such as lutein and zeaxanthin, have several functions in both plants and humans, including detoxification of oxidants (reactive oxygen species (ROS) and other radicals), maintenance of the structural and functional integrity of biological membranes, and photoprotection from intense light damage. The objective of the present study was to investigate the lutein and zeaxanthin content of 21 species of plants from a very humid premontane forest in Colombia during both dry and rainy seasons. The plants were selected based on being voluntarily eaten by laying hens under free-range conditions. Lutein and zeaxanthin were identified and quantified by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The results showed that all plants tested contained lutein, at levels ranging from 65.7 to 350 µg/g. Zeaxanthin levels were much lower (2.2 to 26.2 µg/lg) and were detected in only 5 of the 21 plants analyzed. Given that the lutein content of the plants tested in the present study was found to be comparable to that reported in marigold flowers (4-800 µg/g), it is possible that these plants can be used as a source of lutein in free-range laying hen production systems.

Carotenoid enrichment in eggs: From biochemistry perspective

The emergence of safe and functional eggs for consumer acceptance has gained focus. The production of carotenoid-enriched eggs has received attention due to its multifunctional biological properties. Nutritional modification of laying hens' diet can be a strategy to produce such eggs. This review presents the chemistry of carotenoids in nature and eggs, the accumulation process of carotenoids into eggs, and the functions of carotenoids in eggs. Our findings showed that carotenoids can be deposited into the egg and contribute to improving its nutritive value. The biosynthesis, chemical structure, and metabolism pathways of carotenoids lead to the deposition of carotenoids into eggs in their original or metabolized forms. Also, some factors modulate the efficiency of carotenoids in fowls before accumulation into eggs. Carotenoid-enriched eggs may be promising, ensuring the availability of highly nutritive eggs. However, further studies are still needed to comprehend the full metabolism process and the extensive functions of carotenoids in eggs.

Circadian Modulation of the Antioxidant Effect of Grape Consumption: A Randomized Controlled Trial

Grape consumption acts on the immune system to produce antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects. Since immune activity demonstrates circadian rhythmicity, with peak activity occurring during waking hours, the timing of grape intake may influence the magnitude of its antioxidant effect. This study followed a 2 × 2 factorial randomized, controlled design wherein healthy men and women (n = 32) consumed either a grape or placebo drink with a high-fat meal in the morning or evening. Urine was collected for measurements of biomarkers of oxidative stress and grape metabolites at baseline and post-meal at hour 1 and hours 1-6. F-2 isoprostane levels showed main effects of time period (baseline < hour 1 < hours 1-6, p < 0.0001), time (a.m. > p.m., p = 0.008) and treatment (placebo > grape, p = 0.05). Total F2-isoprostane excretion expressed as % baseline was higher in the a.m. vs. p.m. (p = 0.004) and in the a.m. placebo vs. all other groups (p < 0.05). Tartaric acid and resveratrol excretion levels were higher in the grape vs. placebo group (p < 0.05) but were not correlated with F-2 isoprostane levels. The findings support a protective effect of grape consumption against morning sensitivity to oxidative stress.

Trends in functional beverages: Functional ingredients, processing technologies, stability, health benefits, and consumer perspective

The World Health Organization's emphasis on the health benefits of functional foods and beverages that has contributed to the rise in its popularity globally. Besides these consumers have become more aware of the importance of their food composition and nutrition. Among the fastest-growing market segments within the functional food industries, the functional drinks market focuses on fortified beverages or products that are novel with improved bioavailability of bioactive compounds, and their implicated health benefits. The bioactive ingredients in functional beverages include phenolic compounds, minerals, vitamins, amino acids, peptides, unsaturated fatty acids, etc. which can be obtained from plant, animal and microorganisms. The types of functional beverages which are globally intensifying the markets are pre-/pro-biotics, beauty drinks, cognitive and immune system enhancers, energy and sports drink produced via several thermal and non-thermal processes. Researchers are focusing on improving the stability of the active compounds by encapsulation, emulsion, and high-pressure homogenization techniques to strengthen the positive consumer perspective in functional beverages. However, more research is needed in terms of bioavailability, consumer safety, and sustainability of the process. Hence, product development, storage stability, and sensory properties of these products are vital for consumer acceptance. This review focuses on the recent trends and developments in the functional beverages industry. The review provides a critical discussion on diverse functional ingredients, bioactive sources, production processes, emerging process technologies, improvement in the stability of ingredients and bioactive compounds. This review also outlines the global market and consumer perception of functional beverages with the future perspective and scope.

Algal Carotenoids: Chemistry, Sources, and Application

Recently, the isolation and identification of various biologically active secondary metabolites from algae have been of scientific interest, with particular attention paid to carotenoids, widely distributed in various photosynthetic organisms, including algal species. Carotenoids are among the most important natural pigments, with many health-promoting effects. Since the number of scientific studies on the presence and profile of carotenoids in algae has increased exponentially along with the interest in their potential commercial applications, this review aimed to provide an overview of the current knowledge (from 2015) on carotenoids detected in different algal species (12 microalgae, 21 green algae, 26 brown algae, and 43 red algae) to facilitate the comparison of the results of different studies. In addition to the presence, content, and identification of total and individual carotenoids in various algae, the method of their extraction and the main extraction parameters were also highlighted.

Egg yolk lipids: separation, characterization, and utilization

Egg yolk contains very high levels of lipids, which comprise 33% of whole egg yolk. Although triglyceride is the main lipid, egg yolk is the richest source of phospholipids and cholesterol in nature. The egg yolk phospholipids have a unique composition with high levels of phosphatidylcholine followed by phosphatidylethanolamine, sphingomyelin, plasmalogen, and phosphatidylinositol. All the egg yolk lipids are embedded inside the HDL and LDL micelles or granular particles. Egg yolk lipids can be easily extracted using solvents or supercritical extraction methods but their commercial applications of egg yolk lipids are limited. Egg yolk lipids have excellent potential as a food ingredient or cosmeceutical, pharmaceutical, and nutraceutical agents because they have excellent functional and biological characteristics. This review summarizes the current knowledge on egg yolk lipids' extraction methods and functions and discusses their current and future use, which will be important to increase the use and value of the egg.

Recent advances in glycyrrhizin metabolism, health benefits, clinical effects and drug delivery systems for efficacy improvement; a comprehensive review

BACKGROUND

Glycyrrhizin (GL) is a major active constituent of licorice root (Glycyrrhiza glabra) that is considered one of the oldest and most frequently employed botanicals in Chinese medicine and worldwide, with most effects attributed to its rich GL content. Structurally, GL a triterpene saponin that is widely used as a flavoring agent in foodstuffs and cosmetics, and also proposed for various clinical applications with a myriad of health benefits. Pharmacological and biological activities of GL include antiviral, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anticancer activities (in vitro and in vivo). Currently, there is no comprehensive review on GL biological effects and its action mechanisms.

PURPOSE

This review summarizes GL pharmacological actions from a molecular biology perception, presented on its metabolism and side effects based on in vitro, in vitro and clinical studies. Moreover, the potential of GL as a nanomedicine delivery system is also summarized. The progress in drug delivery research using GL presented herein is expected to provide a theoretical basis for developing other novel drugs formulations.

METHODS

A systematic review was carried out in several electronic databases (Science Direct, SpringerLink, CNKI, PubMed, Web of Science, Elsevier, and Scopus), using the following key words: glycyrrhizin "AND" bioactivity "OR" clinic "OR" therapeutic "OR" drug delivery. This search included manuscripts published between 1989 and 2021.

RESULTS

126 researches were selected and summarized in this review. The analysis of these studies indicated that GL has antiviral activity against different viruses. Further, GL efficiently suppressed the respiratory manifestations associated with COVID-19 by reducing the expression of angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) that employed by the virus as an entry point. Otherwise, GL was found to induce antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, immune-modulatory, and anticancer activity. Besides, diminution the particle size of GL to nanometer size significantly augments their action and biodistribution.

CONCLUSION

This article summarizes the pharmacological actions of GL. The potential of GL as a nanomedicine delivery system is also presented. Nevertheless, most studies reported provide no deep insight of GL health effects warranting for more future studies to elucidate its action mechanism and potential therapeutic benefits through preclinical and clinical trials.

Egg Yolk Oil as a Plasticizer for Polylactic Acid Films

Polylactic acid (PLA) is known to be one of the most extensively used biodegradable thermoplastic polyesters, with the potential to replace conventional petroleum-based packaging materials; however, the low flexibility of films prepared using PLA has limited the applications of this biopolymer. In this study, in order to improve the mechanical properties of PLA films and to provide them with antioxidant properties, egg yolk oil was used as a biobased plasticizer. For this purpose, PLA films with increasing concentrations of egg yolk oil were prepared and the effects of this oil on the light transmission, transparency, colour, water vapour permeability, solubility, antioxidant activity and mechanical properties of the films were characterized. In addition, electron microscopy of the structure of the transverse section of the films was also performed. Results showed that the formulations with higher concentrations of egg yolk oil increased the films’ elasticity, and their light barrier and antioxidant properties. Finally, in order to test the films as a packaging material for food applications, extra virgin olive oil and resveratrol, both photosensitive compounds, were packed and exposed to ambient light. Overall, the results show the potential of egg yolk oil as an environmentally friendly plasticizer that can improve the flexibility of PLA films and provide them with additional photoprotective properties.

Cultivation and Biorefinery of Microalgae (Chlorella sp.) for Producing Biofuels and Other Byproducts: A Review

Microalgae-based carbon dioxide (CO2) biofixation and biorefinery are the most efficient methods of biological CO2 reduction and reutilization. The diversification and high-value byproducts of microalgal biomass, known as microalgae-based biorefinery, are considered the most promising platforms for the sustainable development of energy and the environment, in addition to the improvement and integration of microalgal cultivation, scale-up, harvest, and extraction technologies. In this review, the factors influencing CO2 biofixation by microalgae, including microalgal strains, flue gas, wastewater, light, pH, temperature, and microalgae cultivation systems are summarized. Moreover, the biorefinery of Chlorella biomass for producing biofuels and its byproducts, such as fine chemicals, feed additives, and high-value products, are also discussed. The technical and economic assessments (TEAs) and life cycle assessments (LCAs) are introduced to evaluate the sustainability of microalgae CO2 fixation technology. This review provides detailed insights on the adjusted factors of microalgal cultivation to establish sustainable biological CO2 fixation technology, and the diversified applications of microalgal biomass in biorefinery. The economic and environmental sustainability, and the limitations and needs of microalgal CO2 fixation, are discussed. Finally, future research directions are provided for CO2 reduction by microalgae.

The effect of soil biostimulant Agriful on the selected quantitative and qualitative parameters of carrot (Daucus carota subsp. sativus (Hoffm.) Arcang.)

The research task was focused on an important type of root vegetable – carrot (Daucus carota L.), cultivar ´Romance F1´ (family: Apiaceae). The main goal was to verify the application of soil biostimulant Agriful (based on humic and fulvic acids) and its impact on the yield potential and quality of carrot roots. Nowadays, it is the common need to intensify and increase crop production because of the growing human population and look for environmentally friendly cultivation methods. In general, biostimulants are biologically based products and their purpose is to stimulate the natural nutritional processes in cultivated crops. In the realized experiment, Agriful (treatment of 5 L/300 L water/ha) was applied twice per vegetation period by spraying over the pivot. The increase of average root weight after the application of Agriful was found, concretely about +4.47% compared to the control variant. The higher root weight after Agriful application resulted in a higher total yield of carrot about +2.84% compared to the control variant. The quality of consumable parts of carrots were evaluated based on the classification of roots into quality classes according to the valid standard for fresh carrot marketing (UNECE FFV-10). In the ´Extra class´, there was an increase in the average yield after the application of Agriful about +5.4%; The average carrot yield in ´Class I´ was decreased about -1.0% and the root ratio in the ´Class II´ decreased about -1.9%. The ratio of ´Non-standard´ carrot roots was lower about -2.5%. Based on evaluating qualitative substance content (total carotenoids, refractometric dry matter), the positive influence of the effect of Agriful application was found. The content of total carotenoids was higher about +8.7% compared to the control variant. The refractometric dry matter was higher about +4.1% compared to the control variant. The obtained results can be used in further research on biostimulants and it is possible to create clear recommendations for using Agriful for small growers. It should be useful to verify these results in another vegetation period for recommendation to large-scale producers of carrots.

Egg consumption and health effects: A narrative review

This study was planned and conducted to investigate the effects of egg consumption on metabolic syndrome components and potential mechanisms of action on humans. Egg, an important source of animal protein, is defined as a functional food containing various bioactive compounds that can affect the proinflammatory and anti-inflammatory pathways. As a matter of fact, the egg can show immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anticancer, or antihypertensive effects with its bioactive components. It is claimed that egg consumption may protect individuals against metabolic syndrome by increasing HDL-C levels and reducing inflammation. The increase in egg consumption creates the perception that it may lead to cardiovascular diseases due to its cholesterol content. However, there is insufficient evidence as to whether dietary cholesterol-lowers LDL-C. The possible potential mechanisms of egg impact on human health, MEDLINE, Embase, the Cochrane Central, www.ClinicalTrials.gov, PubMed, Science Direct, Google Scholar, and selected websites including) and databases were examined in this regard. With a view to delving into the rather mysterious relationship between egg cholesterol and blood cholesterol, it is necessary to understand the absorption of cholesterol from the egg and to know the functioning of the intestinal microbiota. Studies conducted to date have generally yielded inconsistent results regarding egg consumption and risks of CVD, diabetes, and metabolic syndrome.

Increasing Quantity and Internal Quality of Japanese Quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica) Eggs by Shooting Laser Puncture at Reproductive Acupuncture Points

This study aims to determine the effect of laser puncture shooting on the reproductive acupuncture points of Japanese quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica) egg quantity (egg production) and internal egg quality (Haugh unit, yolk index, and yolk colour). This research was conducted for 30 days using a sample of Japanese quail aged 4 weeks because for the first 2 weeks, the quail did not produce and it was in production in the last 2 weeks. There were 4 treatments and 25 replications each. So, there were a total of 100 quails. Laser puncture shooting was carried out at 3-day intervals at the Ova point and 6-day intervals at Hu Men, Bei Ji, and Wei Gen points. So, on the first day, laser puncture shooting was carried out at 4 points, on the 4th day, only at 1 point, and then, on the 7th day, it returned to 4 points. And so, it was carried out for 4 weeks. T0 (-) was considered as a negative control because quails are not given laser puncture shooting; T0 (+) was considered as a positive control because quails are treated with laser puncture shooting which is deactivated or a dose of 0 Joule; T1 was a group treated with laser puncture shooting at a dose of 0.2 Joule, and T2 was a group treated with laser puncture shooting at a dose of 0.5 Joule. Then, the research results were analyzed using Analysis of Variance and followed by Duncan's Multiple Range Test. Laser puncture shooting at the reproductive acupuncture point of Japanese quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica) can increase the quantity of eggs (p < 0.05). While the results of the egg internal quality in the form of the Haugh unit value and the yolk index increased (p < 0.05), the value of the yolk colour did not change compared to the control (p > 0.05). Laser puncture shooting at the reproductive acupuncture point of Japanese quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica) can increase egg quantity (egg production) and internal egg quality (Haugh unit and yolk index) with the best dose of 0.5 Joule.

Genome-Wide Association Study-Based Identification of SNPs and Haplotypes Associated With Goose Reproductive Performance and Egg Quality

Geese are one of the most economically important waterfowl. However, the low reproductive performance and egg quality of geese hinder the development of the goose industry. The identification and application of genetic markers may improve the accuracy of beneficial trait selection. To identify the genetic markers associated with goose reproductive performance and egg quality traits, we performed a genome-wide association study (GWAS) for body weight at birth (BBW), the number of eggs at 48 weeks of age (EN48), the number of eggs at 60 weeks of age (EN60) and egg yolk color (EYC). The GWAS acquired 2.896 Tb of raw sequencing data with an average depth of 12.44× and identified 9,279,339 SNPs. The results of GWAS showed that 26 SNPs were significantly associated with BBW, EN48, EN60, and EYC. Moreover, five of these SNPs significantly associated with EN48 and EN60 were in a haplotype block on chromosome 35 from 4,512,855 to 4,541,709 bp, oriented to TMEM161A and another five SNPs significantly correlated to EYC were constructed in haplotype block on chromosome 5 from 21,069,009 to 21,363,580, which annotated by TMEM161A, CALCR, TFPI2, and GLP1R. Those genes were enriched in epidermal growth factor-activated receptor activity, regulation of epidermal growth factor receptor signaling pathway. The SNPs, haplotype markers, and candidate genes identified in this study can be used to improve the accuracy of marker-assisted selection for the reproductive performance and egg quality traits of geese. In addition, the candidate genes significantly associated with these traits may provide a foundation for better understanding the mechanisms underlying reproduction and egg quality in geese.

The colorful world of carotenoids: a profound insight on therapeutics and recent trends in nano delivery systems

The therapeutic effects of carotenoids as dietary supplements to control or even treat some specific diseases including diabetic retinopathy, cardiovascular diseases, bacterial infections, as well as breast, prostate, and skin cancer are discussed in this review and also thoughts on future research for their widespread use are emphasized. From the stability standpoint, carotenoids have low bioavailability and bioaccessibility owing to their poor water solubility, deterioration in the presence of environmental stresses such as oxygen, light, and high heat as well as rapid degradation during digestion. Nanoencapsulation technologies as wall or encapsulation materials have been increasingly used for improving food product functionality. Nanoencapsulation is a versatile process employed for the protection, entrapment, and the delivery of food bioactive products including carotenoids from diverse environmental conditions for extended shelf lives and for providing controlled release. Therefore, we present here, recent (mostly during the last five years) nanoencapsulation methods of carotenoids with various nanocarriers. To us, this review can be considered as the first highlighting not only the potential therapeutic effects of carotenoids on various diseases but also their most effective nanodelivery systems.HighlightsBioactive compounds are of deep interest to improve food properties.Carotenoids (such as β-carotene and xanthophylls) play indispensable roles in maintaining human health and well-being.A substantial research effort has been carried out on developing beneficial nanodelivery systems for various carotenoids.Nanoencapsulation of carotenoids can enhance their functional properties.Stable nanoencapsulated carotenoids could be utilized in food products.

Age of Laying Hens Significantly Influences the Content of Nutritionally Vital Lipophilic Compounds in Eggs

This study aimed to comparatively analyze the carotenoids, tocopherols, fatty acids, and sterols (e.g., cholesterol) in the eggs of laying hens of early (24 weeks), intermediate (42 weeks), and late age (74 weeks), utilizing high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), gas chromatography (GC), and GC–mass spectrometry (MS). The results revealed the significantly (p < 0.05) highest content of nutritionally vital compounds (per g of egg yolk, fresh weight), which included (all-E-)-lutein (21.8 µg), (all-E-)-zeaxanthin (13.4 µg), α-tocopherol (76.5 µg), oleic acid (C18:1n9c; 83.3 mg), α-linolenic acid (C18:3n3; 0.68 mg), γ-linolenic acid (C18:3n6; 0.47 mg), arachidonic acid (C20:4n6; 8.11 mg), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA; C22:6n3; 2.06 mg), and total monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs; 94.7 mg) and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs; 2.74 mg) in the eggs of early-age laying hens compared to intermediate and late-age. Surprisingly, cholesterol was not significantly different in the eggs obtained from the different age groups. In contrast, the fat quality indices, including the lowest atherogenic index (AI) and thrombogenic index (TI) values and high hypocholesterolemic/hypercholesterolemic (h/H) fatty acid ratio, indicated the health-beneficial potential associated with fat intake from the eggs of intermediate and late-age laying hens. Overall, the results of the present investigation suggest that eggs from early-age laying hens can be recommended for a higher intake of antioxidant carotenoids and tocopherols, while the eggs from intermediate and late-age hens can be recommended for the intake of good quality fats.

Loading of lutein in egg-sphingomyelin vesicles as lipid carriers: Thermotropic phase behaviour, structure of sphingosome membranes and lutein crystals

Lutein is a xanthophyll carotenoid provided exclusively by the diet, that has protective functions and beneficial effects on human health. Supplementation in lutein is necessary to reach the recommended daily dietary intake. However, the introduction of lutein into foods and beverages is a real challenge since this lipophilic nutrient has a poor aqueous solubility and a low bioavailability. In this study, we investigated the capacity of egg-sphingomyelin (ESM) vesicles called sphingosomes to solubilise lutein into the bilayers. The thermal and structural properties of ESM bilayers were examined in presence of various amounts of lutein by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and temperature-controlled X-ray diffraction (XRD), the structures of sphingosomes and lutein crystals were observed by microscopic techniques. ESM bilayers were in the fluid L_α phase above the phase transition temperature T_m = 39.6 °C and in the lamellar ripple P_β' phase below T_m where ESM sphingosomes exhibited ondulations and were facetted. Lutein molecules were successfully incorporated into the ESM bilayers where they induced a structural disorganisation. For ESM/lutein 90/10 %mol (91.8/8.2 %wt; 89 mg lutein / g ESM), lutein partitioning occured with the formation of lutein crystals in the aqueous phase together with lutein-loaded ESM vesicles. This study highlighted the capacity of new lipid carriers such as egg-sphingosomes to solubilise lutein and opens perspectives for the formulation of effective lutein-fortified functionnal foods and beverages providing health benefits.

Ameliorating process parameters for zeaxanthin yield in Arthrobacter gandavensis MTCC 25325

The present study aims to escalate the production of prophylactic agent zeaxanthin using a screened potential bacterial isolate. For this purpose, a freshwater bacterium capable of producing zeaxanthin was isolated from Bor Talav, Bhavnagar. The 16S rRNA sequence confirmed the isolate as Arthrobacter gandavensis. The bacterium was also submitted to Microbial Type Culture Collection, CSIR-Institute of Microbial Technology, Chandigarh, India, with the accession number MTCC 25325. The chemo-metric tools were employed to optimise the influencing factors such as pH, temperature, inoculum size, agitation speed, carbon source and harvest time on zeaxanthin yield. Thereafter, six parameters were narrowed down to three factors and were optimised using the central composite design (CCD) matrix. Maximum zeaxanthin (1.51 mg/g) was derived when A. gandavensis MTCC 25325 was grown under pH 6.0, 1.5% (w/v) glucose and 10% (v/v) inoculum size. A high regression coefficient (R²= 0.92) of the developed model indicated the accurateness of the tested parameters. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report on tailoring the process parameters using chemo-metric optimisation for escalating the zeaxanthin production by A. gandavensis MTCC 25325.

Biological Activities of Egg Yolk Lipids: A Review

As one of six dietary nutrients, lipid derived from different food matrices has been extensively studied and has an appropriate application in food, medicine, and cosmetic industry. Egg is a richly nutritive food, of which proteins and lipids possess excellent functional characteristics and biological activities. In recent years, egg yolk lipid has been successively separated and investigated, such as egg yolk oil, phospholipids, and fatty acids, which have anti-inflammatory activity, antioxidant activity, cardiovascular protection, and memory improvement, involving the regulation of cell function and physiological homeostatic balance. In this paper, the biological activities and underlying benefit of egg yolk lipids and fat-soluble components have been highlighted and summarized. Meanwhile, the quantitative data of egg yolk lipids needed to achieve any of the described biological effects and recommended concentrations relevant for dietary intake are reviewed. Finally, current challenges and crucial issues of high-efficiency utilization of egg yolk lipids are also discussed.

Effects of dietary alfalfa protein concentrate supplementation on performance, egg quality, and fatty acid composition of raw, freeze-dried, and hard-boiled eggs from Polbar laying hens

The aim of this study was to determine the effect of addition of alfalfa protein concentrate (APC) at the dose of 15 g or 30 g per 1 kg of complete feed ration for the native Polbar breed on selected production traits and the fatty acid profile in the yolk of raw, hard-boiled or freeze-dried eggs. Laying hens were assigned randomly to 3 experimental groups, each comprising 30 birds. The control group received a standard diet without the APC addition and the experimental groups received APC, which partially replaced postextraction soybean meal. Egg laying performance, feed intake, and feed conversion ratio were controlled throughout the experiment. At 33 wk of age, 45 eggs were randomly selected for assessment of the quality of the egg content and eggshell, and 30 eggs were taken for each of the cooking and freeze-drying treatments. The fatty acid composition was determined in the yolks of hard-boiled, freeze-dried, and raw eggs. There was no effect of the APC addition on the laying performance, feed intake and feed conversion ratio, and a majority of egg quality traits. Hens fed with the APC laid eggs with a darker colored eggshell and yolk and a slightly lower breaking strength. The yolks in the eggs from hens receiving the APC addition were characterized by distinctly higher content of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA). The group fed with a higher dose of APC produced eggs with a substantially lower level of saturated fatty acids (SFA). Boiling resulted in an increase in the SFA content and a decline in the level of PUFAs and carotenoids. Freeze-drying led to an increase in the total SFA content and a decrease in the level of n-3 PUFA. The APC addition to feed can replace the genetically modified soybean meal without reducing the values of production traits and egg quality and with a beneficial effect on the yolk color and fatty acid profile.

Effects of dietary fat source on lutein, zeaxanthin and total carotenoids content of the egg yolk in laying hens during the early laying period

1. The study was conducted to investigate the effects of different dietary levels of an unsaturated or saturated fat source and the effects of different dietary energy levels in laying hen diets on the carotenoid content of the egg yolk. 2. Seventy-two ISA Brown laying hens aged 22 weeks old were allocated, for a 10 week period, to three treatments: control diet (HE group) with a 3.4% supplemented fat containing 2.1% soybean and 1.3% palm oil as fat sources and a ratio of unsaturated to saturated fatty acid (u/s) of 3.33; a lowered energy diet with 2.4% supplemented fat containing 1.4% soybean and 1.0% palm oil and u/s of 3.41 (LE+high u/s); a lowered energy diet with 2.4% supplemented fat containing 0.5% soybean and 1.9% palm oil and a u/s of 2.39 (LE+low u/s). A marigold plant extract supplement was used as a source of lutein. 3. Performance parameters (feed consumption, feed conversion, body weight), egg production rate and egg quality parameters were similar between treatments. Dietary fat digestibility at the middle of the study period was not different. Egg yolk total fat content was similar in all treatments at the middle and at the end of the study period. 4. Lutein, zeaxanthin, cis-lutein and total carotenoids content were significantly lower in eggs produced from the LE+low u/s group compared to those from the HE and the LE+high u/s groups (P < 0.01 for all parameters). 5. It was concluded that feeding laying hens with a diet containing 1% less supplemented fat and a lower u/s ratio compared to a control diet and to a diet with 1% less supplemented fat with a higher u/s ratio resulted in a significant reduction of carotenoid expression in the egg yolk at the end of experimental period. Performance and egg quality parameters were not affected by treatments.

Macular carotenoids in lipid food matrices: DOE-based high energy extraction of egg yolk xanthophylls and quantification through a validated APCI(+) LC-MS/MS method

Lutein and zeaxanthin exhibit significant biological activities therefore their dietary intake through carotenoid-rich foods and supplements is strongly recommended as preventive approach. Hence their extraction from natural substrates targets to their commercial exploitation as nutraceuticals and ocular pharmaceuticals. Since carotenoids' bioavailability is higher in fat-containing substrates, egg yolk is considered an ideal food matrix. DOE-based optimization of novel high energy extraction practices achieves efficient recovery of xanthophylls from lipid sources. In this research, 2³ full factorial and Box-Behnken designs (BBD) were applied for optimizing ultrasound- (UAE) and microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) variables (i.e. extraction solvent, temperature, time, US or MW power and solvent/material ratio). LC-MS/MS results pointed out the precedence of UAE in lutein and zeaxanthin extraction, where higher yields were obtained with 1:1 n-hexane-acetone as solvent mixture at 19 min, 600 W and 35 mL g^-1. UAE carotenoid content was higher than MAE due to the different mechanisms laying behind the two processes and due to more complete granule rupture caused by higher US power. Evaluating the current results, DOE-based UAE analytical methodology stands out as an auspicious and sustainable alternative for commercial-based extraction of lipidic bioactive compounds for food and drug industrial applications.

Analysis of Lutein, Zeaxanthin, and Meso-Zeaxanthin in the Organs of Carotenoid-Supplemented Chickens

The macular carotenoids (i.e., lutein (L), zeaxanthin (Z) and meso-zeaxanthin (MZ)) exhibit anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and optical properties that are believed to support human health and function. Studying the accumulation and distribution of these nutrients in tissues and organs, in addition to the eye, is an important step in understanding how these nutrients might support global human function and health (e.g., heart and brain). Chicken is an appropriate animal model with which to study the accumulation of these carotenoids in organs, as the relevant transport molecules and carotenoid binding proteins for L, Z and MZ are present in both humans and chickens. In this experiment, a sample of 3 chickens that were supplemented with L and MZ diacetate (active group) and a sample of 3 chickens that received a standard diet (control group) were analysed. Both groups were analysed for L, Z and MZ concentrations in the brain, eyes, heart, lung, duodenum/pancreas, jejunum/ileum, kidney and breast tissue. L, Z and MZ were identified in all the organs/tissues analysed from the active group. L and Z were identified in all of the organs/tissues analysed from the control group; while, MZ was identified in the eyes of these animals only. The discovery that MZ is accumulated in the tissues and organs of chickens supplemented with this carotenoid is important, given that it is known that a combination of L, Z and MZ exhibits superior antioxidant capacity when compared to any of these carotenoids in isolation.

Carotenoids Production: A Healthy and Profitable Industry

Carotenoids relevance as natural pigments is mainly due to their uses as colorants, feed supplements, nutraceuticals and for medical, cosmetic, and biotechnological purposes. Since they have putative health beneficial effects, the demand and market of carotenoids are growing significantly. There is a diversity of natural and synthetic carotenoids, but only a few of them are commercially produced, including carotenes (β-carotene and lycopene) and xanthophylls (astaxanthin, canthaxanthin, lutein, zeaxanthin, and capsanthin). Some biotechnological processes for carotenoids production were established some years ago, but new strains and technologies are being developed nowadays for carotenoids widely in demand. This chapter shows a revision of the main carotenoids from a commercial point of view.