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Song J, Wang M, Zhou L, Tian P, Sun J, Sun Z, Guo C, Wu Y, Zhang G. A novel conserved B-cell epitope in pB602L of African swine fever virus. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2024; 108:78. [PMID: 38194141 PMCID: PMC10776737 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-023-12921-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2023] [Revised: 11/27/2023] [Accepted: 12/01/2023] [Indexed: 01/10/2024]
Abstract
African swine fever virus (ASFV) is a complex DNA virus and the only member of the Asfarviridae family. It causes high mortality and severe economic losses in pigs. The ASFV pB602L protein plays a key role in virus assembly and functions as a molecular chaperone of the major capsid protein p72. In addition, pB602L is an important target for the development of diagnostic tools for African swine fever (ASF) because it is a highly immunogenic antigen against ASFV. In this study, we expressed and purified ASFV pB602L and validated its immunogenicity in serum from naturally infected pigs with ASFV. Furthermore, we successfully generated an IgG2a κ subclass monoclonal antibody (mAb 7E7) against pB602L using hybridoma technology. Using western blot and immunofluorescence assays, mAb 7E7 specifically recognized the ASFV Pig/HLJ/2018/strain and eukaryotic recombinant ASFV pB602L protein in vitro. The 474SKENLTPDE482 epitope in the ASFV pB602L C-terminus was identified as the minimal linear epitope for mAb 7E7 binding, with dozens of truncated pB602l fragments characterized by western blot assay. We also showed that this antigenic epitope sequence has a high conservation and antigenic index. Our study contributes to improved vaccine and antiviral development and provides new insights into the serologic diagnosis of ASF. KEY POINTS: • We developed a monoclonal antibody against ASFV pB602L, which can specifically recognize the ASFV Pig/HLJ/2018/ strain. • This study found one novel conserved B-cell epitope 474SKENLTPDE482. • In the 3D structure, 474SKENLTPDE482 is exposed on the surface of ASFV pB602L, forming a curved linear structure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinxing Song
- International Joint Research Center of National Animal Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450046, China
| | - Mengxiang Wang
- International Joint Research Center of National Animal Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450046, China
| | - Lei Zhou
- International Joint Research Center of National Animal Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450046, China
| | - Panpan Tian
- International Joint Research Center of National Animal Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450046, China
| | - Junru Sun
- International Joint Research Center of National Animal Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450046, China
| | - Zhuoya Sun
- International Joint Research Center of National Animal Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450046, China
| | - Chenyun Guo
- International Joint Research Center of National Animal Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450046, China
| | - Yanan Wu
- International Joint Research Center of National Animal Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450046, China.
| | - Gaiping Zhang
- International Joint Research Center of National Animal Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450046, China.
- Longhu Laboratory, Zhengzhou, 450046, China.
- Agriculture Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, China.
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Ruedas-Torres I, Thi to Nga B, Salguero FJ. Pathogenicity and virulence of African swine fever virus. Virulence 2024; 15:2375550. [PMID: 38973077 PMCID: PMC11232652 DOI: 10.1080/21505594.2024.2375550] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2024] [Accepted: 06/28/2024] [Indexed: 07/09/2024] Open
Abstract
African swine fever (ASF) is a devastating disease with a high impact on the pork industry worldwide. ASF virus (ASFV) is a very complex pathogen, the sole member of the family Asfaviridae, which induces a state of immune suppression in the host through infection of myeloid cells and apoptosis of lymphocytes. Moreover, haemorrhages are the other main pathogenic effect of ASFV infection in pigs, related to the infection of endothelial cells, as well as the activation and structural changes of this cell population by proinflammatory cytokine upregulation within bystander monocytes and macrophages. There are still many gaps in the knowledge of the role of proteins produced by the ASFV, which is related to the difficulty in producing a safe and effective vaccine to combat the disease, although few candidates have been approved for use in Southeast Asia in the past couple of years.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ines Ruedas-Torres
- Vaccine Development and Evaluation Centre (VDEC), United Kingdom Health Security Agency, Salisbury, UK
| | - Bui Thi to Nga
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Vietnam National University of Agriculture, Hanoi, Vietnam
| | - Francisco J. Salguero
- Vaccine Development and Evaluation Centre (VDEC), United Kingdom Health Security Agency, Salisbury, UK
- School of Biosciences and Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Surrey, Guildford, UK
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Huang T, Li F, Xia Y, Zhao J, Zhu Y, Liu Y, Qian Y, Zou X. African Swine Fever Virus Immunosuppression and Virulence-Related Gene. Curr Issues Mol Biol 2024; 46:8268-8281. [PMID: 39194705 DOI: 10.3390/cimb46080488] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2024] [Revised: 07/23/2024] [Accepted: 07/30/2024] [Indexed: 08/29/2024] Open
Abstract
African swine fever virus (ASFV), a highly contagious pathogen characterized by a complex structure and a variety of immunosuppression proteins, causes hemorrhagic, acute, and aggressive infectious disease that severely injures the pork products and industry. However, there is no effective vaccine or treatment. The main reasons are not only the complex mechanisms that lead to immunosuppression but also the unknown functions of various proteins. This review summarizes the interaction between ASFV and the host immune system, along with the involvement of virulence-related genes and proteins, as well as the corresponding molecular mechanism of immunosuppression of ASFV, encompassing pathways such as cGAS-STING, nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB), Janus Kinase (JAK) and JAK Signal Transducers and Activators of Transcription (STAT), apoptosis, and other modulation. The aim is to summarize the dynamic process during ASFV infection and entry into the host cell, provide a rational insight into development of a vaccine, and provide a better clear knowledge of how ASFV impacts the host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tao Huang
- China/WOAH Reference Laboratory for Classical Swine Fever, China Institute of Veterinary Drug Control, Beijing 100081, China
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China
| | - Fangtao Li
- China/WOAH Reference Laboratory for Classical Swine Fever, China Institute of Veterinary Drug Control, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Yingju Xia
- China/WOAH Reference Laboratory for Classical Swine Fever, China Institute of Veterinary Drug Control, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Junjie Zhao
- China/WOAH Reference Laboratory for Classical Swine Fever, China Institute of Veterinary Drug Control, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Yuanyuan Zhu
- China/WOAH Reference Laboratory for Classical Swine Fever, China Institute of Veterinary Drug Control, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Yebing Liu
- China/WOAH Reference Laboratory for Classical Swine Fever, China Institute of Veterinary Drug Control, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Yingjuan Qian
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China
| | - Xingqi Zou
- China/WOAH Reference Laboratory for Classical Swine Fever, China Institute of Veterinary Drug Control, Beijing 100081, China
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Giammarioli M, Torresi C, Biccheri R, Cammà C, Marcacci M, Dondo A, Razzuoli E, Fusco G, Casalinuovo F, Scicluna MT, Dei Giudici S, Martin AMM, Rossi E, Casciari C, Pela M, Iscaro C, Gallardo C, Marocco G, Orrico M, Feliziani F. Genetic Characterization of African Swine Fever Italian Clusters in the 2022-2023 Epidemic Wave by a Multi-Gene Approach. Viruses 2024; 16:1185. [PMID: 39205159 PMCID: PMC11360507 DOI: 10.3390/v16081185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2024] [Revised: 07/18/2024] [Accepted: 07/19/2024] [Indexed: 09/04/2024] Open
Abstract
The first report of African swine fever virus (ASFV) genotype II in Italy in 2022 marked the beginning of a significant invasion in at least eight Italian regions with different infection clusters. In this study, we used the multi-gene approach to investigate the epidemiological associations between ASFV strains causing cases and outbreaks in wild boar and pigs in Italy from January 2022 to the end of 2023. Our results confirm that all the tested ASFV-positive Italian samples belonged to genotype II and show high homology with genotype II ASFV sequences previously collected in Eurasian countries. Molecular characterization revealed the presence of four genetic groups in Italy. The majority of African swine fever (ASF) samples analyzed in the current study (72%) belonged to genetic group 3, which was the most representative in Europe. The results also provide evidence of the prevalence of genetic group 19 (15.9%). In addition, we identified new putative genetic groups, genetic group 25 (9.1%) and genetic group 26 (3.0%), which have never been described before. This is the first detailed report on the molecular characterization of more than 130 ASFV strains circulating in Italy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monica Giammarioli
- National Reference Laboratory (NRL) for Swine Fever, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell’Umbria e delle Marche “Togo Rosati”, 06126 Perugia, Italy; (C.T.); (R.B.); (E.R.); (C.C.); (M.P.); (C.I.); (G.M.); (F.F.)
| | - Claudia Torresi
- National Reference Laboratory (NRL) for Swine Fever, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell’Umbria e delle Marche “Togo Rosati”, 06126 Perugia, Italy; (C.T.); (R.B.); (E.R.); (C.C.); (M.P.); (C.I.); (G.M.); (F.F.)
| | - Roberta Biccheri
- National Reference Laboratory (NRL) for Swine Fever, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell’Umbria e delle Marche “Togo Rosati”, 06126 Perugia, Italy; (C.T.); (R.B.); (E.R.); (C.C.); (M.P.); (C.I.); (G.M.); (F.F.)
| | - Cesare Cammà
- National Reference Center for Whole Genome Sequencing of Microbial Pathogens, Database and Bioinformatic Analysis, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell’Abruzzo e del Molise “G. Caporale”, 64100 Teramo, Italy; (C.C.); (M.M.)
| | - Maurilia Marcacci
- National Reference Center for Whole Genome Sequencing of Microbial Pathogens, Database and Bioinformatic Analysis, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell’Abruzzo e del Molise “G. Caporale”, 64100 Teramo, Italy; (C.C.); (M.M.)
| | - Alessandro Dondo
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale Piemonte, Liguria e Valle d’Aosta “I. Altara”, 10154 Turin, Italy; (A.D.); (E.R.)
| | - Elisabetta Razzuoli
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale Piemonte, Liguria e Valle d’Aosta “I. Altara”, 10154 Turin, Italy; (A.D.); (E.R.)
| | - Giovanna Fusco
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Mezzogiorno, Portici, 80055 Napoli, Italy; (G.F.); (F.C.)
| | - Francesco Casalinuovo
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Mezzogiorno, Portici, 80055 Napoli, Italy; (G.F.); (F.C.)
| | - Maria Teresa Scicluna
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Lazio e della Toscana “M. Aleandri”, 00178 Rome, Italy;
| | - Silvia Dei Giudici
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Sardegna “G. Pegreffi”, 07100 Sassari, Italy;
| | - Ana Maria Moreno Martin
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e della Emilia Romagna “Bruno Ubertini”, 25124 Brescia, Italy;
| | - Elisabetta Rossi
- National Reference Laboratory (NRL) for Swine Fever, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell’Umbria e delle Marche “Togo Rosati”, 06126 Perugia, Italy; (C.T.); (R.B.); (E.R.); (C.C.); (M.P.); (C.I.); (G.M.); (F.F.)
| | - Cristina Casciari
- National Reference Laboratory (NRL) for Swine Fever, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell’Umbria e delle Marche “Togo Rosati”, 06126 Perugia, Italy; (C.T.); (R.B.); (E.R.); (C.C.); (M.P.); (C.I.); (G.M.); (F.F.)
| | - Michela Pela
- National Reference Laboratory (NRL) for Swine Fever, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell’Umbria e delle Marche “Togo Rosati”, 06126 Perugia, Italy; (C.T.); (R.B.); (E.R.); (C.C.); (M.P.); (C.I.); (G.M.); (F.F.)
| | - Carmen Iscaro
- National Reference Laboratory (NRL) for Swine Fever, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell’Umbria e delle Marche “Togo Rosati”, 06126 Perugia, Italy; (C.T.); (R.B.); (E.R.); (C.C.); (M.P.); (C.I.); (G.M.); (F.F.)
| | - Carmina Gallardo
- European Union Reference Laboratory for African Swine Fever (EURL), Centro de Investigación en Sanidad Animal (CISA), Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Tecnología Agraria y Alimentaria (INIA), Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Valdeolmos, 28130 Madrid, Spain;
| | - Gaia Marocco
- National Reference Laboratory (NRL) for Swine Fever, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell’Umbria e delle Marche “Togo Rosati”, 06126 Perugia, Italy; (C.T.); (R.B.); (E.R.); (C.C.); (M.P.); (C.I.); (G.M.); (F.F.)
| | | | - Francesco Feliziani
- National Reference Laboratory (NRL) for Swine Fever, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell’Umbria e delle Marche “Togo Rosati”, 06126 Perugia, Italy; (C.T.); (R.B.); (E.R.); (C.C.); (M.P.); (C.I.); (G.M.); (F.F.)
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Chen S, Wang T, Luo R, Lu Z, Lan J, Sun Y, Fu Q, Qiu HJ. Genetic Variations of African Swine Fever Virus: Major Challenges and Prospects. Viruses 2024; 16:913. [PMID: 38932205 PMCID: PMC11209373 DOI: 10.3390/v16060913] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2024] [Revised: 05/26/2024] [Accepted: 05/30/2024] [Indexed: 06/28/2024] Open
Abstract
African swine fever (ASF) is a contagious viral disease affecting pigs and wild boars. It typically presents as a hemorrhagic fever but can also manifest in various forms, ranging from acute to asymptomatic. ASF has spread extensively globally, significantly impacting the swine industry. The complex and highly variable character of the ASFV genome makes vaccine development and disease surveillance extremely difficult. The overall trend in ASFV evolution is towards decreased virulence and increased transmissibility. Factors such as gene mutation, viral recombination, and the strain-specificity of virulence-associated genes facilitate viral variations. This review deeply discusses the influence of these factors on viral immune evasion, pathogenicity, and the ensuing complexities encountered in vaccine development, disease detection, and surveillance. The ultimate goal of this review is to thoroughly explore the genetic evolution patterns and variation mechanisms of ASFV, providing a theoretical foundation for advancement in vaccine and diagnostic technologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shengmei Chen
- College of Life Science and Engineering, Foshan University, Foshan 528231, China
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, National African Swine Fever Para-Reference Laboratory, National High Containment Facilities for Animal Diseases Control and Prevention, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin 150069, China
| | - Tao Wang
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, National African Swine Fever Para-Reference Laboratory, National High Containment Facilities for Animal Diseases Control and Prevention, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin 150069, China
| | - Rui Luo
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, National African Swine Fever Para-Reference Laboratory, National High Containment Facilities for Animal Diseases Control and Prevention, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin 150069, China
| | - Zhanhao Lu
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, National African Swine Fever Para-Reference Laboratory, National High Containment Facilities for Animal Diseases Control and Prevention, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin 150069, China
| | - Jing Lan
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, National African Swine Fever Para-Reference Laboratory, National High Containment Facilities for Animal Diseases Control and Prevention, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin 150069, China
- College of Animal Sciences, Yangtze University, Jingzhou 434023, China
| | - Yuan Sun
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, National African Swine Fever Para-Reference Laboratory, National High Containment Facilities for Animal Diseases Control and Prevention, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin 150069, China
| | - Qiang Fu
- College of Life Science and Engineering, Foshan University, Foshan 528231, China
| | - Hua-Ji Qiu
- College of Life Science and Engineering, Foshan University, Foshan 528231, China
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, National African Swine Fever Para-Reference Laboratory, National High Containment Facilities for Animal Diseases Control and Prevention, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin 150069, China
- College of Animal Sciences, Yangtze University, Jingzhou 434023, China
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Gao S, Zuo W, Kang C, Zou Z, Zhang K, Qiu J, Shang X, Li J, Zhang Y, Zuo Q, Zhao Y, Jin M. Saccharomyces cerevisiae oral immunization in mice using multi-antigen of the African swine fever virus elicits a robust immune response. Front Immunol 2024; 15:1373656. [PMID: 38742108 PMCID: PMC11089227 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2024.1373656] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2024] [Accepted: 04/05/2024] [Indexed: 05/16/2024] Open
Abstract
African swine fever virus (ASFV) is one of the most complex viruses. ASFV is a serious threat to the global swine industry because no commercial vaccines against this virus are currently available except in Vietnam. Moreover, ASFV is highly stable in the environment and can survive in water, feed, and aerosols for a long time. ASFV is transmitted through the digestive and respiratory tract. Mucosal immunity is the first line of defense against ASFV. Saccharomyces cerevisiae (SC), which has been certified by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration and has a generally recognized as safe status in the food industry, was used for oral immunization in this study. ASFV antigens were effectively expressed in recombinant SC strains with high DNA copy numbers and stable growth though surface display technology and chromosome engineering (δ-integration). The recombinant SC strains containing eight ASFV antigens-KP177R, E183L, E199L, CP204L, E248R, EP402R, B602L, and B646L- induced strong humoral and mucosal immune responses in mice. There was no antigenic competition, and these antigens induced Th1 and Th2 cellular immune responses. Therefore, the oral immunization strategy using recombinant SC strains containing multiple ASFV antigens demonstrate potential for future testing in swine, including challenge studies to evaluate its efficacy as a vaccine against ASFV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuo Gao
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Wenfeng Zuo
- Research Institute of Wuhan Keqian Biology Co., Ltd, Wuhan, China
| | - Chao Kang
- Research Institute of Wuhan Keqian Biology Co., Ltd, Wuhan, China
| | - Zhong Zou
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Kaiqi Zhang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Jun Qiu
- College of Animal Sciences, Yangtze University, Jingzhou, Hubei, China
| | - Xiaomin Shang
- Research Institute of Wuhan Keqian Biology Co., Ltd, Wuhan, China
| | - Jingjing Li
- Research Institute of Wuhan Keqian Biology Co., Ltd, Wuhan, China
| | - Yuanfeng Zhang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
- Research Institute of Wuhan Keqian Biology Co., Ltd, Wuhan, China
| | - Qi Zuo
- Research Institute of Wuhan Keqian Biology Co., Ltd, Wuhan, China
| | - Ya Zhao
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Meilin Jin
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
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Cao H, Zhang M, Liao Z, Li D, He X, Ma H, Li P, Yu X, Peng G, Xie S, He Q, Li W. A porcine kidney-derived clonal cell line with clear genetic annotation is highly susceptible to African swine fever virus. Vet Res 2024; 55:42. [PMID: 38575961 PMCID: PMC10996120 DOI: 10.1186/s13567-024-01300-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2023] [Accepted: 03/10/2024] [Indexed: 04/06/2024] Open
Abstract
African Swine Fever virus (ASFV), the causative agent of African swine fever, is a highly lethal hemorrhagic virus affecting domestic pigs and wild boars. The primary target cells for ASFV infection are porcine alveolar macrophages (PAMs), which are difficult to obtain and maintain in vitro, and less subjective to genetic editing. To overcome these issues and facilitate ASFV research, we obtained a subclonal cell line PK1-C5 by subcloning LLC-PK1 cells that support stable ASFV proliferation. This consequential cell line exhibited high ASFV infection levels and similar viral growth characteristics to PAMs, while also allowing high-efficiency genomic editing through transfection or lentivirus transduction of Cas9. Taken together, our study provided a valuable tool for research aspects including ASFV-host interactions, pathogenicity, and vaccine development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hua Cao
- National Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, China
- Key Laboratory of Prevention and Control for African Swine Fever and Other Major Pig Diseases, Key Laboratory of Development of Veterinary Diagnostic Products, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Wuhan, 430070, China
- Hubei Hongshan Laboratory, Wuhan, 430070, China
| | - Mengjia Zhang
- National Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, China
- Key Laboratory of Prevention and Control for African Swine Fever and Other Major Pig Diseases, Key Laboratory of Development of Veterinary Diagnostic Products, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Wuhan, 430070, China
- Hubei Hongshan Laboratory, Wuhan, 430070, China
| | - Zheyu Liao
- National Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, China
- Key Laboratory of Prevention and Control for African Swine Fever and Other Major Pig Diseases, Key Laboratory of Development of Veterinary Diagnostic Products, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Wuhan, 430070, China
- Hubei Hongshan Laboratory, Wuhan, 430070, China
| | - Dongfan Li
- National Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, China
- Key Laboratory of Prevention and Control for African Swine Fever and Other Major Pig Diseases, Key Laboratory of Development of Veterinary Diagnostic Products, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Wuhan, 430070, China
- Hubei Hongshan Laboratory, Wuhan, 430070, China
| | - Xinglin He
- National Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, China
- Key Laboratory of Prevention and Control for African Swine Fever and Other Major Pig Diseases, Key Laboratory of Development of Veterinary Diagnostic Products, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Wuhan, 430070, China
- Hubei Hongshan Laboratory, Wuhan, 430070, China
| | - Hailong Ma
- National Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, China
- Key Laboratory of Prevention and Control for African Swine Fever and Other Major Pig Diseases, Key Laboratory of Development of Veterinary Diagnostic Products, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Wuhan, 430070, China
- Hubei Hongshan Laboratory, Wuhan, 430070, China
| | - Pengfei Li
- National Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, China
- Key Laboratory of Prevention and Control for African Swine Fever and Other Major Pig Diseases, Key Laboratory of Development of Veterinary Diagnostic Products, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Wuhan, 430070, China
- Hubei Hongshan Laboratory, Wuhan, 430070, China
| | - Xuexiang Yu
- National Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, China
- Key Laboratory of Prevention and Control for African Swine Fever and Other Major Pig Diseases, Key Laboratory of Development of Veterinary Diagnostic Products, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Wuhan, 430070, China
- Hubei Hongshan Laboratory, Wuhan, 430070, China
| | - Guiqing Peng
- National Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, China
- Key Laboratory of Prevention and Control for African Swine Fever and Other Major Pig Diseases, Key Laboratory of Development of Veterinary Diagnostic Products, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Wuhan, 430070, China
- Hubei Hongshan Laboratory, Wuhan, 430070, China
| | - Shengsong Xie
- Key Laboratory of Agricultural Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction of Ministry of Education and Key Lab of Swine Genetics and Breeding of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, China
| | - Qigai He
- National Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, China.
- Key Laboratory of Prevention and Control for African Swine Fever and Other Major Pig Diseases, Key Laboratory of Development of Veterinary Diagnostic Products, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Wuhan, 430070, China.
| | - Wentao Li
- National Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, China.
- Key Laboratory of Prevention and Control for African Swine Fever and Other Major Pig Diseases, Key Laboratory of Development of Veterinary Diagnostic Products, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Wuhan, 430070, China.
- Hubei Hongshan Laboratory, Wuhan, 430070, China.
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8
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Bosch-Camós L, Martínez-Torró C, López-Laguna H, Lascorz J, Argilaguet J, Villaverde A, Rodríguez F, Vázquez E. Nanoparticle-Based Secretory Granules Induce a Specific and Long-Lasting Immune Response through Prolonged Antigen Release. NANOMATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2024; 14:435. [PMID: 38470766 DOI: 10.3390/nano14050435] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2024] [Revised: 02/22/2024] [Accepted: 02/26/2024] [Indexed: 03/14/2024]
Abstract
Developing prolonged antigen delivery systems that mimic long-term exposure to pathogens appears as a promising but still poorly explored approach to reach durable immunities. In this study, we have used a simple technology by which His-tagged proteins can be assembled, assisted by divalent cations, as supramolecular complexes with progressive complexity, namely protein-only nanoparticles and microparticles. Microparticles produced out of nanoparticles are biomimetics of secretory granules from the mammalian hormonal system. Upon subcutaneous administration, they slowly disintegrate, acting as an endocrine-like secretory system and rendering the building block nanoparticles progressively bioavailable. The performance of such materials, previously validated for drug delivery in oncology, has been tested here regarding the potential for time-prolonged antigen release. This has been completed by taking, as a building block, a nanostructured version of p30, a main structural immunogen from the African swine fever virus (ASFV). By challenging the system in both mice and pigs, we have observed unusually potent pro-inflammatory activity in porcine macrophages, and long-lasting humoral and cellular responses in vivo, which might overcome the need for an adjuvant. The robustness of both innate and adaptive responses tag, for the first time, these dynamic depot materials as a novel and valuable instrument with transversal applicability in immune stimulation and vaccinology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laia Bosch-Camós
- Unitat Mixta d'Investigació IRTA-UAB en Sanitat Animal, Centre de Recerca en Sanitat Animal (CReSA), Campus de la Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), 08193 Bellaterra, Spain
- Institut de Recerca i Tecnologia Agroalimentàries (IRTA), Programa de Sanitat Animal, Centre de Recerca en Sanitat Animal (CReSA), Campus de la Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), 08193 Bellaterra, Spain
- WOAH Collaborating Centre for the Research and Control of Emerging and Re-Emerging Swine Diseases in Europe (IRTA-CReSA), 08193 Bellaterra, Spain
| | - Carlos Martínez-Torró
- CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN, ISCIII), Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain
- Institut de Biotecnologia i de Biomedicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain
| | - Hèctor López-Laguna
- CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN, ISCIII), Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain
- Institut de Biotecnologia i de Biomedicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain
- Departament de Genètica i de Microbiologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain
| | - Jara Lascorz
- CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN, ISCIII), Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain
- Institut de Biotecnologia i de Biomedicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain
| | - Jordi Argilaguet
- Unitat Mixta d'Investigació IRTA-UAB en Sanitat Animal, Centre de Recerca en Sanitat Animal (CReSA), Campus de la Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), 08193 Bellaterra, Spain
- Institut de Recerca i Tecnologia Agroalimentàries (IRTA), Programa de Sanitat Animal, Centre de Recerca en Sanitat Animal (CReSA), Campus de la Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), 08193 Bellaterra, Spain
- WOAH Collaborating Centre for the Research and Control of Emerging and Re-Emerging Swine Diseases in Europe (IRTA-CReSA), 08193 Bellaterra, Spain
| | - Antonio Villaverde
- CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN, ISCIII), Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain
- Institut de Biotecnologia i de Biomedicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain
- Departament de Genètica i de Microbiologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain
| | - Fernando Rodríguez
- Unitat Mixta d'Investigació IRTA-UAB en Sanitat Animal, Centre de Recerca en Sanitat Animal (CReSA), Campus de la Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), 08193 Bellaterra, Spain
- Institut de Recerca i Tecnologia Agroalimentàries (IRTA), Programa de Sanitat Animal, Centre de Recerca en Sanitat Animal (CReSA), Campus de la Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), 08193 Bellaterra, Spain
- WOAH Collaborating Centre for the Research and Control of Emerging and Re-Emerging Swine Diseases in Europe (IRTA-CReSA), 08193 Bellaterra, Spain
| | - Esther Vázquez
- CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN, ISCIII), Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain
- Institut de Biotecnologia i de Biomedicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain
- Departament de Genètica i de Microbiologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain
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9
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Shi C, Wang Q, Liu Y, Wang S, Zhang Y, Liu C, Hu Y, Zheng D, Sun C, Song F, Yu X, Zhao Y, Bao J, Wang Z. Generation of High-Quality African Swine Fever Virus Complete Genome from Field Samples by Next-Generation Sequencing. Viruses 2024; 16:312. [PMID: 38400087 PMCID: PMC10891787 DOI: 10.3390/v16020312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/25/2023] [Revised: 02/12/2024] [Accepted: 02/12/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024] Open
Abstract
African swine fever (ASF) is a lethal contagious viral disease of domestic pigs and wild boars caused by the African swine fever virus (ASFV). The pandemic spread of ASF has caused severe effects on the global pig industry. Whole-genome sequencing provides crucial information for virus strain characterization, epidemiology analysis and vaccine development. Here, we evaluated the performance of next-generation sequencing (NGS) in generating ASFV genome sequences from clinical samples. Thirty-four ASFV-positive field samples including spleen, lymph node, lung, liver and blood with a range of Ct values from 14.73 to 25.95 were sequenced. For different tissue samples collected from the same sick pigs, the proportion of ASFV reads obtained from the spleen samples was 3.69-9.86 times higher than other tissues. For the high-viral-load spleen samples (Ct < 20), a minimum of a 99.8% breadth of ≥10× coverage was revealed for all the samples. For the spleen samples with Ct ≥ 20, 6/12 samples had a minimum of a 99.8% breadth of ≥10× coverage. A high average depth of sequencing coverage was also achieved from the blood samples. According to our results, high-quality ASFV whole-genome sequences could be obtained from the spleen or blood samples with Ct < 20. The high-quality ASFV genome sequence generated in this study was further used for the high-resolution phylogenetic analysis of the ASFV genomes in the early stage of the ASF epidemic in China. Our study demonstrates that NGS may act as a useful tool for efficient ASFV genome characterization, providing valuable information for disease control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chuan Shi
- China Animal Health and Epidemiology Center, Qingdao 266032, China (Y.L.); (C.L.); (D.Z.); (C.S.)
- BGI-Qingdao, BGI-Shenzhen, Qingdao 266555, China
- College of Life Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 518083, China
| | - Qinghua Wang
- China Animal Health and Epidemiology Center, Qingdao 266032, China (Y.L.); (C.L.); (D.Z.); (C.S.)
| | - Yutian Liu
- China Animal Health and Epidemiology Center, Qingdao 266032, China (Y.L.); (C.L.); (D.Z.); (C.S.)
| | - Shujuan Wang
- China Animal Health and Epidemiology Center, Qingdao 266032, China (Y.L.); (C.L.); (D.Z.); (C.S.)
| | - Yongqiang Zhang
- China Animal Health and Epidemiology Center, Qingdao 266032, China (Y.L.); (C.L.); (D.Z.); (C.S.)
| | - Chunju Liu
- China Animal Health and Epidemiology Center, Qingdao 266032, China (Y.L.); (C.L.); (D.Z.); (C.S.)
| | - Yongxin Hu
- China Animal Health and Epidemiology Center, Qingdao 266032, China (Y.L.); (C.L.); (D.Z.); (C.S.)
| | - Dongxia Zheng
- China Animal Health and Epidemiology Center, Qingdao 266032, China (Y.L.); (C.L.); (D.Z.); (C.S.)
| | - Chengyou Sun
- China Animal Health and Epidemiology Center, Qingdao 266032, China (Y.L.); (C.L.); (D.Z.); (C.S.)
| | - Fangfang Song
- China Animal Health and Epidemiology Center, Qingdao 266032, China (Y.L.); (C.L.); (D.Z.); (C.S.)
| | - Xiaojing Yu
- China Animal Health and Epidemiology Center, Qingdao 266032, China (Y.L.); (C.L.); (D.Z.); (C.S.)
| | - Yunling Zhao
- China Animal Health and Epidemiology Center, Qingdao 266032, China (Y.L.); (C.L.); (D.Z.); (C.S.)
| | - Jingyue Bao
- China Animal Health and Epidemiology Center, Qingdao 266032, China (Y.L.); (C.L.); (D.Z.); (C.S.)
| | - Zhiliang Wang
- China Animal Health and Epidemiology Center, Qingdao 266032, China (Y.L.); (C.L.); (D.Z.); (C.S.)
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10
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Glišić D, Milićević V, Krnjaić D, Toplak I, Prodanović R, Gallardo C, Radojičić S. Genetic analysis reveals multiple intergenic region and central variable region in the African swine fever virus variants circulating in Serbia. Vet Res Commun 2023; 47:1925-1936. [PMID: 37256519 DOI: 10.1007/s11259-023-10145-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2023] [Accepted: 05/22/2023] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
This study provides the first comprehensive report on the molecular characteristics of African swine fever virus (ASFV) variants in Serbia between 2019 and 2022. Since its first observation in July 2019, the disease has been found in wild boar and domestic swine. The study involved the analysis of 95 ASFV-positive samples collected from 12 infected administrative districts in Serbia. Partial four genomic regions were genetically characterized, including B646L, E183L, B602L, and the intergenic region (IGR) between the I73R-I329L genes. The results of the study suggest that multiple ASFV strains belonging to genotype II are circulating in Serbia, as evidenced by the analysis of the IGR between I73R-I329L genes that showed the most differences. Furthermore, the phylogenetic analysis of the B602L gene showed three different clades within the CVR I group of ASFV strains. Regarding the IGR, 98.4% were grouped into IGR II, with only one positive sample grouped into the IGR III group. These findings provide essential insights into the molecular characteristics of ASFV variants in Serbia and contribute to the knowledge of circulating strains of ASFV in Europe. However, further research is necessary to gain a better understanding of ASFV spread and evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dimitrije Glišić
- Department of Virology, Institute of Veterinary Medicine of Serbia, 11000, Belgrade, Serbia.
| | - Vesna Milićević
- Department of Virology, Institute of Veterinary Medicine of Serbia, 11000, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Dejan Krnjaić
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Belgrade Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, 11000, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Ivan Toplak
- Institute of Microbiology and Parasitology, Laboratory for Virology, Veterinary Faculty, 1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Radiša Prodanović
- Department of Ruminants and Swine Diseases, University of Belgrade Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, 11000, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Carmina Gallardo
- European Union Reference Laboratory for ASF (EURL-ASF): Centro de Investigación en Sanidad Animal (CISA-INIA, CSIC), Valdeolmos, Madrid, Spain
| | - Sonja Radojičić
- Department of Infectious Animals Diseases and Diseases of Bees, University of Belgrade Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, 11000, Belgrade, Serbia
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11
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Ramirez-Medina E, Velazquez-Salinas L, Rai A, Espinoza N, Valladares A, Silva E, Burton L, Spinard E, Meyers A, Risatti G, Calvelage S, Blome S, Gladue DP, Borca MV. Evaluation of the Deletion of the African Swine Fever Virus Gene O174L from the Genome of the Georgia Isolate. Viruses 2023; 15:2134. [PMID: 37896911 PMCID: PMC10612027 DOI: 10.3390/v15102134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2023] [Revised: 10/15/2023] [Accepted: 10/16/2023] [Indexed: 10/29/2023] Open
Abstract
African swine fever virus (ASFV) is a structurally complex, double-stranded DNA virus, which causes African swine fever (ASF), a contagious disease affecting swine. ASF is currently affecting pork production in a large geographical region, including Eurasia and the Caribbean. ASFV has a large genome, which harbors more than 160 genes, but most of these genes' functions have not been experimentally characterized. One of these genes is the O174L gene which has been experimentally shown to function as a small DNA polymerase. Here, we demonstrate that the deletion of the O174L gene from the genome of the virulent strain ASFV Georgia2010 (ASFV-G) does not significantly affect virus replication in vitro or in vivo. A recombinant virus, having deleted the O174L gene, ASFV-G-∆O174L, was developed to study the effect of the O174L protein in replication in swine macrophages cultures in vitro and disease production when inoculated in pigs. The results demonstrated that ASFV-G-∆O174L has similar replication kinetics to parental ASFV-G in swine macrophage cultures. In addition, animals intramuscularly inoculated with 102 HAD50 of ASFV-G-∆O174L presented a clinical form of the disease that is indistinguishable from that induced by the parental virulent strain ASFV-G. All animals developed a lethal disease, being euthanized around day 7 post-infection. Therefore, although O174L is a well-characterized DNA polymerase, its function is apparently not critical for the process of virus replication, both in vitro and in vivo, or for disease production in domestic pigs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth Ramirez-Medina
- Plum Island Animal Disease Center, ARS, USDA, Greenport, NY 11944, USA; (E.R.-M.); (L.V.-S.); (A.R.); (N.E.); (A.V.); (E.S.); (L.B.); (E.S.); (A.M.)
| | - Lauro Velazquez-Salinas
- Plum Island Animal Disease Center, ARS, USDA, Greenport, NY 11944, USA; (E.R.-M.); (L.V.-S.); (A.R.); (N.E.); (A.V.); (E.S.); (L.B.); (E.S.); (A.M.)
| | - Ayushi Rai
- Plum Island Animal Disease Center, ARS, USDA, Greenport, NY 11944, USA; (E.R.-M.); (L.V.-S.); (A.R.); (N.E.); (A.V.); (E.S.); (L.B.); (E.S.); (A.M.)
- Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education (ORISE), Oak Ridge, TN 37830, USA
| | - Nallely Espinoza
- Plum Island Animal Disease Center, ARS, USDA, Greenport, NY 11944, USA; (E.R.-M.); (L.V.-S.); (A.R.); (N.E.); (A.V.); (E.S.); (L.B.); (E.S.); (A.M.)
| | - Alyssa Valladares
- Plum Island Animal Disease Center, ARS, USDA, Greenport, NY 11944, USA; (E.R.-M.); (L.V.-S.); (A.R.); (N.E.); (A.V.); (E.S.); (L.B.); (E.S.); (A.M.)
- Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education (ORISE), Oak Ridge, TN 37830, USA
| | - Ediane Silva
- Plum Island Animal Disease Center, ARS, USDA, Greenport, NY 11944, USA; (E.R.-M.); (L.V.-S.); (A.R.); (N.E.); (A.V.); (E.S.); (L.B.); (E.S.); (A.M.)
| | - Leeanna Burton
- Plum Island Animal Disease Center, ARS, USDA, Greenport, NY 11944, USA; (E.R.-M.); (L.V.-S.); (A.R.); (N.E.); (A.V.); (E.S.); (L.B.); (E.S.); (A.M.)
| | - Edward Spinard
- Plum Island Animal Disease Center, ARS, USDA, Greenport, NY 11944, USA; (E.R.-M.); (L.V.-S.); (A.R.); (N.E.); (A.V.); (E.S.); (L.B.); (E.S.); (A.M.)
| | - Amanda Meyers
- Plum Island Animal Disease Center, ARS, USDA, Greenport, NY 11944, USA; (E.R.-M.); (L.V.-S.); (A.R.); (N.E.); (A.V.); (E.S.); (L.B.); (E.S.); (A.M.)
- Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education (ORISE), Oak Ridge, TN 37830, USA
| | - Guillermo Risatti
- Department of Pathobiology and Veterinary Science, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269, USA;
| | - Sten Calvelage
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Südufer 10, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany; (S.C.); (S.B.)
| | - Sandra Blome
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Südufer 10, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany; (S.C.); (S.B.)
| | - Douglas P. Gladue
- Plum Island Animal Disease Center, ARS, USDA, Greenport, NY 11944, USA; (E.R.-M.); (L.V.-S.); (A.R.); (N.E.); (A.V.); (E.S.); (L.B.); (E.S.); (A.M.)
| | - Manuel V. Borca
- Plum Island Animal Disease Center, ARS, USDA, Greenport, NY 11944, USA; (E.R.-M.); (L.V.-S.); (A.R.); (N.E.); (A.V.); (E.S.); (L.B.); (E.S.); (A.M.)
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12
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Mthombeni RF, Bastos AD, van Schalkwyk A, van Emmenes J, Heath L. Phylogenomic Comparison of Seven African Swine Fever Genotype II Outbreak Viruses (1998-2019) Reveals the Likely African Origin of Georgia 2007/1. Pathogens 2023; 12:1129. [PMID: 37764936 PMCID: PMC10537866 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens12091129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2023] [Revised: 08/22/2023] [Accepted: 08/25/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Since the initial report of African swine fever (ASF) in Kenya in 1921, the disease has predominantly been confined to Africa. However, in 2007, an ASF genotype II virus of unknown provenance was introduced to Georgia. This was followed by its rampant spread to 73 countries, and the disease is now a global threat to pig production, with limited effective treatment and vaccine options. Here, we investigate the origin of Georgia 2007/1 through genome sequencing of three viruses from outbreaks that predated the genotype II introduction to the Caucasus, namely Madagascar (MAD/01/1998), Mozambique (MOZ/01/2005), and Mauritius (MAU/01/2007). In addition, genome sequences were generated for viruses from East African countries historically affected by genotype II (Malawi (MAL/04/2011) and Tanzania (TAN/01/2011)) and newly invaded southern African countries (Zimbabwe (ZIM/2015) and South Africa (RSA/08/2019). Phylogenomic analyses revealed that MOZ/01/2005, MAL/04/2011, ZIM/2015 and RSA/08/2019 share a recent common ancestor with Georgia 2007/1 and that none contain the large (~550 bp) deletion in the MGT110 4L ORF observed in the MAD/01/1998, MAU/01/2007 and TAN/01/2011 isolates. Furthermore, MOZ/01/2005 and Georgia 2007/1 only differ by a single synonymous SNP in the EP402R ORF, confirming that the closest link to Georgia 2007/1 is a virus that was circulating in Mozambique in 2005.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rivalani F Mthombeni
- Agricultural Research Council-Onderstepoort Veterinary Institute, Onderstepoort 0110, South Africa
- Department of Zoology & Entomology, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria 0002, South Africa
| | - Armanda D Bastos
- Department of Zoology & Entomology, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria 0002, South Africa
- Department of Veterinary Tropical Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, Pretoria 0110, South Africa
| | - Antoinette van Schalkwyk
- Agricultural Research Council-Onderstepoort Veterinary Institute, Onderstepoort 0110, South Africa
- Department of Biotechnology, University of the Western Cape, Bellville 7535, South Africa
| | - Juanita van Emmenes
- Agricultural Research Council-Onderstepoort Veterinary Institute, Onderstepoort 0110, South Africa
| | - Livio Heath
- Agricultural Research Council-Onderstepoort Veterinary Institute, Onderstepoort 0110, South Africa
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13
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Kim G, Kim SJ, Kim WJ, Kim JH, Kim JC, Lee SG, Kim ES, Lee SH, Jheong WH. Emergence and Prevalence of an African Swine Fever Virus Variant in Wild Boar Populations in South Korea from 2019 to 2022. Viruses 2023; 15:1667. [PMID: 37632010 PMCID: PMC10459476 DOI: 10.3390/v15081667] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2023] [Revised: 07/26/2023] [Accepted: 07/27/2023] [Indexed: 08/27/2023] Open
Abstract
African swine fever (ASF), a viral disease caused by the African swine fever virus (ASFV), is associated with high mortality rates in domestic pigs and wild boars. ASF has been spreading since its discovery in wild boars in Korea in October 2019. Genomic analyses have provided insights into the genetic diversity of the ASFV isolated from various regions, enabling a better understanding of the virus origin and transmission patterns. We conducted a genome analysis to evaluate the diversity and mutations of ASFV spreading among wild boars in Korea during 2019-2022. We compared the genomes of ASFV strains isolated from Korean wild boars and publicly available ASFV genomes. Genomic analysis revealed several single-nucleotide polymorphisms within multigene families (MGFs) 360-1La and 360-4L in Korean ASFV. MGF 360-1La and 360-4L variations were not observed in other ASFV strains, including those of genotype II. Finally, we partially analyzed MGFs 360-1La and 360-4L in ASFV-positive samples between 2019 and 2022, confirming the geographical distribution of the variants. Our findings can help identify new genetic markers for epidemiological ASFV analysis and provide essential information for effective disease management.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Weon-Hwa Jheong
- Wildlife Disease Response Team, National Institute of Wildlife Disease Control and Prevention (NIWDC), 1 Songam-gil, Gwangsan-gu, Gwangju 62407, Republic of Korea; (G.K.); (S.-J.K.); (W.-J.K.); (J.-H.K.); (J.-C.K.); (S.-G.L.); (E.-S.K.); (S.-H.L.)
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14
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Bezymennyi M, Tarasov O, Kyivska GV, Mezhenska NA, Mandyhra S, Kovalenko G, Sushko M, Hudz N, Skorokhod SV, Datsenko R, Muzykina L, Milton E, Sapachova MA, Nychyk S, Halka I, Frant M, Huettmann F, Drown DM, Gerilovych A, Mezhenskyi AA, Bortz E, Lange CE. Epidemiological Characterization of African Swine Fever Dynamics in Ukraine, 2012-2023. Vaccines (Basel) 2023; 11:1145. [PMID: 37514961 PMCID: PMC10384127 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines11071145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2023] [Revised: 06/09/2023] [Accepted: 06/11/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023] Open
Abstract
African swine fever (ASF) is a viral disease, endemic to Africa, that causes high mortality when introduced into domestic pig populations. Since the emergence of p72-genotype II African swine fever virus (ASFV) in Georgia in 2007, an ASF epidemic has been spreading across Europe and many countries in Asia. The epidemic first reached Ukraine in 2012. To better understand the dynamics of spread of ASF in Ukraine, we analyzed spatial and temporal outbreak data reported in Ukraine between 2012 and mid-2023. The highest numbers of outbreaks were reported in 2017 (N = 163) and 2018 (N = 145), with overall peak numbers of ASF outbreaks reported in August (domestic pigs) and January (wild boars). While cases were reported from most of Ukraine, we found a directional spread from the eastern and northern borders towards the western and southern regions of Ukraine. Many of the early outbreaks (before 2016) were adjacent to the border, which is again true for more recent outbreaks in wild boar, but not for recent outbreaks in domestic pigs. Outbreaks prior to 2016 also occurred predominantly in areas with a below average domestic pig density. This new analysis suggests that wild boars may have played an important role in the introduction and early spread of ASF in Ukraine. However, in later years, the dynamic suggests human activity as the predominant driver of spread and a separation of ASF epizootics between domestic pigs and in wild boars. The decline in outbreaks since 2019 suggests that the implemented mitigation strategies are effective, even though long-term control or eradication remain challenging and will require continued intensive surveillance of ASF outbreak patterns.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maksym Bezymennyi
- Institute of Veterinary Medicine (IVM), National Academy of Agrarian Sciences of Ukraine, 03151 Kyiv, Ukraine
| | - Oleksandr Tarasov
- Institute of Veterinary Medicine (IVM), National Academy of Agrarian Sciences of Ukraine, 03151 Kyiv, Ukraine
| | - Ganna V Kyivska
- State Scientific Research Institute of Laboratory Diagnostics and Veterinary and Sanitary Expertise (SSRILDVSE), 03151 Kyiv, Ukraine
| | - Nataliia A Mezhenska
- State Scientific Research Institute of Laboratory Diagnostics and Veterinary and Sanitary Expertise (SSRILDVSE), 03151 Kyiv, Ukraine
| | - Svitlana Mandyhra
- Institute of Veterinary Medicine (IVM), National Academy of Agrarian Sciences of Ukraine, 03151 Kyiv, Ukraine
- State Scientific Research Institute of Laboratory Diagnostics and Veterinary and Sanitary Expertise (SSRILDVSE), 03151 Kyiv, Ukraine
| | - Ganna Kovalenko
- Institute of Veterinary Medicine (IVM), National Academy of Agrarian Sciences of Ukraine, 03151 Kyiv, Ukraine
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alaska Anchorage, Anchorage, AK 99508, USA
| | - Mykola Sushko
- State Scientific Research Institute of Laboratory Diagnostics and Veterinary and Sanitary Expertise (SSRILDVSE), 03151 Kyiv, Ukraine
| | - Nataliia Hudz
- Institute of Veterinary Medicine (IVM), National Academy of Agrarian Sciences of Ukraine, 03151 Kyiv, Ukraine
| | - Serhii V Skorokhod
- State Scientific Research Institute of Laboratory Diagnostics and Veterinary and Sanitary Expertise (SSRILDVSE), 03151 Kyiv, Ukraine
| | - Roman Datsenko
- State Scientific Research Institute of Laboratory Diagnostics and Veterinary and Sanitary Expertise (SSRILDVSE), 03151 Kyiv, Ukraine
| | - Larysa Muzykina
- Institute of Veterinary Medicine (IVM), National Academy of Agrarian Sciences of Ukraine, 03151 Kyiv, Ukraine
| | - Elaina Milton
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alaska Anchorage, Anchorage, AK 99508, USA
| | - Maryna A Sapachova
- State Scientific Research Institute of Laboratory Diagnostics and Veterinary and Sanitary Expertise (SSRILDVSE), 03151 Kyiv, Ukraine
| | - Serhii Nychyk
- Institute of Veterinary Medicine (IVM), National Academy of Agrarian Sciences of Ukraine, 03151 Kyiv, Ukraine
| | - Ihor Halka
- Institute of Veterinary Medicine (IVM), National Academy of Agrarian Sciences of Ukraine, 03151 Kyiv, Ukraine
| | - Maciej Frant
- Department of Swine Diseases, National Veterinary Research Institute (NVRI), 24-100 Pulawy, Poland
| | - Falk Huettmann
- Institute of Arctic Biology, University of Alaska Fairbanks, Fairbanks, AK 99775, USA
- Department of Biology and Wildlife, University of Alaska Fairbanks, Fairbanks, AK 99775, USA
| | - Devin M Drown
- Institute of Arctic Biology, University of Alaska Fairbanks, Fairbanks, AK 99775, USA
- Department of Biology and Wildlife, University of Alaska Fairbanks, Fairbanks, AK 99775, USA
| | - Anton Gerilovych
- State Scientific Research Institute of Laboratory Diagnostics and Veterinary and Sanitary Expertise (SSRILDVSE), 03151 Kyiv, Ukraine
| | - Andrii A Mezhenskyi
- State Scientific Research Institute of Laboratory Diagnostics and Veterinary and Sanitary Expertise (SSRILDVSE), 03151 Kyiv, Ukraine
| | - Eric Bortz
- Institute of Veterinary Medicine (IVM), National Academy of Agrarian Sciences of Ukraine, 03151 Kyiv, Ukraine
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alaska Anchorage, Anchorage, AK 99508, USA
| | - Christian E Lange
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alaska Anchorage, Anchorage, AK 99508, USA
- Metabiota Inc., San Francisco, CA 94104, USA
- Labyrinth Global Health, Saint Petersburg, FL 33704, USA
- Department of Biology, Kwantlen Polytechnic University, Surrey, BC V3W 2MB, Canada
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15
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Ståhl K, Boklund A, Podgórski T, Vergne T, Abrahantes JC, Papanikolaou A, Zancanaro G, Mur L. Epidemiological analysis of African swine fever in the European Union during 2022. EFSA J 2023; 21:e08016. [PMID: 37223755 PMCID: PMC10201408 DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2023.8016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/25/2023] Open
Abstract
This report presents the epidemiological analysis of African swine fever (ASF) during 2022 based on the surveillance and pig population data submitted by the European Union (EU) affected countries and one neighbouring country. Coinciding with regulatory changes and an important decrease in ASF outbreaks in 2022 in the EU, the number of domestic pig samples tested as part of active surveillance decreased by 80%, while the number of samples from passive surveillance almost doubled compared with 2021. Most outbreaks among domestic pigs in the EU were detected by testing clinical suspicions (93% of outbreaks), followed by tracing activities (5%) and weekly testing of the first two dead pigs per establishment (2%). Although most of the wild boar samples came from hunted animals, the probability of detecting PCR-positive animals was much higher in wild boar found dead. The ASF outbreaks among domestic pigs in the EU decreased by 79% while a decrease of 40% in the wild boar cases was observed in comparison with 2021. This was strongly marked in Romania, Poland and Bulgaria, with a reduction of 50-80% compared with 2021. In many countries, an important decrease in the number of pig establishments was observed, especially of small establishments with fewer than 100 pigs. The regional between farm incidence and proportion of pigs lost due to ASF in the EU was in general very low (average of 1%) apart from some regions in Romania. The impact of ASF on wild boar populations was variable, with a decline in wild boar abundance observed in certain countries versus a stable or even increased population after ASF introduction. This supports the negative relationship observed in this report between the proportion of the country with restricted zones due to ASF in wild boar and wild boar hunting bags.
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16
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Mazloum A, van Schalkwyk A, Chernyshev R, Igolkin A, Heath L, Sprygin A. A Guide to Molecular Characterization of Genotype II African Swine Fever Virus: Essential and Alternative Genome Markers. Microorganisms 2023; 11:microorganisms11030642. [PMID: 36985215 PMCID: PMC10056344 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms11030642] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2023] [Revised: 02/25/2023] [Accepted: 03/01/2023] [Indexed: 03/06/2023] Open
Abstract
African swine fever is a contagious viral disease that has been spreading through Europe and Asia since its initial report from Georgia in 2007. Due to the large genome size of the causative agent, the African swine fever virus (ASFV), the molecular epidemiology, and virus evolution are analyzed by employing different markers. Most of these markers originate from single nucleotide polymorphisms or disparities in the copy number of tandem repeat sequences observed during the comparisons of full genome sequences produced from ASFVs isolated during different outbreaks. Therefore, consistent complete genome sequencing and comparative analysis of the sequence data are important to add innovative genomic markers that contribute to the delineation of ASFV phylogeny and molecular epidemiology during active circulation in the field. In this study, the molecular markers currently employed to assess the genotype II ASFVs circulating in Europe and Asia have been outlined. The application of each of these markers to differentiate between ASFVs from related outbreaks is described to implement a guideline to their suitability for analyzing new outbreaks. These markers do not signify the complete repertoire of genomic differences between ASFVs, but will be beneficial when analyzing the first outbreaks in a new region or a large number of samples. Furthermore, new markers must be determined via complete genome sequence analyses for enabling in-depth insights into the molecular epidemiology of ASFV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ali Mazloum
- Federal Center for Animal Health, 600901 Vladimir, Russia
- Correspondence: (A.M.); (A.S.)
| | - Antoinette van Schalkwyk
- Agricultural Research Council-Onderstepoort Veterinary Institute, 100 Old Soutpan Road, Onderstepoort 0110, South Africa
- Department of Biotechnology, University of the Western Cape, Robert Sobukwe Road, Bellville 7535, South Africa
| | | | - Alexey Igolkin
- Federal Center for Animal Health, 600901 Vladimir, Russia
| | - Livio Heath
- Agricultural Research Council-Onderstepoort Veterinary Institute, 100 Old Soutpan Road, Onderstepoort 0110, South Africa
| | - Alexander Sprygin
- Federal Center for Animal Health, 600901 Vladimir, Russia
- Correspondence: (A.M.); (A.S.)
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17
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Gallardo C, Casado N, Soler A, Djadjovski I, Krivko L, Madueño E, Nieto R, Perez C, Simon A, Ivanova E, Donescu D, Milicevik V, Chondrokouki E, Nurmoja I, Frant M, Feliziani F, Václavek P, Pileviciene S, Marisa A. A multi gene-approach genotyping method identifies 24 genetic clusters within the genotype II-European African swine fever viruses circulating from 2007 to 2022. Front Vet Sci 2023; 10:1112850. [PMID: 36761884 PMCID: PMC9905734 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2023.1112850] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2022] [Accepted: 01/06/2023] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction African swine fever (ASF) is a contagious viral disease of pigs and wild boar that poses a major threat to the global swine industry. The genotype II African swine fever virus (ASFV) entered the European Union (EU) in 2014 and since then fourteen countries have been affected, Italy and North Macedonia being the last in 2022. While whole genome sequencing remains the gold standard for the identification of new genetic markers, sequencing of multiple loci with significant variations could be used as a rapid and cost-effective alternative to track outbreaks and study disease evolution in endemic areas. Materials and methods To further our understanding of the epidemiology and spread of ASFV in Europe, 382 isolates collected during 2007 to 2022 were sequenced. The study was initially performed by sequencing the central variable region (CVR), the intergenic region (IGR) between the I73R and I329L genes and the O174L and K145R genes. For further discrimination, two new PCRs were designed to amplify the IGR between the 9R and 10R genes of the multigene family 505 (MGF505) and the IGR between the I329L and I215L genes. The sequences obtained were compared with genotype II isolates from Europe and Asia. Results The combination of the results obtained by sequencing these variable regions allowed to differentiate the European II-ASFV genotypes into 24 different groups. In addition, the SNP identified in the IGR I329L-I215L region, not previously described, grouped the viruses from North Macedonia that caused the 2022 outbreaks with viruses from Romania, Bulgaria, Serbia and Greece, differentiating from other genotype II isolates present in Europe and Asia. Furthermore, tandem repeat sequence (TRS) within the 9R-10R genes of the multigene family 505 (MGF505) revealed eight different variants circulating. Discussion These findings describe a new multi-gene approach sequencing method that can be used in routine genotyping to determine the origin of new introductions in ASF-free areas and track infection dynamics in endemic areas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carmina Gallardo
- 1European Union Reference Laboratory for ASF (EURL-ASF): Centro De investigación en Sanidad Animal (CISA-INIA, CSIC), Madrid, Spain,*Correspondence: Carmina Gallardo ✉
| | - Nadia Casado
- 1European Union Reference Laboratory for ASF (EURL-ASF): Centro De investigación en Sanidad Animal (CISA-INIA, CSIC), Madrid, Spain
| | - Alejandro Soler
- 1European Union Reference Laboratory for ASF (EURL-ASF): Centro De investigación en Sanidad Animal (CISA-INIA, CSIC), Madrid, Spain
| | - Igor Djadjovski
- 2Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University Ss. Cyril and Methodius in Skopje, Skopje, North Macedonia
| | - Laura Krivko
- 3Latvia NRL: Laboratory of Microbiology and Pathology, Institute of Food Safety, Animal Health and Enviroment, BIOR, Riga, Latvia
| | - Encarnación Madueño
- 1European Union Reference Laboratory for ASF (EURL-ASF): Centro De investigación en Sanidad Animal (CISA-INIA, CSIC), Madrid, Spain
| | - Raquel Nieto
- 1European Union Reference Laboratory for ASF (EURL-ASF): Centro De investigación en Sanidad Animal (CISA-INIA, CSIC), Madrid, Spain
| | - Covadonga Perez
- 1European Union Reference Laboratory for ASF (EURL-ASF): Centro De investigación en Sanidad Animal (CISA-INIA, CSIC), Madrid, Spain
| | - Alicia Simon
- 1European Union Reference Laboratory for ASF (EURL-ASF): Centro De investigación en Sanidad Animal (CISA-INIA, CSIC), Madrid, Spain
| | - Emiliya Ivanova
- 4Bulgaria NRL: National Diagnostic and Research Veterinary Medical Institute (NDVRI), Sofia, Bulgaria
| | - Daniel Donescu
- 5Romania NRL: Institute for Diagnostic and Animal Health, Bucharest, Romania
| | - Vesna Milicevik
- 6Republic of Serbia NRL: Institute of Veterinary Medicine of Serbia, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Eleni Chondrokouki
- 7Greece NRL: Greek Ministry of Rural Development and Food FMD, Virological, Rickettsial & Exotic Diseases, Athens, Greece
| | - Imbi Nurmoja
- 8Estonian NRL: National Centre for Laboratory Research and Risk Assessment (LABRIS), Tartu, Estonia
| | - Maciej Frant
- 9Poland NRL: National Veterinary Research Institute, Puławy, Poland
| | - Francesco Feliziani
- 10Italy NRL: Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale (IZS) dell'Umbria e delle Marche, Perugia, Italy
| | - Petr Václavek
- 11Czech Republic NRL: State Veterinary Institute Jihlava, Jihlava, Czechia
| | - Simona Pileviciene
- 12Lithuania NRL: National Food and Veterinary Risk Assessment Institute (NFVRAI), Vilnius, Lithuania
| | - Arias Marisa
- 1European Union Reference Laboratory for ASF (EURL-ASF): Centro De investigación en Sanidad Animal (CISA-INIA, CSIC), Madrid, Spain
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18
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Zhang H, Zhao S, Zhang H, Qin Z, Shan H, Cai X. Vaccines for African swine fever: an update. Front Microbiol 2023; 14:1139494. [PMID: 37180260 PMCID: PMC10173882 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2023.1139494] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2023] [Accepted: 04/05/2023] [Indexed: 05/16/2023] Open
Abstract
African swine fever (ASF) is a fatal infectious disease of swine caused by the African swine fever virus (ASFV). Currently, the disease is listed as a legally notifiable disease that must be reported to the World Organization for Animal Health (WOAH). The economic losses to the global pig industry have been insurmountable since the outbreak of ASF. Control and eradication of ASF are very critical during the current pandemic. Vaccination is the optimal strategy to prevent and control the ASF epidemic, but since inactivated ASFV vaccines have poor immune protection and there aren't enough cell lines for efficient in vitro ASFV replication, an ASF vaccine with high immunoprotective potential still remains to be explored. Knowledge of the course of disease evolution, the way of virus transmission, and the breakthrough point of vaccine design will facilitate the development of an ASF vaccine. In this review, the paper aims to highlight the recent advances and breakthroughs in the epidemic and transmission of ASF, virus mutation, and the development of vaccines in recent years, focusing on future directions and trends.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongliang Zhang
- Shandong Collaborative Innovation Center for Development of Veterinary Pharmaceuticals, College of Veterinary Medicine, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao, China
| | - Saisai Zhao
- Shandong Collaborative Innovation Center for Development of Veterinary Pharmaceuticals, College of Veterinary Medicine, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao, China
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai’an, China
| | - Haojie Zhang
- Shandong Collaborative Innovation Center for Development of Veterinary Pharmaceuticals, College of Veterinary Medicine, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao, China
| | - Zhihua Qin
- Shandong Collaborative Innovation Center for Development of Veterinary Pharmaceuticals, College of Veterinary Medicine, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao, China
| | - Hu Shan
- Shandong Collaborative Innovation Center for Development of Veterinary Pharmaceuticals, College of Veterinary Medicine, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao, China
- *Correspondence: Hu Shan,
| | - Xiulei Cai
- Shandong Collaborative Innovation Center for Development of Veterinary Pharmaceuticals, College of Veterinary Medicine, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao, China
- Xiulei Cai,
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