Occurrence, removal and risk assessment of steroid hormones in two wastewater stabilization pond systems in Morogoro, Tanzania

The present study investigated the occurrence and removal of 10 steroid hormones (4 androgens, 3 progestagens and 3 estrogens) in two WSP systems, Mafisa and Mzumbe in Morogoro, Tanzania. All 10 steroid hormones were detected in the influent of both WSP systems in the dry as well as in the rainy season. The concentrations of steroids in influent wastewater ranged from 0.1 ng/L for 17-OH-pregnenolone to 445 ng/L for estrone and from below limit of detection for 17-OH-pregnenolone to 45 ng/L for estrone in effluent. During dry season, the overall mean ± standard deviation removal efficiency for the 10 steroids were 70 ± 21% for Mzumbe WSP and 97 ± 3% for Mafisa WSP. During the rainy season the overall mean removal efficiency for all the steroid hormones were 52 ± 32% for Mzumbe WSP and 94 ± 8% for Mafisa WSP. Risk was characterized by calculating the risk quotients (RQs) for fish and humans. 46% of the total RQs calculated were above one, indicating high risk. Low RQs were estimated for androgens and progestagens but the estrogen concentrations measured in the WSP systems and Morogoro River indicated a high risk for fish. However, estrogens appeared not to pose an appreciable risk to human health from water intake and fish consumption. The results indicated that WSP systems are quite effective in removing steroid hormones from wastewater. Thus, low technology systems such as WSP systems are suitable techniques in low income counties due to relatively low costs of building, operating and maintaining these systems.

Simultaneous Determination of Naturally Occurring Estrogens and Mycoestrogens in Milk by Ultrahigh-Performance Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry Analysis

A simple, fast, and reproducible method for the simultaneous determination of natural estrogens and mycoestrogens (resorcylic acid lactones) in milk by ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography combined with electrospray ionization triple quadrupole tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC/ESI-MS/MS) is described. The extraction was carried out by solid-phase extraction (SPE) using graphitized carbon black as solid sorbent. The use of carbon black allowed us to avoid any type of sample pretreatment, and the extraction was performed simply by diluting milk samples in water. Correlation coefficient values were obtained in the range between 0.9991 and 1, with good recoveries (67-107% at the lowest spiked level), repeatability (4.8-16.8%), and reproducibility (3.2-16.3%). Moreover, a very low matrix effect was observed for both estrogens and mycoestrogens. With respect to a previous method based on SPE with Oasis MAX cartridges, the one here described allowed us to detect all the analytes under investigation, at the lowest tested concentration level, including free estrogens (in particular estriol). Finally, the developed UHPLC/ESI-MS/MS method was applied to the analysis of some whole milk samples from different lactating animals (cow, goat, and donkey) as well as ultrahigh-temperature-treated cow milk and powder milk samples.

Analytical strategies based on chromatography-mass spectrometry for the determination of estrogen-mimicking compounds in food

Food safety can be compromised by the presence of a wide variety of substances, deriving from both natural and anthropogenic sources. Among these substances, compounds exhibiting various degrees of estrogenic activity have been widely studied in environmental samples, whereas less attention has been devoted to food matrices. The aim of the present review is to give a general overview on the recent analytical methods based on gas or liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry for the determination of estrogen-like compounds in foods, including new developments, improvements and upcoming trends in the field. Attention will be focused on four representative groups of compounds, i.e. natural and synthetic estrogens, mycoestrogens, phytoestrogens, and alkylphenols.

Spatial and seasonal variations of occurrences and concentrations of endocrine disrupting chemicals in unconfined and confined aquifers recharged by reclaimed water: a field study along the Chaobai River, Beijing

A field study on the spatial and seasonal variations of occurrences and concentrations of five selected endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs), namely, estrone, 17β-estradiol, 17α-ethinyl estradiol, estriol, and bisphenol A, was conducted in Beijing, where reclaimed water is used to recharge groundwater through the permeable bed of the Chaobai River. This study collected 64 surface water samples from the Wenyu and the Chaobai Rivers and 51 groundwater samples from the unconfined aquifer (UA) and two underlying confined aquifers (CA I and CA II) at depths of 30, 50 and 80 m, respectively. EDCs were detected in 100.0%, 94.4% and 40.0% of groundwater samples from the UA, CA I and CA II, respectively, at concentrations which decreased by 1-2 orders of magnitude with depth. The occurrences and concentrations of EDCs in groundwater also decreased with the increasing distance to the river bank. In one monitoring section with seasonal wetting and drying, the occurrences and concentrations of EDCs dropped significantly during the dry season (December to March) without recharging. These results indicate that improving the removal of EDCs in reclaimed water and optimizing the management of the recharging operation could reduce the risks of endocrine disrupting chemicals.

Quantification of a male sea lamprey pheromone in tributaries of Laurentian Great Lakes by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry

We developed an assay for measuring 7α,12α,24-trihydroxy-5a-cholan-3-one-24-sulfate (3kPZS), a mating pheromone released by male sea lampreys (Petromyzon marinus), at low picomolar concentrations in natural waters to assess the presence of invasive populations. 3kPZS was extracted from streamwater at a rate of recovery up to 90% using a single cation-exchange and reversed-phase mixed-mode cartridge, along with [(2)H(5)]3kPZS as an internal standard, and quantified using ultrahigh performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. The limit of detection was below 0.1 ng L(-1) (210 fM), which was the lowest concentration tested. Intra- and interday coefficients of variation were between 0.3-11.6% and 4.8-9.8%, respectively, at 1 ng 3kPZS L(-1) and 5 ng 3kPZS L(-1). This assay was validated by repeat measurements of water samples from a stream spiked with synthesized 3kPZS to reach 4.74 ng L(-1) or 0.24 ng L(-1). We further verified the utility of this assay to detect spawning populations of lampreys; in the seven tributaries to the Laurentian Great Lakes sampled, 3kPZS concentrations were found to range between 0.15 and 2.85 ng L(-1) during the spawning season in known sea lamprey infested segments and were not detectable in uninfested segments. The 3kPZS assay may be useful for the integrated management of sea lamprey, an invasive species in the Great Lakes where pheromone-based control and assessment techniques are desired.

Are oral contraceptives a significant contributor to the estrogenicity of drinking water?

Recent observed feminization of aquatic animals has raised concerns about estrogenic compounds in water supplies and the potential for these chemicals to reach drinking water. Public perception frequently attributes this feminization to oral contraceptives (OCs) in wastewater and raises concerns that exposure to OCs in drinking water may contribute to the recent rise in human reproductive problems. This paper reviews the literature regarding various sources of estrogens, in surface, source and drinking water, with an emphasis on the active molecule that comes from OCs. It includes discussion of the various agricultural, industrial, and municipal sources and outlines the contributions of estrogenic chemicals to the estrogenicity of waterways and estimates that the risk of exposure to synthetic estrogens in drinking water on human health is negligible. This paper also provides recommendations for strategies to better understand all the potential sources of estrogenic compounds in the environment and possibilities to reduce the levels of estrogenic chemicals in the water supply.

Quantification of zearalenone in various solid agroenvironmental samples using D6-zearalenone as the internal standard

Because of its pronounced estrogenicity, zearalenone may be of concern not only in the aqueous but also in the terrestrial environment. Therefore, we developed several analytical methods to quantify zearalenone in different solid matrices of agroenvironmental relevance (i.e., plant organs, soil, manure, and sewage sludge). The use of D(6)-zearalenone as the internal standard (IS) was essential to render the analytical method largely matrix-independent because it compensated for target analyte losses during extract treatment and ion suppression during ionization. Soil and sewage sludge samples were extracted with Soxhlet, whereas plant material and manure samples were extracted by liquid solvent extraction at room temperature. Absolute recoveries for zearalenone were 70-104% for plant materials, 105% for soil, 76% for manure, and 30% for sewage sludge. Relative recoveries ranged from 86 to 113% for all matrices, indicating that the IS was capable to largely compensate for losses during analysis. Ion suppression, between 8 and 74%, was in all cases compensated by the IS but influenced the method quantification levels. These were 3.2-26.2 ng/g(dryweightdw) for plant materials, 0.7 ng/g(dw) for soil, 12.3 ng/g(dw) for manure, and 6.8 ng/g(dw) for sewage sludge. Plant material concentrations varied from 86 ng/g(dw) to more than 16.7 microg/g(dw), depending on the organ and crop. Soil concentrations were between not detectable and 7.5 ng/g(dw), depending on the sampling depth. Zearalenone could be quantified in all manure samples in concentrations between 8 and 333 ng/g(dw). Except for two of the 85 investigated sewage sludge samples, zearalenone concentrations were below quantification limit.

Determination of estradiol and its degradation products by liquid chromatography

A novel HPLC method for simultaneous determination of estradiol and its seven degradation products in topical gel was developed. Zorbax SB-CN (150 mm x 4.6 mm, 5 microm) analytical column and mobile phase composed of acetonitrile, phosphoric acid 0.085%, and tetrahydrofurane (27:63:10, v/v/v) at flow-rate 1.0 ml min(-1) were used for the chromatographic separation using UV detection at 225 nm. The active substance estradiol was separated from all its known degradation products successfully. Two degradation products estrone and Delta(9(11))-estrone were not separated sufficiently, their peaks were evaluated as a sum of two components. The method was validated according to ICH guideline recommendations and thereafter it was successfully applied for stability tests of topical cream Estrogel HBF in the quality control laboratory. Limits of detection for degradation products ranged from 1.03 x 10(-5) to 1.14 x 10(-4) mg ml(-1), limits of quantitation for degradation products were in the range 3.43 x 10(-5) to 3.81 x 10(-4) mg ml(-1). The developed method is selective, precise, accurate and sensitive enough for determination of estradiol and its known degradation products.

Determination of steroidal estrogens in flushed dairy manure wastewater by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry

There is a critical need to accurately measure the concentrations of natural steroidal estrogens in flushed dairy manure wastewater (FDMW) to assess any potential risk of waterway contamination resulting from land application. Estrogens are a concern because low concentrations (10-100 ng L-1) in water can adversely affect aquatic vertebrate species such as fish, turtles, and frogs by disrupting the normal function of their endocrine systems. The objective of this study was to develop a sample preparation method that permits the quantification of four natural steroidal estrogens (17alpha-estradiol, 17beta-estradiol, estrone, and estriol) in FDMW by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Solid-phase extraction with graphitized carbon black was used for the bulk extraction of estrogens from FDMW and additional sample purification was accomplished with C-18. The sample preparation method allowed estrogens to be detected accurately by GC-MS in FDMW. Spiked recovery experiments indicated that the method is satisfactory for measuring the estrogens of interest in FDMW with average recovery of >90%. As expected in FDMW, characterization of the estrogen profile revealed a large abundance of 17alpha-estradiol relative to 17beta-estradiol and estrone. Estriol was not detected in FDMW. The methodology developed in this research helps provide an analytical foundation for the quantification of steroidal estrogens in FDMW by GC-MS.

Differentiation of estriol glucuronide isomers by chemical derivatization and electrospray tandem mass spectrometry

This paper describes a way of differentiating between the three isomers of estriol glucuronide by the use of chemical derivatization and liquid chromatography/electrospray tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS). In their native form, these isomers gave rise to almost identical product ion spectra, involving the neutral loss of 176 Da (i.e. monodehydrated glucuronic acid), which made it impossible to determine the position of conjugation by MS/MS alone. In order to change the fragmentation pathways, positive charges were introduced into the analytes by chemical derivatization. The following reagents were tested: 2-chloro-1-methylpyridinium iodide, 1-ethyl-3-(3-dimethylaminopropyl)carbodiimide and 2-picolylamine. Interestingly, derivatization using a combination of all three reagents gave a selective fragmentation pattern that could differentiate between the isomers estriol-16-glucuronide and estriol-17-glucuronide. Estriol-3-glucuronide, which lacks a free phenolic group, could be differentiated through a different type of reaction product when exposed to 2-chloro-1-methylpyridinium iodide. Furthermore, in order to assist structural assignment of the fragments, their accurate masses were determined using a hybrid quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometer and fragmentation pathways were elucidated by the use of MS3 on an ion trap mass spectrometer.

HPLC determination of estradiol, its degradation product, and preservatives in new topical formulation Estrogel HBF

This paper deals with the development of a novel method for simultaneous determination of estradiol, its degradation product estrone, and two preservatives, methylparaben and propylparaben, in the topical preparation Estradiol HBF. After optimization of the analytical conditions the method was validated and applied in studies of the stability of the topical preparation Estrogel HBF. Separation of all these compounds was performed on a Supelco Discovery C18 (250 mm x 3.0 mm, 5 microm) analytical column. A mixture of acetonitrile, methanol, and water (23:24:53 v/ v) was chosen as mobile phase. UV absorbance at 225 nm was used for detection and quantitation of analytes. The total analysis time was less than 12 min at a flow rate of 0.9 mL min(-1). All the compounds were isolated from the topical gel by simple extraction with an acetonitrile solution of hydrocortisone, as internal standard, and using sonication and centrifugation thereafter. The supernatant was injected directly on to the analytical column. The recovery of the procedure was from 96.9 to 100.4%. Validation of method according international guidelines was successfully performed.

Sorption and degradation of steroid hormones in soils during transport: column studies and model evaluation

Natural and synthetic analogues of steroid hormones and their metabolites have emerged as contaminants of concern. Characterizing sorption and degradation processes is essential to assess the environmental distribution, persistence, and ecological significance of steroid hormones in terrestrial and aquatic systems. We examined the fate and transport of testosterone and 17beta-estradiol by conducting a series of fast-flow-velocity transport experiments under pulse-type and flow-interruption boundary conditions in columns packed with a surface soil, freshwater sediment, and two sands. Flow-interruption experiments provided independent estimates of degradation coefficients for the parent hormones and their metabolites, while pulse-input type experiments were used to identify transport mechanisms for hormones by employing forward modeling approaches. Estimated degradation rate coefficients (k) for the hormones from flow-interruption experiments ranged from 0.003 to 0.015 h(-1) for testosterone and from 0.0003 to 0.075 h(-1) for estradiol, similar to those observed in batch studies. Degradation rate coefficients for the two primary metabolites were 1-2 orders of magnitude larger than those for the parent chemicals. Estimated k values decreased with column life as a result of nutrient depletion. Large sorption by soils of the parent and metabolites (log Koc approximately 2.77-3.69) did not appear to hinder degradation; k values were an order of magnitude smaller than the estimated sorption mass-transfer constants. Differences in hormone breakthrough curves from a single-pulse displacement and those predicted using independently estimated parameters suggest that modeling hormone degradation as a simple first-order kinetic process may be sufficient, but not accurate.

Manure-borne estrogens as potential environmental contaminants: a review

Livestock wastes are potential sources of endocrine disrupting compounds to the environment. Steroidal estrogen hormones such as estradiol, estrone, and estriol are a particular concern because there is evidence that low nanogram per liter concentrations of estrogens in water can adversely affect the reproductive biology of fish and other aquatic vertebrate species. We performed a literature review to assess the current state of science regarding estrogen physicochemical properties, livestock excretion, and the fate of manure-borne estrogens in the environment. Unconjugated steroidal estrogens have low solubility in water (0.8-13.3 mg L(-1)) and are moderately hydrophobic (log Kow 2.6-4.0). Cattle excrete mostly 17alpha-estradiol, 17beta-estradiol, estrone, and respective sulfated and glucuronidated counterparts, whereas swine and poultry excrete mostly 17beta-estradiol, estrone, estriol, and respective sulfated and glucuronidated counterparts. The environmental fate of estrogens is not clearly known. Laboratory-based studies have found that the biological activity of these compounds is greatly reduced or eliminated within several hours to days due to degradation and sorption. On the other hand, field studies have demonstrated that estrogens are sufficiently mobile and persistent to impact surface and groundwater quality. Future research should use standardized methods for the analysis of manure, soil, and water. More information is needed about the types and amounts of estrogens that exist in livestock wastes and the fate of manure-borne estrogens applied to agricultural lands. Field and laboratory studies should work toward revealing the mechanisms of estrogen degradation, sorption, and transport so that the risk of estrogen contamination of waterways can be minimized.

Derivatisation and gas chromatography-chemical ionisation mass spectrometry of selected synthetic and natural endocrine disruptive chemicals

Methods for ultra trace detection of endocrine disruptive chemicals (EDCs) are needed because of their low levels of impact. Twenty-one EDCs were selected, including 17beta-estradiol, 17alpha-ethinylestradiol, 17beta-testosterone and bisphenol A. Derivatisation with eight different fluorine containing compounds was examined. All EDCs could be derivatised automatedly (autosampler) with heptafluorobutyric acid (HFB) anhydride and trifluoroacetic acid (TFA) anhydride, respectively. The detection of these HFB and TFA derivatives in different chemical ionisation modes was studied. Fourteen different reagent gases, including methane, ammonia, acetone and water, were tested with the HFB and TFA derivatives in the negative chemical ionisation mode. Furthermore both types of derivatives were measured in positive chemical ionisation mode. Methane or water provide a good detection of all 21 TFA derivatives and create mass spectra with few fragmentation and characteristic mass peaks. This could serve as a basis for tandem or multiple mass spectrometric measurements.

Separation and detection of neuroactive steroids from biological matrices

This review is based on a selection of research papers published mainly in the last decade and it describes various analytical aspects of separation and detection of neuroactive steroids in biological matrices.