Control of mitotic spindle position by the Saccharomyces cerevisiae formin Bni1p

A Yeast Mitotic Tale for the Nucleus and the Vacuoles to Embrace

The morphology of the nucleus is roughly spherical in most eukaryotic cells. However, this organelle shape needs to change as the cell travels through narrow intercellular spaces during cell migration and during cell division in organisms that undergo closed mitosis, i.e., without dismantling the nuclear envelope, such as yeast. In addition, the nuclear morphology is often modified under stress and in pathological conditions, being a hallmark of cancer and senescent cells. Thus, understanding nuclear morphological dynamics is of uttermost importance, as pathways and proteins involved in nuclear shaping can be targeted in anticancer, antiaging, and antifungal therapies. Here, we review how and why the nuclear shape changes during mitotic blocks in yeast, introducing novel data that associate these changes with both the nucleolus and the vacuole. Altogether, these findings suggest a close relationship between the nucleolar domain of the nucleus and the autophagic organelle, which we also discuss here. Encouragingly, recent evidence in tumor cell lines has linked aberrant nuclear morphology to defects in lysosomal function.

Regulation of Cdc42 for polarized growth in budding yeast

The Rho GTPase Cdc42 is a central regulator of cell polarity in diverse cell types. The activity of Cdc42 is dynamically controlled in time and space to enable distinct polarization events, which generally occur along a single axis in response to spatial cues. Our understanding of the mechanisms underlying Cdc42 polarization has benefited largely from studies of the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, a genetically tractable model organism. In budding yeast, Cdc42 activation occurs in two temporal steps in the G1 phase of the cell cycle to establish a proper growth site. Here, we review findings in budding yeast that reveal an intricate crosstalk among polarity proteins for biphasic Cdc42 regulation. The first step of Cdc42 activation may determine the axis of cell polarity, while the second step ensures robust Cdc42 polarization for growth. Biphasic Cdc42 polarization is likely to ensure the proper timing of events including the assembly and recognition of spatial landmarks and stepwise assembly of a new ring of septins, cytoskeletal GTP-binding proteins, at the incipient bud site. Biphasic activation of GTPases has also been observed in mammalian cells, suggesting that biphasic activation could be a general mechanism for signal-responsive cell polarization. Cdc42 activity is necessary for polarity establishment during normal cell division and development, but its activity has also been implicated in the promotion of aging. We also discuss negative polarity signaling and emerging concepts of Cdc42 signaling in cellular aging.

Astral microtubule forces alter nuclear organization and inhibit DNA repair in budding yeast

Dividing cells must balance the maintenance of genome integrity with the generation of cytoskeletal forces that control chromosome position. In this study, we investigate how forces on astral microtubules impact the genome during cell division by using live-cell imaging of the cytoskeleton, chromatin, and DNA damage repair in budding yeast. Our results demonstrate that dynein-dependent forces on astral microtubules are propagated through the spindle during nuclear migration and when in excess can increase the frequency of double-stranded breaks (DSBs). Under these conditions, we find that homology-directed repair of DSBs is delayed, indicating antagonism between nuclear migration and the mechanism of homology-directed repair. These effects are partially rescued by mutants that weaken pericentric cohesion or mutants that decrease constriction on the nucleus as it moves through the bud neck. We propose that minimizing nuclear movement aids in finding a donor strand for homologous recombination.

The actin capping protein in Aspergillus nidulans enhances dynein function without significantly affecting Arp1 filament assembly

The minus-end-directed microtubule motor cytoplasmic dynein requires the dynactin complex for in vivo functions. The backbone of the vertebrate dynactin complex is the Arp1 (actin-related protein 1) mini-filament whose barbed end binds to the heterodimeric actin capping protein. However, it is unclear whether the capping protein is a dynactin component in lower eukaryotic organisms, especially because it does not appear to be a component of the budding yeast dynactin complex. Here our biochemical data show that the capping protein is a component of the dynactin complex in the filamentous fungus Aspergillus nidulans. Moreover, deletion of the gene encoding capping protein alpha (capA) results in a defect in both nuclear distribution and early-endosome transport, two dynein-mediated processes. However, the defect in either process is less severe than that exhibited by a dynein heavy chain mutant or the ∆p25 mutant of dynactin. In addition, loss of capping protein does not significantly affect the assembly of the dynactin Arp1 filament or the formation of the dynein-dynactin-∆C-HookA (Hook in A. nidulans) complex. These results suggest that fungal capping protein is not important for Arp1 filament assembly but its presence is required for enhancing dynein function in vivo.

Nuclear movement in fungi

Nuclear movement within a cell occurs in a variety of eukaryotic organisms including yeasts and filamentous fungi. Fungal molecular genetic studies identified the minus-end-directed microtubule motor cytoplasmic dynein as a critical protein for nuclear movement or orientation of the mitotic spindle contained in the nucleus. Studies in the budding yeast first indicated that dynein anchored at the cortex via its anchoring protein Num1 exerts pulling force on an astral microtubule to orient the anaphase spindle across the mother-daughter axis before nuclear division. Prior to anaphase, myosin V interacts with the plus end of an astral microtubule via Kar9-Bim1/EB1 and pulls the plus end along the actin cables to move the nucleus/spindle close to the bud neck. In addition, pushing or pulling forces generated from cortex-linked polymerization or depolymerization of microtubules drive nuclear movements in yeasts and possibly also in filamentous fungi. In filamentous fungi, multiple nuclei within a hyphal segment undergo dynein-dependent back-and-forth movements and their positioning is also influenced by cytoplasmic streaming toward the hyphal tip. In addition, nuclear movement occurs at various stages of fungal development and fungal infection of plant tissues. This review discusses our current understanding on the mechanisms of nuclear movement in fungal organisms, the importance of nuclear positioning and the regulatory strategies that ensure the proper positioning of nucleus/spindle.

Control of Formin Distribution and Actin Cable Assembly by the E3 Ubiquitin Ligases Dma1 and Dma2

Formins are widespread actin-polymerizing proteins that play pivotal roles in a number of processes, such as cell polarity, morphogenesis, cytokinesis, and cell migration. In agreement with their crucial function, formins are prone to a variety of regulatory mechanisms that include autoinhibition, post-translational modifications, and interaction with formin modulators. Furthermore, activation and function of formins is intimately linked to their ability to interact with membranes. In the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the two formins Bni1 and Bnr1 play both separate and overlapping functions in the organization of the actin cytoskeleton. In addition, they are controlled by both common and different regulatory mechanisms. Here we show that proper localization of both formins requires the redundant E3 ubiquitin ligases Dma1 and Dma2, which were previously involved in spindle positioning and septin organization. In dma1 dma2 double mutants, formin distribution at polarity sites is impaired, thus causing defects in the organization of the actin cable network and hypersensitivity to the actin depolymerizer latrunculin B. Expression of a hyperactive variant of Bni1 (Bni1-V360D) rescues these defects and partially restores proper spindle positioning in the mutant, suggesting that the failure of dma1 dma2 mutant cells to position the spindle is partly due to faulty formin activity. Strikingly, Dma1/2 interact physically with both formins, while their ubiquitin-ligase activity is required for formin function and polarized localization. Thus, ubiquitylation of formin or a formin interactor(s) could promote formin binding to membrane and its ability to nucleate actin. Altogether, our data highlight a novel level of formin regulation that further expands our knowledge of the complex and multilayered controls of these key cytoskeleton organizers.

Rho GTPases at the crossroad of signaling networks in mammals: impact of Rho-GTPases on microtubule organization and dynamics

Microtubule (MT) organization and dynamics downstream of external cues is crucial for maintaining cellular architecture and the generation of cell asymmetries. In interphase cells RhoA, Rac, and Cdc42, conspicuous members of the family of small Rho GTPases, have major roles in modulating MT stability, and hence polarized cell behaviors. However, MTs are not mere targets of Rho GTPases, but also serve as signaling platforms coupling MT dynamics to Rho GTPase activation in a variety of cellular conditions. In this article, we review some of the key studies describing the reciprocal relationship between small Rho-GTPases and MTs during migration and polarization.

Formin-mediated actin polymerization cooperates with Mushroom body defect (Mud)-Dynein during Frizzled-Dishevelled spindle orientation

To position the mitotic spindle, cytoskeletal components must be coordinated to generate cortical forces on astral microtubules. Although the dynein motor is common to many spindle orientation systems, 'accessory pathways' are often also required. In this work, we identified an accessory spindle orientation pathway in Drosophila that functions with Dynein during planar cell polarity, downstream of the Frizzled (Fz) effector Dishevelled (Dsh). Dsh contains a PDZ ligand and a Dynein-recruiting DEP domain that are both required for spindle orientation. The Dsh PDZ ligand recruits Canoe/Afadin and ultimately leads to Rho GTPase signaling mediated through RhoGEF2. The formin Diaphanous (Dia) functions as the Rho effector in this pathway, inducing F-actin enrichment at sites of cortical Dsh. Chimeric protein experiments show that the Dia-actin accessory pathway can be replaced by an independent kinesin (Khc73) accessory pathway for Dsh-mediated spindle orientation. Our results define two 'modular' spindle orientation pathways and show an essential role for actin regulation in Dsh-mediated spindle orientation.

Structure and function in the budding yeast nucleus

Budding yeast, like other eukaryotes, carries its genetic information on chromosomes that are sequestered from other cellular constituents by a double membrane, which forms the nucleus. An elaborate molecular machinery forms large pores that span the double membrane and regulate the traffic of macromolecules into and out of the nucleus. In multicellular eukaryotes, an intermediate filament meshwork formed of lamin proteins bridges from pore to pore and helps the nucleus reform after mitosis. Yeast, however, lacks lamins, and the nuclear envelope is not disrupted during yeast mitosis. The mitotic spindle nucleates from the nucleoplasmic face of the spindle pole body, which is embedded in the nuclear envelope. Surprisingly, the kinetochores remain attached to short microtubules throughout interphase, influencing the position of centromeres in the interphase nucleus, and telomeres are found clustered in foci at the nuclear periphery. In addition to this chromosomal organization, the yeast nucleus is functionally compartmentalized to allow efficient gene expression, repression, RNA processing, genomic replication, and repair. The formation of functional subcompartments is achieved in the nucleus without intranuclear membranes and depends instead on sequence elements, protein-protein interactions, specific anchorage sites at the nuclear envelope or at pores, and long-range contacts between specific chromosomal loci, such as telomeres. Here we review the spatial organization of the budding yeast nucleus, the proteins involved in forming nuclear subcompartments, and evidence suggesting that the spatial organization of the nucleus is important for nuclear function.

Anthrax receptors position the spindle

Spindle orientation plays a pivotal role in tissue morphogenesis. An asymmetric anthrax receptor cap is revealed to promote activation of a formin to orient the spindle along the planar cell polarity (PCP) axis in zebrafish dorsal epiblast cells.

Anthrax toxin receptor 2a controls mitotic spindle positioning

Oriented mitosis is essential during tissue morphogenesis. The Wnt/planar cell polarity (Wnt/PCP) pathway orients mitosis in a number of developmental systems, including dorsal epiblast cell divisions along the animal-vegetal (A-V) axis during zebrafish gastrulation. How Wnt signalling orients the mitotic plane is, however, unknown. Here we show that, in dorsal epiblast cells, anthrax toxin receptor 2a (Antxr2a) accumulates in a polarized cortical cap, which is aligned with the embryonic A-V axis and forecasts the division plane. Filamentous actin (F-actin) also forms an A-V polarized cap, which depends on Wnt/PCP and its effectors RhoA and Rock2. Antxr2a is recruited to the cap by interacting with actin. Antxr2a also interacts with RhoA and together they activate the diaphanous-related formin zDia2. Mechanistically, Antxr2a functions as a Wnt-dependent polarized determinant, which, through the action of RhoA and zDia2, exerts torque on the spindle to align it with the A-V axis.

Formins: emerging players in the dynamic plant cell cortex

Formins (FH2 proteins) are an evolutionarily conserved family of eukaryotic proteins, sharing the common FH2 domain. While they have been, until recently, understood mainly as actin nucleators, formins are also engaged in various additional aspects of cytoskeletal organization and signaling, including, but not limited to, the crosstalk between the actin and microtubule networks. A surprising diversity of domain organizations has been discovered among the FH2 proteins, and specific domain setups have been found in plants. Seed plants have two clades of formins, one of them (Class I) containing mostly transmembrane proteins, while members of the other one (Class II) may be anchored to membranes via a putative membrane-binding domain related to the PTEN antioncogene. Thus, plant formins present good candidates for possible mediators of coordination of the cortical actin and microtubule cytoskeletons, as well as their attachment to the plasma membrane, that is, aspects of cell cortex organization likely to be important for cell and tissue morphogenesis. Although experimental studies of plant formin function are hampered by the large number of formin genes and their functional redundancy, recent experimental work has already resulted in some remarkable insights into the function of FH2 proteins in plants.

Regulation of the formin Bnr1 by septins anda MARK/Par1-family septin-associated kinase

The septin-associated kinase Gin4 is required for the localization and activation of Bnr1, and the septin Shs1 is essential for Bnr1 activation. The loss of Gin4 or Shs1 phenocopies the loss of Bnr1; these defects are suppressed by constitutive activation of Bnr1. The data reveal novel regulatory links between the actin and septin cytoskeletons.

Formin-family proteins promote the assembly of linear actin filaments and are required to generate cellular actin structures, such as actin stress fibers and the cytokinetic actomyosin contractile ring. Many formin proteins are regulated by an autoinhibition mechanism involving intramolecular binding of a Diaphanous inhibitory domain and a Diaphanous autoregulatory domain. However, the activation mechanism for these Diaphanous-related formins (DRFs) is not completely understood. Although small GTPases play an important role in relieving autoinhibition, other factors likely contribute. Here we describe a requirement for the septin Shs1 and the septin-associated kinase Gin4 for the localization and in vivo activity of the budding yeast DRF Bnr1. In budding yeast strains in which the other formin, Bni1, is conditionally inactivated, the loss of Gin4 or Shs1 results in the loss of actin cables and cell death, similar to the loss of Bnr1. The defects in these strains can be suppressed by constitutive activation of Bnr1. Gin4 is involved in both the localization and activation of Bnr1, whereas the septin Shs1 is required for Bnr1 activation but not its localization. Gin4 promotes the activity of Bnr1 independently of the Gin4 kinase activity, and Gin4 lacking its kinase domain binds to the critical localization region of Bnr1. These data reveal novel regulatory links between the actin and septin cytoskeletons.

Cell polarization and cytokinesis in budding yeast

Asymmetric cell division, which includes cell polarization and cytokinesis, is essential for generating cell diversity during development. The budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae reproduces by asymmetric cell division, and has thus served as an attractive model for unraveling the general principles of eukaryotic cell polarization and cytokinesis. Polarity development requires G-protein signaling, cytoskeletal polarization, and exocytosis, whereas cytokinesis requires concerted actions of a contractile actomyosin ring and targeted membrane deposition. In this chapter, we discuss the mechanics and spatial control of polarity development and cytokinesis, emphasizing the key concepts, mechanisms, and emerging questions in the field.

Yeast formin Bni1p has multiple localization regions that function in polarized growth and spindle orientation

There are four distinct localization domains in formin Bni1p of budding yeast. Analysis of the functions of the domains in the actin cytoskeleton and in spindle orientation reveals unexpected complexity in the mechanism of formin localization and function.

Formins are conserved proteins that assemble unbranched actin filaments in a regulated, localized manner. Budding yeast's two formins, Bni1p and Bnr1p, assemble actin cables necessary for polarized cell growth and organelle segregation. Here we define four regions in Bni1p that contribute to its localization to the bud and at the bud neck. The first (residues 1–333) requires dimerization for its localization and encompasses the Rho-binding domain. The second (residues 334–821) covers the Diaphanous inhibitory–dimerization–coiled coil domains, and the third is the Spa2p-binding domain. The fourth region encompasses the formin homology 1–formin homology 2–COOH region of the protein. These four regions can each localize to the bud cortex and bud neck at the right stage of the cell cycle independent of both F-actin and endogenous Bni1p. The first three regions contribute cumulatively to the proper localization of Bni1p, as revealed by the effects of progressive loss of these regions on the actin cytoskeleton and fidelity of spindle orientation. The fourth region contributes to the localization of Bni1p in tiny budded cells. Expression of mislocalized Bni1p constructs has a dominant-negative effect on both growth and nuclear segregation due to mislocalized actin assembly. These results define an unexpected complexity in the mechanism of formin localization and function.

And the dead shall rise: actin and myosin return to the spindle

The spindle directs chromosome partitioning in eukaryotes and, for the last three decades, has been considered primarily a structure based on microtubules, microtubule motors, and other microtubule binding proteins. However, a surprisingly large body of both old and new studies suggests roles for actin filaments (F-actin) and myosins (F-actin-based motor proteins) in spindle assembly and function. Here we review these data and conclude that in several cases the evidence for the participation of F-actin and myosins in spindle function is very strong, and in the situations where it is less strong, there is nevertheless enough evidence to warrant further investigation.

Pronounced and extensive microtubule defects in a Saccharomyces cerevisiae DIS3 mutant

Subunits of the RNA processing exosome assemble into structurally distinct protein complexes that function in disparate cellular compartments and RNA metabolic pathways. Here, in a genetic, cell biological and transcriptomic analysis, we examined the role of Dis3, an essential polypeptide with endo- and 3'→5' exo-ribonuclease activity, in cell cycle progression. We present several lines of evidence that perturbation of DIS3 affects microtubule (MT) localization and structure in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Cells with a DIS3 mutant: (a) accumulate anaphase and pre-anaphase mitotic spindles; (b) exhibit spindles that are misorientated and displaced from the bud neck; (c) harbour elongated spindle-associated astral MTs; (d) have an increased G1 astral MT length and number; and (e) are hypersensitive to MT poisons. Mutations in the core exosome genes RRP4 and MTR3 and the exosome cofactor gene MTR4, but not other exosome subunit gene mutants, also elicit MT phenotypes. RNA deep sequencing analysis (RNA-seq) shows broad changes in the levels of cell cycle- and MT-related transcripts in mutant strains. Collectively, the data presented in this study suggest an evolutionarily conserved role for Dis3 in linking RNA metabolism, MTs and cell cycle progression.

FORMIN a link between kinetochores and microtubule ends

The mammalian diaphanous-related (mDia) formin proteins are well known for their actin-nucleation and filament-elongation activities in mediating actin dynamics. They also directly bind to microtubules and regulate microtubule stabilization at the leading edge of the cell during cell migration. Recently, the formin mDia3 was shown to associate with the kinetochore and to contribute to metaphase chromosome alignment, a process in which kinetochores form stable attachments with growing and shrinking microtubules. We suggest that the formin mDia3 could contribute to the regulation of kinetochore-bound microtubule dynamics, in coordination with attachment via its own microtubule-binding activity, as well as via its interaction with the tip-tracker EB1 (end-binding protein 1).

mDia3-EB1-APC: A connection between kinetochores and microtubule plus ends

Kinetochores must continuously associate with dynamic microtubule plus ends, as they oscillate along the mitotic spindle. The molecular basis for the kinetochore to track microtubule plus ends remains unresolved. In a recent study, we have shown an essential role of the formin mDia3 in stable kinetochore microtubule attachment and metaphase chromosome alignment. This function is attributable to EB1-binding by mDia3, for replacing endogenous mDia3 with an EB1-binding deficient mutant results in chromosome misalignment. EB1 specifically targets to attached, antipoleward kinetochores with polymerizing microtubules during chromosome oscillation. Therefore, we speculate that the mDai3-EB1-APC complex formation may relay EB1 microtubule plus end-tracking activity to the kinetochore.

Aurora B regulates formin mDia3 in achieving metaphase chromosome alignment

Proper bipolar attachment of sister kinetochores to the mitotic spindle is critical for accurate chromosome segregation in mitosis. Here we show an essential role of the formin mDia3 in achieving metaphase chromosome alignment. This function is independent of mDia3 actin nucleation activity, but is attributable to EB1-binding by mDia3. Furthermore, the microtubule binding FH2 domain of mDia3 is phosphorylated by Aurora B kinase in vitro, and cells expressing the nonphosphorylatable mDia3 mutant cannot position chromosomes at the metaphase plate. Purified recombinant mDia3 phosphorylated by Aurora B exhibits reduced ability to bind microtubules and stabilize microtubules against cold-induced disassembly in vitro. Cells expressing the phosphomimetic mDia3 mutant do not form stable kinetochore microtubule fibers; despite they are able to congress chromosomes to the metaphase plate. These findings reveal a key role for mDia3 and its regulation by Aurora B phosphorylation in achieving proper stable kinetochore microtubule attachment.

Dynamics of multiple nuclei in Ashbya gossypii hyphae depend on the control of cytoplasmic microtubules length by Bik1, Kip2, Kip3, and not on a capture/shrinkage mechanism

Ashbya gossypii has a budding yeast-like genome but grows exclusively as multinucleated hyphae. In contrast to budding yeast where positioning of nuclei at the bud neck is a major function of cytoplasmic microtubules (cMTs), A. gossypii nuclei are constantly in motion and positioning is not an issue. To investigate the role of cMTs in nuclear oscillation and bypassing, we constructed mutants potentially affecting cMT lengths. Hyphae lacking the plus (+)end marker Bik1 or the kinesin Kip2 cannot polymerize long cMTs and lose wild-type nuclear movements. Interestingly, hyphae lacking the kinesin Kip3 display longer cMTs concomitant with increased nuclear oscillation and bypassing. Polymerization and depolymerization rates of cMTs are 3 times higher in A. gossypii than in budding yeast and cMT catastrophes are rare. Growing cMTs slide along the hyphal cortex and exert pulling forces on nuclei. Surprisingly, a capture/shrinkage mechanism seems to be absent in A. gossypii. cMTs reaching a hyphal tip do not shrink, and cMT +ends accumulate in hyphal tips. Thus, differences in cMT dynamics and length control between budding yeast and A. gossypii are key elements in the adaptation of the cMT cytoskeleton to much longer cells and much higher degrees of nuclear mobilities.

Integrating high-throughput genetic interaction mapping and high-content screening to explore yeast spindle morphogenesis

A combination of yeast genetics, synthetic genetic array analysis, and high-throughput screening reveals that sumoylation of Mcm21p promotes disassembly of the mitotic spindle.

We describe the application of a novel screening approach that combines automated yeast genetics, synthetic genetic array (SGA) analysis, and a high-content screening (HCS) system to examine mitotic spindle morphogenesis. We measured numerous spindle and cellular morphological parameters in thousands of single mutants and corresponding sensitized double mutants lacking genes known to be involved in spindle function. We focused on a subset of genes that appear to define a highly conserved mitotic spindle disassembly pathway, which is known to involve Ipl1p, the yeast aurora B kinase, as well as the cell cycle regulatory networks mitotic exit network (MEN) and fourteen early anaphase release (FEAR). We also dissected the function of the kinetochore protein Mcm21p, showing that sumoylation of Mcm21p regulates the enrichment of Ipl1p and other chromosomal passenger proteins to the spindle midzone to mediate spindle disassembly. Although we focused on spindle disassembly in a proof-of-principle study, our integrated HCS-SGA method can be applied to virtually any pathway, making it a powerful means for identifying specific cellular functions.

Formins in development: orchestrating body plan origami

Formins, proteins defined by the presence of an FH2 domain and their ability to nucleate linear F-actin de novo, play a key role in the regulation of the cytoskeleton. Initially thought to primarily regulate actin, recent studies have highlighted a role for formins in the regulation of microtubule dynamics, and most recently have uncovered the ability of some formins to coordinate the organization of both the microtubule and actin cytoskeletons. While biochemical analyses of this family of proteins have yielded many insights into how formins regulate diverse cytoskeletal reorganizations, we are only beginning to appreciate how and when these functional properties are relevant to biological processes in a developmental or organismal context. Developmental genetic studies in fungi, Dictyostelium, vertebrates, plants and other model organisms have revealed conserved roles for formins in cell polarity, actin cable assembly and cytokinesis. However, roles have also been discovered for formins that are specific to particular organisms. Thus, formins perform both global and specific functions, with some of these roles concurring with previous biochemical data and others exposing new properties of formins. While not all family members have been examined across all organisms, the analyses to date highlight the significance of the flexibility within the formin family to regulate a broad spectrum of diverse cytoskeletal processes during development.

Unleashing formins to remodel the actin and microtubule cytoskeletons

Formins are highly conserved proteins that have essential roles in remodelling the actin and microtubule cytoskeletons to influence eukaryotic cell shape and behaviour. Recent work has identified numerous cellular factors that locally recruit, activate or inactivate formins to bridle and unleash their potent effects on actin nucleation and elongation. The effects of formins on microtubules have also begun to be described, which places formins in a prime position to coordinate actin and microtubule dynamics. The emerging complexity in the mechanisms governing formins mirrors the wide range of essential functions that they perform in cell motility, cell division and cell and tissue morphogenesis.

A role for the karyopherin Kap123p in microtubule stability

Several components of the nuclear transport machinery play a role in mitotic spindle assembly in higher eukaryotes. To further investigate the role of this family of proteins in microtubule function, we screened for mutations in Saccharomyces cerevisiae that confer sensitivity to microtubule-destabilizing drugs. One mutant exhibiting this phenotype lacked the gene encoding the karyopherin Kap123p. Analysis of kap123Delta cells revealed that the drug sensitivity was caused by a defect in microtubule stability and/or assembly. In support of this idea, we demonstrated genetic interactions between the kap123Delta mutation and mutated alleles of genes encoding alpha-tubulins and factors controlling microtubule dynamics. Moreover, kap123Delta cells exhibit defects in spindle structure and dynamics as well as nuclear positioning defects during mitosis. Cultures of kap123Delta strains are enriched for mononucleated large-budded cells often containing short spindles and nuclei positioned away from the budneck, phenotypes indicative of defects in both cytoplasmic and nuclear microtubules. Finally, we identified a gene, CAJ1, which when deleted in combination with KAP123 exacerbated the microtubule-related defects of the kap123Delta mutants. We propose that Kap123p and Caj1p, a member of the Hsp40 family of proteins, together play an essential role in normal microtubule function.

Formins and microtubules

Formins have recently been recognized as prominent regulators of the microtubule (MT) cytoskeleton where they modulate the dynamics of selected MTs in interphase and mitosis. The association of formins with the MT cytoskeleton and their action on MT dynamics are relatively unexplored areas, yet growing evidence supports a direct role in their regulation of MT stability independent of their activity on actin. Formins regulate MT stability alone or in combination with accessory MT binding proteins that have previously been implicated in the stabilization of MTs downstream of polarity cues. As actin and MT arrays are typically remodeled downstream of signaling pathways that orchestrate cell shape and division, formins are emerging as excellent candidates for coordinating the responses of the cytoskeletal in diverse regulated and homeostatic processes.

Dissecting the involvement of formins in Bud6p-mediated cortical capture of microtubules in S. cerevisiae

In S. cerevisiae, spindle orientation is linked to the inheritance of the `old' spindle pole by the bud. A player in this asymmetric commitment, Bud6p, promotes cortical capture of astral microtubules. Additionally, Bud6p stimulates actin cable formation though the formin Bni1p. A relationship with the second formin, Bnr1p, is unclear. Another player is Kar9p, a protein that guides microtubules along actin cables organised by formins. Here, we ask whether formins mediate Bud6p-dependent microtubule capture beyond any links to Kar9p and actin. We found that both formins control Bud6p localisation. bni1 mutations advanced recruitment of Bud6p at the bud neck, ahead of spindle assembly, whereas bnr1Δ reduced Bud6p association with the bud neck. Accordingly, bni1 or bnr1 mutations redirected microtubule capture to or away from the bud neck, respectively. Furthermore, a Bni1p truncation that can form actin cables independently of Bud6p could not bypass a bud6Δ for microtubule capture. Conversely, Bud61-565p, a truncation insufficient for correct actin organisation via formins, supported microtubule capture. Finally, Bud6p or Bud61-565p associated with microtubules in vitro. Thus, surprisingly, Bud6p may promote microtubule capture independently of its links to actin organisation, whereas formins would contribute to the program of Bud6p-dependent microtubule-cortex interactions by controlling Bud6p localisation.

Entamoeba histolytica encodes unique formins, a subset of which regulates DNA content and cell division

The formin family of proteins mediates dynamic changes in actin assembly in eukaryotes, and therefore it is important to understand the function of these proteins in Entamoeba histolytica, where actin forms the major cytoskeletal network. In this study we have identified the formin homologs encoded in the E. histolytica genome based on sequence analysis. Using multiple tools, we have analyzed the primary sequences of the eight E. histolytica formins and discovered three subsets: (i) E. histolytica formin-1 to -3 (Ehformin-1 to -3), (ii) Ehformin-4, and (iii) Ehformin-5 to -8. Two of these subsets (Ehformin-1 to -3 and Ehformin-4) showed significant sequence differences from their closest homologs, while Ehformin-5 to -8 were unique among all known formins. Since Ehformin-1 to -3 showed important sequence differences from Diaphanous-related formins (DRFs), we have studied the functions of Ehformin-1 and -2 in E. histolytica transformants. Like other DRFs, Ehformin-1 and -2 associated with F-actin in response to serum factors, in pseudopodia, in pinocytic and phagocytic vesicles, and at cell division sites. Ehformin-1 and -2 also localized with the microtubular assembly in the nucleus, indicating their involvement in genome segregation. While increased expression of Ehformin-1 and -2 did not affect phagocytosis or motility, it clearly showed an increase in the number of binucleated cells, the number of nuclei in multinucleated cells, and the average DNA content of each nucleus, suggesting that these proteins regulate both mitosis and cytokinesis in E. histolytica.

Mechanism and function of formins in the control of actin assembly

Formins are a widely expressed family of proteins that govern cell shape, adhesion, cytokinesis, and morphogenesis by remodeling the actin and microtubule cytoskeletons. These large multidomain proteins associate with a variety of other cellular factors and directly nucleate actin polymerization through a novel mechanism. The signature formin homology 2 (FH2) domain initiates filament assembly and remains persistently associated with the fast-growing barbed end, enabling rapid insertion of actin subunits while protecting the end from capping proteins. On the basis of structural and mechanistic work, an integrated model is presented for FH2 processive motion. The adjacent FH1 domain recruits profilin-actin complexes and accelerates filament elongation. The most predominantly expressed formins in animals and fungi are autoinhibited through intramolecular interactions and appear to be activated by Rho GTPases and additional factors. Other classes of formins lack the autoinhibitory and/or Rho-binding domains and thus are likely to be controlled by alternative mechanisms.

Stable preanaphase spindle positioning requires Bud6p and an apparent interaction between the spindle pole bodies and the neck

Faithful partitioning of genetic material during cell division requires accurate spatial and temporal positioning of nuclei within dividing cells. In Saccharomyces cerevisiae, nuclear positioning is regulated by an elegant interplay between components of the actin and microtubule cytoskeletons. Regulators of this process include Bud6p (also referred to as the actin-interacting protein Aip3p) and Kar9p, which function to promote contacts between cytoplasmic microtubule ends and actin-delimited cortical attachment points. Here, we present the previously undetected association of Bud6p with the cytoplasmic face of yeast spindle pole bodies, the functional equivalent of metazoan centrosomes. Cells lacking Bud6p show exaggerated movements of the nucleus between mother and daughter cells and display reduced amounts of time a given spindle pole body spends in close association with the neck region of budding cells. Furthermore, overexpression of BUD6 greatly enhances interactions between the spindle pole body and mother-bud neck in a spindle alignment-defective dynactin mutant. These results suggest that association of either spindle pole body with neck components, rather than simply entry of a spindle pole body into the daughter cell, provides a positive signal for the progression of mitosis. We propose that Bud6p, through its localization at both spindle pole bodies and at the mother-bud neck, supports this positive signal and provides a regulatory mechanism to prevent excessive oscillations of preanaphase nuclei, thus reducing the likelihood of mitotic delays and nuclear missegregation.

Central roles of small GTPases in the development of cell polarity in yeast and beyond

SUMMARY

The establishment of cell polarity is critical for the development of many organisms and for the function of many cell types. A large number of studies of diverse organisms from yeast to humans indicate that the conserved, small-molecular-weight GTPases function as key signaling proteins involved in cell polarization. The budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae is a particularly attractive model because it displays pronounced cell polarity in response to intracellular and extracellular cues. Cells of S. cerevisiae undergo polarized growth during various phases of their life cycle, such as during vegetative growth, mating between haploid cells of opposite mating types, and filamentous growth upon deprivation of nutrition such as nitrogen. Substantial progress has been made in deciphering the molecular basis of cell polarity in budding yeast. In particular, it becomes increasingly clear how small GTPases regulate polarized cytoskeletal organization, cell wall assembly, and exocytosis at the molecular level and how these GTPases are regulated. In this review, we discuss the key signaling pathways that regulate cell polarization during the mitotic cell cycle and during mating.

Formin-1 protein associates with microtubules through a peptide domain encoded by exon-2

Formin family proteins coordinate actin filaments and microtubules. The mechanisms by which formins bind and regulate the actin cytoskeleton have recently been well defined. However, the molecular mechanism by which formins coordinate actin filaments and microtubules remains poorly understood. We demonstrate here that Isoform-Ib of the Formin-1 protein (Fmn1-Ib) binds to microtubules via a protein domain that is physically separated from the known actin-binding domains. When expressed at low levels in NIH3T3 fibroblasts, Fmn1-Ib protein localizes to cytoplasmic filaments that nocodazole disruption confirmed as interphase microtubules. A series of progressive mutants of Fmn1-Ib demonstrated that deletion of exon-2 caused dissociation from microtubules and a stronger association with actin membrane ruffles. The exon-2-encoded peptide binds purified tubulin in vitro and is also sufficient to localize GFP to microtubules. Exon-2 does not contain any known formin homology domains. Deletion of exon 5, 7, 8, the FH1 domain or FH2 domain did not affect microtubule binding. Thus, our results indicate that exon-2 of Fmn1-Ib encodes a novel microtubule-binding peptide. Since formin proteins associate with actin filaments through the FH1 and FH2 domains, binding to interphase microtubules through this exon-2-encoded domain provides a novel mechanism by which Fmn1-Ib could coordinate actin filaments and microtubules.

Centralspindlin regulates ECT2 and RhoA accumulation at the equatorial cortex during cytokinesis

During determination of the cell division plane, an actomyosin contractile ring is induced at the equatorial cell cortex by signals from the mitotic apparatus and contracts to cause cleavage furrow progression. Although the small GTPase RhoA is known to regulate the progression, probably by controlling actin filament assembly and enhancing actomyosin interaction, any involvement of RhoA in division plane determination is unknown. In this study, using a trichloroacetic acid (TCA) fixation protocol we recently developed, we show that RhoA accumulates at the equatorial cortex before furrow initiation and continues to concentrate at the cleavage furrow during cytokinesis. We also demonstrate that both Rho activity and microtubule organization are required for RhoA localization and proper furrowing. Selective disruption of microtubule organization revealed that both astral and central spindle microtubules can recruit RhoA at the equatorial cortex. We find that centralspindlin and ECT2 are required for RhoA localization and furrowing. Centralspindlin is localized both to central spindle microtubules and at the tips of astral microtubules near the equatorial cortex and recruits ECT2. Positional information for division plane determination from microtubules is transmitted to the cell cortex to organize actin cytoskeleton through a mechanism involving these proteins.

Cortical capture of microtubules and spindle polarity in budding yeast - where's the catch?

In asymmetric divisions, the mitotic spindle must align according to the cell polarity axis. This is achieved through targeting astral microtubules emanating from each spindle pole to opposite cell cortex compartments. Saccharomyces cerevisiae is a powerful genetic model for dissection of this complex process. Intense research in this yeast has rendered detailed models for a program linking actin organization and spindle orientation along the mother-bud axis. This program requires the separate contributions of Kar9p, a protein guiding microtubules along polarized actin cables, and the polarity determinant Bud6p/Aip3 that marks sites for cortical capture at the bud tip and bud neck. In an added layer of complexity, cyclin-dependent kinase (Cdk) differentially regulates spindle pole function to dictate asymmetric spindle pole fate. Asymmetric contacts established by the spindle poles impart a further layer of extrinsic asymmetry restricting recruitment of Kar9p to the pole destined for the daughter cell. As a result, astral microtubules from a single pole are guided to the bud compartment after spindle assembly. Finally, Cdk might also translocate along astral microtubules in association with Kar9p to modulate microtubule-cortex interactions following spindle alignment. Insertion of the mitotic spindle into the bud neck is driven by the microtubule motor dynein. This process relies on the combined action of microtubule-plus-end-tracking proteins and kinesins that control the cell-cycle-dependent abundance of dynein at microtubule plus ends. Thus, this actin-independent pathway for spindle orientation might also be influenced by Cdk.

The Bud14p-Glc7p complex functions as a cortical regulator of dynein in budding yeast

Regulated interactions between microtubules (MTs) and the cell cortex control MT dynamics and position the mitotic spindle. In eukaryotic cells, the adenomatous polyposis coli/Kar9p and dynein/dynactin pathways are involved in guiding MT plus ends and MT sliding along the cortex, respectively. Here we identify Bud14p as a novel cortical activator of the dynein/dynactin complex in budding yeast. Bud14p accumulates at sites of polarized growth and the mother-bud neck during cytokinesis. The localization to bud and shmoo tips requires an intact actin cytoskeleton and the kelch-domain-containing proteins Kel1p and Kel2p. While cells lacking Bud14p function fail to stabilize the pre-anaphase spindle at the mother-bud neck, overexpression of Bud14p is toxic and leads to elongated astral MTs and increased dynein-dependent sliding along the cell cortex. Bud14p physically interacts with the type-I phosphatase Glc7p, and localizes Glc7p to the bud cortex. Importantly, the formation of Bud14p-Glc7p complexes is necessary to regulate MT dynamics at the cortex. Taken together, our results suggest that Bud14p functions as a regulatory subunit of the Glc7p type-I phosphatase to stabilize MT interactions specifically at sites of polarized growth.

The formin family protein CaBni1p has a role in cell polarity control during both yeast and hyphal growth in Candida albicans

Formins are conserved eukaryotic proteins playing key roles in regulating cell polarity. We have characterized the roles of a formin CaBni1p in the polymorphic fungus Candida albicans. CaBni1p localized persistently to hyphal tips during hyphal growth but to distinct growth sites at different cell cycle stages during yeast growth. Cabni1Δ yeast cells exhibited several morphological defects, such as round and enlarged cells, widened bud necks and a random budding pattern. Although Cabni1Δ cells could still undergo yeast-hypha growth switch, the hyphae were markedly swollen. Cabni1Δ also showed defects in spindle and cytoplasmic microtubule orientation and positioning. Coincidentally, the spindle orientation protein CaKar9p in Cabni1Δ yeast cells appeared as multiple random cortical spots, in contrast to the single spot at the bud tip of many wild-type cells. Interestingly, several defects manifested in Cabni1Δ yeast cells were partially corrected during hyphal growth. We found that the second formin CaBnr1p was recruited to hyphal tips, while it localized only to the bud neck during yeast growth. This behavior of CaBnr1p may play a key role in correcting Cabni1Δ defects during hyphal growth. Cabni1Δ exhibited reduced virulence in mice. These results indicate that the formins play an important role in Candida albicans polarized growth and CaBni1p's function is required for virulence.

The offloading model for dynein function: differential function of motor subunits

During mitosis in budding yeast, dynein moves the mitotic spindle into the mother-bud neck. We have proposed an offloading model to explain how dynein works. Dynein is targeted to the dynamic plus end of a cytoplasmic microtubule, offloads to the cortex, becomes anchored and activated, and then pulls on the microtubule. Here, we perform functional studies of dynein intermediate chain (IC) and light intermediate chain (LIC). IC/Pac11 and LIC/Dyn3 are both essential for dynein function, similar to the heavy chain (HC/Dyn1). IC and LIC are targeted to the distal plus ends of dynamic cytoplasmic microtubules, as is HC, and their targeting depends on HC. Targeting of HC to the plus end depends on IC, but not LIC. IC also localizes as stationary dots at the cell cortex, the presumed result of offloading in our model, as does HC, but not LIC. Localization of HC to cortical dots depends on both IC and LIC. Thus, the IC and LIC accessory chains have different but essential roles in dynein function, providing new insight into the offloading model.

Formin is a processive motor that requires profilin to accelerate actin assembly and associated ATP hydrolysis

Motile and morphogenetic cellular processes are driven by site-directed assembly of actin filaments. Formins, proteins characterized by formin homology domains FH1 and FH2, are initiators of actin assembly. How formins simply bind to filament barbed ends in rapid equilibrium or find free energy to become a processive motor of filament assembly remains enigmatic. Here we demonstrate that the FH1-FH2 domain accelerates hydrolysis of ATP coupled to profilin-actin polymerization and uses the derived free energy for processive polymerization, increasing 15-fold the rate constant for profilin-actin association to barbed ends. Profilin is required for and takes part in the processive function. Single filaments grow at least 10 microm long from formin bound beads without detaching. Transitory formin-associated processes are generated by poisoning of the processive cycle by barbed-end capping proteins. We successfully reconstitute formin-induced motility in vitro, demonstrating that this mechanism accounts for the puzzlingly rapid formin-induced actin processes observed in vivo.

Formins: processive cappers of growing actin filaments

Taking the advantage of single-molecule imaging, our recent study has revealed surprisingly long processive movement of a Formin protein, mDia1, surfing along with the growing end of actin filaments in living cells. This finding provides direct evidence for the ability of Formins to function as processive cappers that has been postulated from several lines of evidence in biochemical studies. With nucleating filaments from the profilin-actin pool, Formins may effectively generate long actin filaments, and contribute to the generation of the specific actin-based structures, that is, the contractile ring in cytokinesis, actin stress fibers in animal cells, and yeast actin cables. Furthermore, Formins have the potential to function as actin polymerization-driven molecular motors. Although much remains to be tested about the role of this novel molecular mobilization mechanism, cells might utilize actin polymerization energy for cell shape change and/or trafficking via Formin motors.

Stable and dynamic axes of polarity use distinct formin isoforms in budding yeast

Bud growth in yeast is guided by myosin-driven delivery of secretory vesicles from the mother cell to the bud. We find transport occurs along two sets of actin cables assembled by two formin isoforms. The Bnr1p formin assembles cables that radiate from the bud neck into the mother, providing a stable mother-bud axis. These cables also depend on septins at the neck and are required for efficient transport from the mother to the bud. The Bni1p formin assembles cables that line the bud cortex and target vesicles to varying locations in the bud. Loss of these cables results in morphological defects as vesicles accumulate at the neck. Assembly of these cables depends on continued polarized secretion, suggesting vesicular transport provides a positive feedback signal for Bni1p activation, possibly by rho-proteins. By coupling different formin isoforms to unique cortical landmarks, yeast uses common cytoskeletal elements to maintain stable and dynamic axes in the same cell.

Arabidopsis formin AtFH6 is a plasma membrane-associated protein upregulated in giant cells induced by parasitic nematodes

Plant-parasitic nematodes Meloidogyne spp induce an elaborate permanent feeding site characterized by the redifferentiation of root cells into multinucleate and hypertrophied giant cells. We have isolated by a promoter trap strategy an Arabidopsis thaliana formin gene, AtFH6, which is upregulated during giant cell formation. Formins are actin-nucleating proteins that stimulate de novo polymerization of actin filaments. We show here that three type-I formins were upregulated in giant cells and that the AtFH6 protein was anchored to the plasma membrane and uniformly distributed. Suppression of the budding defect of the Saccharomyces cerevisiae bni1Delta bnr1Delta mutant showed that AtFH6 regulates polarized growth by controlling the assembly of actin cables. Our results suggest that AtFH6 might be involved in the isotropic growth of hypertrophied feeding cells via the reorganization of the actin cytoskeleton. The actin cables would serve as tracks for vesicle trafficking needed for extensive plasma membrane and cell wall biogenesis. Therefore, determining how plant parasitic nematodes modify root cells into giant cells represents an attractive system to identify genes that regulate cell growth and morphogenesis.

Effects of MEK inhibitor U0126 on meiotic progression in mouse oocytes: microtuble organization, asymmetric division and metaphase II arrest

In this study we used U0126, a potent and specific inhibitor of MEK, to study the roles of MEK/ERK/p90rsk signaling pathway in the meiotic cell cycle of mouse oocytes. The phosphorylation of MAP kinase and p90rsk in the oocytes treated with 1.5 microM U0126 was the same as that in oocytes cultured in drug-free medium. With 1.5 microM U0126 treatment, the spindles appeared normal as they formed in oocytes, but failed to maintain its structure. Instead, the spindle lost one pole or elongated extraordinarily. After further culture, some oocytes extruded gigantic polar bodies (>30 microm) that later divided into two small ones. Some oocytes underwent symmetric division and produced two equal-size daughter cells in which normal spindles formed. In oocytes with different division patterns, MAP kinase was normally phosphorylated. When the concentration of U0126 was increased to 15 mM, the phosphorylation of both MAPK and p90rsk were inhibited, while symmetric division was decreased. When incubating in medium containing 15 microM U0126 for 14 h, oocytes were activated, but part of them failed to emit polar bodies. MII oocytes were also activated by 15 microM U0126, at the same time the dephosphorylation of MAP kinase and p90rsk was observed. Our results indicate that 1) MEK plays important but not indispensable roles in microtubule organization; 2) MEK keeps normal meiotic spindle morphology, targets peripheral spindle positioning and regulates asymmetric division by activating some unknown substrates other than MAP kinase /p90rsk; and 3) activation of MEK/ERK/p90rsk cascade maintains MII arrest in mouse oocytes.

EB1 and APC bind to mDia to stabilize microtubules downstream of Rho and promote cell migration

Lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) stimulates Rho GTPase and its effector, the formin mDia, to capture and stabilize microtubules in fibroblasts. We investigated whether mammalian EB1 and adenomatous polyposis coli (APC) function downstream of Rho-mDia in microtubule stabilization. A carboxy-terminal APC-binding fragment of EB1 (EB1-C) functioned as a dominant-negative inhibitor of microtubule stabilization induced by LPA or active mDia. Knockdown of EB1 with small interfering RNAs also prevented microtubule stabilization. Expression of either full-length EB1 or APC, but not an APC-binding mutant of EB1, was sufficient to stabilize microtubules. Binding and localization studies showed that EB1, APC and mDia may form a complex at stable microtubule ends. Furthermore, EB1-C, but not an APC-binding mutant, inhibited fibroblast migration in an in vitro wounding assay. These results show an evolutionarily conserved pathway for microtubule capture, and suggest that mDia functions as a scaffold protein for EB1 and APC to stabilize microtubules and promote cell migration.

Cytoplasmic dynein in fungi: insights from nuclear migration

Cytoplasmic dynein is a microtubule motor that mediates various biological processes, including nuclear migration and organelle transport, by moving on microtubules while associated with various cellular structures. The association of dynein with cellular structures and the activation of its motility are crucial steps in dynein-dependent processes. However, the mechanisms involved remain largely unknown. In fungi, dynein is required for nuclear migration. In budding yeast, nuclear migration is driven by the interaction of astral microtubules with the cell cortex; the interaction is mediated by dynein that is probably associated with the cortex. Recent studies suggest that budding yeast dynein is first recruited to microtubules, then delivered to the cortex by microtubules and finally activated by association with the cortex. Nuclear migration in many other fungi is probably driven by a similar mechanism. Recruitment of dynein to microtubules and its subsequent activation upon association with cellular structures are perhaps common to many dynein-dependent eukaryotic processes, including organelle transport.

Cell Cycle Control of Kinesin-Mediated Transport of Bik1 (CLIP-170) Regulates Microtubule Stability and Dynein Activation

CLIPs are microtubule plus end-associated proteins that mediate interactions required for cell polarity and cell division. Here we demonstrate that budding yeast Bik1, unlike its human ortholog CLIP-170, is targeted to the microtubule plus end by a kinesin-dependent transport mechanism. Bik1 forms a complex with the kinesin Kip2. Fluorescently labeled Bik1 and Kip2 comigrate along individual microtubules. Bik1 exists in distinct intracellular pools: a stable pool at the spindle pole body that is depleted during cell cycle progression, a soluble pool from which Bik1 can be recruited during microtubule initiation, and a dynamic plus end pool maintained by Kip2. Kip2 stabilizes microtubules by targeting Bik1 to the plus end and Kip2 levels are controlled during the cell cycle. As with Bik1, the targeting of dynein to the microtubule plus end requires Kip2. These findings reveal a central role for Kip2-dependent transport in the cell cycle control of microtubule dynamics and dynein-dependent motility.

Functional characterization of Dma1 and Dma2, the budding yeast homologues of Schizosaccharomyces pombe Dma1 and human Chfr

Proper transmission of genetic information requires correct assembly and positioning of the mitotic spindle, responsible for driving each set of sister chromatids to the two daughter cells, followed by cytokinesis. In case of altered spindle orientation, the spindle position checkpoint inhibits Tem1-dependent activation of the mitotic exit network (MEN), thus delaying mitotic exit and cytokinesis until errors are corrected. We report a functional analysis of two previously uncharacterized budding yeast proteins, Dma1 and Dma2, 58% identical to each other and homologous to human Chfr and Schizosaccharomyces pombe Dma1, both of which have been previously implicated in mitotic checkpoints. We show that Dma1 and Dma2 are involved in proper spindle positioning, likely regulating septin ring deposition at the bud neck. DMA2 overexpression causes defects in septin ring disassembly at the end of mitosis and in cytokinesis. The latter defects can be rescued by either eliminating the spindle position checkpoint protein Bub2 or overproducing its target, Tem1, both leading to MEN hyperactivation. In addition, dma1Delta dma2Delta cells fail to activate the spindle position checkpoint in response to the lack of dynein, whereas ectopic expression of DMA2 prevents unscheduled mitotic exit of spindle checkpoint mutants treated with microtubule-depolymerizing drugs. Although their primary functions remain to be defined, our data suggest that Dma1 and Dma2 might be required to ensure timely MEN activation in telophase.

Pheromone-induced polarization is dependent on the Fus3p MAPK acting through the formin Bni1p

During mating, budding yeast cells reorient growth toward the highest concentration of pheromone. Bni1p, a formin homologue, is required for this polarized growth by facilitating cortical actin cable assembly. Fus3p, a pheromone-activated MAP kinase, is required for pheromone signaling and cell fusion. We show that Fus3p phosphorylates Bni1p in vitro, and phosphorylation of Bni1p in vivo during the pheromone response is dependent on Fus3p. fus3 mutants exhibited multiple phenotypes similar to bni1 mutants, including defects in actin and cell polarization, as well as Kar9p and cytoplasmic microtubule localization. Disruption of the interaction between Fus3p and the receptor-associated Gα subunit caused similar mutant phenotypes. After pheromone treatment, Bni1p-GFP and Spa2p failed to localize to the cortex of fus3 mutants, and cell wall growth became completely unpolarized. Bni1p overexpression suppressed the actin assembly, cell polarization, and cell fusion defects. These data suggest a model wherein activated Fus3p is recruited back to the cortex, where it activates Bni1p to promote polarization and cell fusion.