Distinct roles of class I and class III phosphatidylinositol 3-kinases in phagosome formation and maturation

The SapM phosphatase can arrest phagosome maturation in an ESX-1 independent manner in Mycobacterium tuberculosis and BCG

Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) is an intracellular pathogen that survives and grows in macrophages. A mechanism used by Mtb to achieve intracellular survival is to secrete effector molecules that arrest the normal process of phagosome maturation. Through phagosome maturation arrest (PMA), Mtb remains in an early phagosome and avoids delivery to degradative phagolysosomes. One PMA effector of Mtb is the secreted SapM phosphatase. Because the host target of SapM, phosphatidylinositol-3-phosphate (PI3P), is located on the cytosolic face of the phagosome, SapM needs to not only be released by the mycobacteria but also travel out of the phagosome to carry out its function. To date, the only mechanism known for Mtb molecules to leave the phagosome is phagosome permeabilization by the ESX-1 secretion system. To understand this step of SapM function in PMA, we generated identical in-frame sapM mutants in both the attenuated Mycobacterium bovis bacille Calmette-Guérin (BCG) vaccine strain, which lacks the ESX-1 system, and Mtb. Characterization of these mutants demonstrated that SapM is required for PMA in BCG and Mtb. Further, by establishing a role for SapM in PMA in BCG, and subsequently in a Mtb mutant lacking the ESX-1 system, we demonstrated that the role of SapM does not require ESX-1. We further determined that ESX-2 or ESX-4 is also not required for SapM to function in PMA. These results indicate that SapM is a secreted effector of PMA in both BCG and Mtb, and that it can function independent of the known mechanism for Mtb molecules to leave the phagosome.

NCF4 regulates antigen presentation of cysteine peptides by intracellular oxidative response and restricts activation of autoreactive and arthritogenic T cells

Autoimmune diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and systemic lupus erythematous, are regulated by polymorphisms in genes contributing to the NOX2 complex. Mutations in both Ncf1 and Ncf4 affect development of arthritis in experimental models of RA, but the different regulatory pathways mediated by NOX2-derived reactive oxygen species (ROS) have not yet been clarified. Here we address the possibility that intracellular ROS, regulated by the NCF4 protein (earlier often denoted p40phox) which interacts with endosomal membranes, could play an important role in the oxidation of cysteine peptides in mononuclear phagocytic cells, thereby regulating antigen presentation and activation of arthritogenic T cells. To study the role of NCF4 we used mice with an amino acid replacing mutation (NCF4R58A), which is known to affect interaction with endosomal membranes, leading to decreased intracellular ROS production. To study the impact of NCF4 on T cell activation, we used the glucose phosphate isomerase peptide GPI325-339, which contains two cysteine residues (325-339c-c). Macrophages from mice with the NCF458A mutation efficiently presented the peptide when the two cysteines were intact and not crosslinked, leading to a strong arthritogenic T cell response. T cell priming occurred in the draining lymph nodes (LNs) within 8 days after immunization. Clodronate treatment, which depletes antigen-presenting mononuclear phagocytes, ameliorated arthritis severity, whereas treatment with FYT720, which traps activated T cells in LNs, prohibited arthritis. We conclude that NCF4-dependent intracellular ROS maintains cysteine peptides in an oxidized crosslinked state, which prevents presentation of peptides recognized by non-tolerized T cells and thereby protects against autoimmune arthritis.

Development of Genetically Encoded Fluorescent KSR1-Based Probes to Track Ceramides during Phagocytosis

Ceramides regulate phagocytosis; however, their exact function remains poorly understood. Here, we sought (1) to develop genetically encoded fluorescent tools for imaging ceramides, and (2) to use them to examine ceramide dynamics during phagocytosis. Fourteen enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) fusion constructs based on four known ceramide-binding domains were generated and screened. While most constructs localized to the nucleus or cytosol, three based on the CA3 ceramide-binding domain of kinase suppressor of ras 1 (KSR1) localized to the plasma membrane or autolysosomes. C-terminally tagged CA3 with a vector-based (C-KSR) or glycine-serine linker (C-KSR-GS) responded sensitively and similarly to ceramide depletion and accumulation using a panel of ceramide modifying drugs, whereas N-terminally tagged CA3 (N-KSR) responded differently to a subset of treatments. Lipidomic and liposome microarray analysis suggested that, instead, N-KSR may preferentially bind glucosyl-ceramide. Additionally, the three probes showed distinct dynamics during phagocytosis. Despite partial autolysosomal degradation, C-KSR and C-KSR-GS accumulated at the plasma membrane during phagocytosis, whereas N-KSR did not. Moreover, the weak recruitment of C-KSR-GS to the endoplasmic reticulum and phagosomes was enhanced through overexpression of the endoplasmic reticulum proteins stromal interaction molecule 1 (STIM1) and Sec22b, and was more salient in dendritic cells. The data suggest these novel probes can be used to analyze sphingolipid dynamics and function in living cells.

Phagocytosis

One hundred years have passed since the death of Élie Metchnikoff (1845-1916). He was the first to observe the uptake of particles by cells and realized the importance of this process, named phagocytosis, for the host response to injury and infection. He also was a strong advocate of the role of phagocytosis in cellular immunity, and with this, he gave us the basis for our modern understanding of inflammation and the innate immune response. Phagocytosis is an elegant but complex process for the ingestion and elimination of pathogens, but it is also important for the elimination of apoptotic cells and hence fundamental for tissue homeostasis. Phagocytosis can be divided into four main steps: (i) recognition of the target particle, (ii) signaling to activate the internalization machinery, (iii) phagosome formation, and (iv) phagolysosome maturation. In this chapter, we present a general view of our current knowledge on phagocytosis performed mainly by professional phagocytes through antibody and complement receptors and discuss aspects that remain incompletely understood.

Phosphatidylinositol-specific phospholipase C can decrease Müller cell viability and suppress its phagocytic activity by modulating PI3K/AKT signaling pathway

Bacillus cereus endophthalmitis is a devastating eye infection that causes rapid blindness through the release of extracellular tissue-destructive exotoxins. The phagocytic and antibacterial functions of ocular cells are the keys to limiting ocular bacterial infections. In a previous study, we identified a new virulence gene, plcA-2 (different from the original plcA-1 gene), that was strongly associated with the plcA gene of Listeria monocytogenes. This plcA gene had been confirmed to play an important role in phagocytosis. However, how the Bc-phosphatidylinositol-specific phospholipase C (PI-PLC) proteins encoded by the plcA-1/2 genes affect phagocytes remains unclear in B. cereus endophthalmitis. Here, we found that the enzymatic activity of Bc-PI-PLC-A2 was approximately twofold higher than that of Bc-PI-PLC-A1, and both proteins inhibited the viability of Müller cells. In addition, PI-PLC proteins reduced phagocytosis of Müller cells by decreasing the phosphorylation levels of key proteins in the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway. In conclusion, we showed that PI-PLC proteins contribute to inhibit the viability of and suppress the phagocytosis of Müller cells, providing new insights into the pathogenic mechanism of B. cereus endophthalmitis.

Sec22b regulates phagosome maturation by promoting ORP8-mediated lipid exchange at endoplasmic reticulum-phagosome contact sites

Phagosome maturation is critical for immune defense, defining whether ingested material is destroyed or converted into antigens. Sec22b regulates phagosome maturation, yet how has remained unclear. Here we show Sec22b tethers endoplasmic reticulum-phagosome membrane contact sites (MCS) independently of the known tether STIM1. Sec22b knockdown increases calcium signaling, phagolysosome fusion and antigen degradation and alters phagosomal phospholipids PI(3)P, PS and PI(4)P. Levels of PI(4)P, a lysosome docking lipid, are rescued by Sec22b re-expression and by expression of the artificial tether MAPPER but not the MCS-disrupting mutant Sec22b-P33. Moreover, Sec22b co-precipitates with the PS/PI(4)P exchange protein ORP8. Wild-type, but not mutant ORP8 rescues phagosomal PI(4)P and reduces antigen degradation. Sec22b, MAPPER and ORP8 but not P33 or mutant-ORP8 restores phagolysosome fusion in knockdown cells. These findings clarify an alternative mechanism through which Sec22b controls phagosome maturation and beg a reassessment of the relative contribution of Sec22b-mediated fusion versus tethering to phagosome biology.

Clearance phagocytosis by the retinal pigment epithelial during photoreceptor outer segment renewal: Molecular mechanisms and relation to retinal inflammation

Mammalian photoreceptor outer segment renewal is a highly coordinated process that hinges on timed cell signaling between photoreceptor neurons and the adjacent retinal pigment epithelial (RPE). It is a strictly rhythmic, synchronized process that underlies in part circadian regulation. We highlight findings from recently developed methods that quantify distinct phases of outer segment renewal in retinal tissue. At light onset, outer segments expose the conserved "eat-me" signal phosphatidylserine exclusively at their distal, most aged tip. A coordinated two-receptor efferocytosis process follows, in which ligands bridge outer segment phosphatidylserine with the RPE receptors αvβ5 integrin, inducing cytosolic signaling toward Rac1 and focal adhesion kinase/MERTK, and with MERTK directly, additionally inhibiting RhoA/ROCK and thus enabling F-actin dynamics favoring outer segment fragment engulfment. Photoreceptors and RPE persist for life with each RPE cell in the eye servicing dozens of overlying photoreceptors. Thus, RPE cells phagocytose more often and process more material than any other cell type. Mutant mice with impaired outer segment renewal largely retain functional photoreceptors and retinal integrity. However, when anti-inflammatory signaling in the RPE via MERTK or the related TYRO3 is lacking, catastrophic inflammation leads to immune cell infiltration that swiftly destroys the retina causing blindness.

Host-directed therapy for bacterial infections -Modulation of the phagolysosome pathway

Bacterial infections still impose a significant burden on humanity, even though antimicrobial agents have long since been developed. In addition to individual severe infections, the f fatality rate of sepsis remains high, and the threat of antimicrobial-resistant bacteria grows with time, putting us at inferiority. Although tremendous resources have been devoted to the development of antimicrobial agents, we have yet to recover from the lost ground we have been driven into. Looking back at the evolution of treatment for cancer, which, like infectious diseases, has the similarity that host immunity eliminates the lesion, the development of drugs to eliminate the tumor itself has shifted from a single-minded focus on drug development to the establishment of a treatment strategy in which the de-suppression of host immunity is another pillar of treatment. In infectious diseases, on the other hand, the development of therapies that strengthen and support the immune system has only just begun. Among innate immunity, the first line of defense that bacteria encounter after invading the host, the molecular mechanisms of the phagolysosome pathway, which begins with phagocytosis to fusion with lysosome, have been elucidated in detail. Bacteria have a large number of strategies to escape and survive the pathway. Although the full picture is still unfathomable, the molecular mechanisms have been elucidated for some of them, providing sufficient clues for intervention. In this article, we review the host defense mechanisms and bacterial evasion mechanisms and discuss the possibility of host-directed therapy for bacterial infection by intervening in the phagolysosome pathway.

Beclin 1 regulates astrocyte phagocytosis and phagosomal recruitment of retromer

Phagocytosis plays an important role in maintaining brain homeostasis and when impaired can result in the accumulation of unwanted cellular material. While microglia are traditionally considered the phagocytes of the brain, astrocytes are also capable of phagocytosis and are the most numerous cells in the brain. In Alzheimer's disease (AD), astrocytes can be found surrounding β-amyloid (Aβ) plaques yet they seem unable to eliminate these deposits, suggesting phagocytosis may be impaired in AD. Mechanisms that might diminish astrocyte phagocytosis in AD are currently unclear. Here, we demonstrate that the autophagy protein beclin 1, which is reduced in AD, plays a role in regulating astrocyte phagocytosis. Specifically, we show that reducing beclin 1 in C6 astrocytes impairs the phagocytosis of latex beads, reduces retromer levels, and impairs retromer recruitment to the phagosomal membrane. Furthermore, we show that these beclin 1-mediated changes are accompanied by reduced expression of the phagocytic receptor Scavenger Receptor Class B type I (SR-BI). Collectively, these findings suggest a critical role for the protein beclin 1 in both receptor trafficking and receptor-mediated phagocytosis in astrocytes. Moreover, these findings provide insight into mechanisms by which astrocytes may become impaired in AD.

Listeria InlB Expedites Vacuole Escape and Intracellular Proliferation by Promoting Rab7 Recruitment via Vps34

Rapid phagosomal escape mediated by listeriolysin O (LLO) is a prerequisite for Listeria monocytogenes intracellular replication and pathogenesis. Escape takes place within minutes after internalization from vacuoles that are negative to the early endosomal Rab5 GTPase and positive to the late endosomal Rab7. Using mutant analysis, we found that the listerial invasin InlB was required for optimal intracellular proliferation of L. monocytogenes. Starting from this observation, we determined in HeLa cells that InlB promotes early phagosomal escape and efficient Rab7 acquisition by the Listeria-containing vacuole (LCV). Recruitment of the class III phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) Vps34 to the LCV and accumulation of its lipid product, phosphatidylinositol 3-phosphate (PI3P), two key endosomal maturation mediators, were also dependent on InlB. Small interfering RNA (siRNA) knockdown experiments showed that Vps34 was required for Rab7 recruitment and early (LLO-mediated) escape and supported InlB-dependent intracellular proliferation. Together, our data indicate that InlB accelerates LCV conversion into an escape-favorable Rab7 late phagosome via subversion of class III PI3K/Vps34 signaling. Our findings uncover a new function for the InlB invasin in Listeria pathogenesis as an intracellular proliferation-promoting virulence factor. IMPORTANCE Avoidance of lysosomal killing by manipulation of the endosomal compartment is a virulence mechanism assumed to be largely restricted to intravacuolar intracellular pathogens. Our findings are important because they show that cytosolic pathogens like L. monocytogenes, which rapidly escape the phagosome after internalization, can also extensively subvert endocytic trafficking as part of their survival strategy. They also clarify that, instead of delaying phagosome maturation (to allow time for LLO-dependent disruption, as currently thought), via InlB L. monocytogenes appears to facilitate the rapid conversion of the phagocytic vacuole into an escape-conducive late phagosome. Our data highlight the multifunctionality of bacterial virulence factors. At the cell surface, the InlB invasin induces receptor-mediated phagocytosis via class I PI3K activation, whereas after internalization it exploits class III PI3K (Vsp34) to promote intracellular survival. Systematically elucidating the mechanisms by which Listeria interferes with PI3K signaling all along the endocytic pathway may lead to novel anti-infective therapies.

Multifunctional role of the ubiquitin proteasome pathway in phagocytosis

Phagocytosis is a specialized form of endocytosis where large cells and particles (>0.5μm) are engulfed by the phagocytic cells, and ultimately digested in the phagolysosomes. This process not only eliminates unwanted particles and pathogens from the extracellular sources, but also eliminates apoptotic cells within the body, and is critical for maintenance of tissue homeostasis. It is believed that both endocytosis and phagocytosis share common pathways after particle internalization, but specialized features and differences between these two routes of internalization are also likely. The recruitment and removal of each protein/particle during the maturation of endocytic/phagocytic vesicles has to be tightly regulated to ensure their timely action. Ubiquitin proteasome pathway (UPP), degrades unwanted proteins by post-translational modification of proteins with chains of conserved protein Ubiquitin (Ub), with subsequent recognition of Ub chains by the 26S proteasomes and substrate degradation by this protease. This pathway utilizes different Ub linkages to modify proteins to regulate protein-protein interaction, localization, and activity. Due to its vast number of targets, it is involved in many cellular pathways, including phagocytosis. This chapters describes the basic steps and signaling in phagocytosis and different roles that UPP plays at multiple steps in regulating phagocytosis directly, or through its interaction with other phagosomal proteins. How aberrations in UPP function affect phagocytosis and their association with human diseases, and how pathogens exploit this pathway for their own benefit is also discussed.

Quantitative Immunofluorescence to Study Phagosome Maturation and Resolution

Cells such as macrophages and neutrophils can internalize a diverse set of particulate matter, illustrated by bacteria and apoptotic bodies through the process of phagocytosis. These particles are sequestered into phagosomes, which then fuse with early and late endosomes and ultimately with lysosomes to mature into phagolysosomes, through a process known as phagosome maturation. Ultimately, after particle degradation, phagosomes then fragment to reform lysosomes through phagosome resolution. As phagosomes change, they acquire and divest proteins that are associated with the various stages of phagosome maturation and resolution. These changes can be assessed at the single-phagosome level by using immunofluorescence methods. Typically, we use indirect immunofluorescence methods that rely on primary antibodies against specific molecular markers that track phagosome maturation. Commonly, progression of phagosomes into phagolysosomes can be determined by staining cells for Lysosomal-Associated Membrane Protein I (LAMP1) and measuring the fluorescence intensity of LAMP1 around each phagosome by microscopy or flow cytometry. However, this method can be used to detect any molecular marker for which there are compatible antibodies for immunofluorescence.

PtdIns(3,4)P2, Lamellipodin, and VASP coordinate actin dynamics during phagocytosis in macrophages

Phosphoinositides are pivotal regulators of vesicular traffic and signaling during phagocytosis. Phagosome formation, the initial step of the process, is characterized by local membrane remodeling and reorganization of the actin cytoskeleton that leads to formation of the pseudopods that drive particle engulfment. Using genetically encoded fluorescent probes, we found that upon particle engagement a localized pool of PtdIns(3,4)P2 is generated by the sequential activities of class I phosphoinositide 3-kinases and phosphoinositide 5-phosphatases. Depletion of this locally generated pool of PtdIns(3,4)P2 blocks pseudopod progression and ultimately phagocytosis. We show that the PtdIns(3,4)P2 effector Lamellipodin (Lpd) is recruited to nascent phagosomes by PtdIns(3,4)P2. Furthermore, we show that silencing of Lpd inhibits phagocytosis and produces aberrant pseudopodia with disorganized actin filaments. Finally, vasodilator-stimulated phosphoprotein (VASP) was identified as a key actin-regulatory protein mediating phagosome formation downstream of Lpd. Mechanistically, our findings imply that a pathway involving PtdIns(3,4)P2, Lpd, and VASP mediates phagocytosis at the stage of particle engulfment.

LRRK2 recruitment, activity, and function in organelles

Protein coding mutations in leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) cause familial Parkinson's disease (PD), and noncoding variations around the gene increase the risk of developing sporadic PD. It is generally accepted that pathogenic LRRK2 mutations increase LRRK2 kinase activity, resulting in a toxic hyperactive protein that is inferred to lead to the PD phenotype. LRRK2 has long been linked to different membrane trafficking events, but the specific role of LRRK2 in these events has been difficult to resolve. Recently, several papers have reported the activation and translocation of LRRK2 to cellular organelles under specific conditions, which suggests that LRRK2 may influence intracellular membrane trafficking. Here, we review what is known about the role of LRRK2 at various organelle compartments.

Galectin-3 (MAC-2) controls phagocytosis and macropinocytosis through intracellular and extracellular mechanisms

Galectin-3 (Gal-3; formally named MAC-2) is a β-galactoside-binding lectin. Various cell types produce Gal-3 under either normal conditions and/or pathological conditions. Gal-3 can be present in cells' nuclei and cytoplasm, secreted from producing cells, and associated with cells' plasma membranes. This review focuses on how Gal-3 controls phagocytosis and macropinocytosis. Intracellular and extracellular Gal-3 promotes the phagocytosis of phagocytic targets/cargo (e.g., tissue debris and apoptotic cells) in “professional phagocytes” (e.g., microglia and macrophages) and “non-professional phagocytes” (e.g., Schwann cells and astrocytes). Intracellularly, Gal-3 promotes phagocytosis by controlling the “eat me” signaling pathways that phagocytic receptors generate, directing the cytoskeleton to produce the mechanical forces that drive the structural changes on which phagocytosis depends, protrusion and then retraction of filopodia and lamellipodia as they, respectively, engulf and then internalize phagocytic targets. Extracellularly, Gal-3 promotes phagocytosis by functioning as an opsonin, linking phagocytic targets to phagocytic receptors, activating them to generate the “eat me” signaling pathways. Macropinocytosis is a non-selective endocytic mechanism that various cells use to internalize the bulk of extracellular fluid and included materials/cargo (e.g., dissolved nutrients, proteins, and pathogens). Extracellular and intracellular Gal-3 control macropinocytosis in some types of cancer. Phagocytosed and macropinocytosed targets/cargo that reach lysosomes for degradation may rupture lysosomal membranes. Damaged lysosomal membranes undergo either repair or removal by selective autophagy (i.e., lysophagy) that intracellular Gal-3 controls.

Phosphoinositide species and filamentous actin formation mediate engulfment by senescent tumor cells

Cancer cells survive chemotherapy and cause lethal relapse by entering a senescent state that facilitates expression of many phagocytosis/macrophage-related genes that engender a novel cannibalism phenotype. We used biosensors and live-cell imaging to reveal the basic steps and mechanisms of engulfment by senescent human and mouse tumor cells. We show filamentous actin in predator cells was localized to the prey cell throughout the process of engulfment. Biosensors to various phosphoinositide (PI) species revealed increased concentration and distinct localization of predator PI(4) P and PI(4,5)P2 at the prey cell during early stages of engulfment, followed by a transient burst of PI(3) P before and following internalization. PIK3C2B, the kinase responsible for generating PI(3)P, was required for complete engulfment. Inhibition or knockdown of Clathrin, known to associate with PIK3C2B and PI(4,5)P2, severely impaired engulfment. In sum, our data reveal the most fundamental cellular processes of senescent cell engulfment, including the precise localizations and dynamics of actin and PI species throughout the entire process.

Regulation of Neutrophil NADPH Oxidase, NOX2: A Crucial Effector in Neutrophil Phenotype and Function

Reactive oxygen species (ROS), produced by the phagocyte NADPH oxidase, NOX2, are involved in many leukocyte functions. An excessive or inappropriate ROS production can lead to oxidative stress and tissue damage. On the other hand, an absence of ROS production due to a lack of a functional NADPH oxidase is associated with recurrent infections as well as inflammation disorders. Thus, it is clear that the enzyme NADPH oxidase must be tightly regulated. The NOX2 complex bears both membrane and cytosolic subunits. The membrane subunits constitute the flavocytochrome b₅₅₈, consisting of gp91^phox (Nox2) and p22^phox subunits. The cytosolic subunits form a complex in resting cells and are made of three subunits (p47^phox, p40^phox, p67^phox). Upon leukocyte stimulation, the cytosolic subunits and the small GTPase Rac assemble with the flavocytochrome b₅₅₈ in order to make a functional complex. Depending on the stimulus, the NADPH oxidase can assemble either at the phagosomal membrane or at the plasma membrane. Many studies have explored NOX2 activation; however, how this activation is sustained and regulated is still not completely clear. Here we review the multiple roles of NOX2 in neutrophil functions, with a focus on description of its components and their assembly mechanisms. We then explain the role of energy metabolism and phosphoinositides in regulating NADPH oxidase activity. In particular, we discuss: 1) the link between metabolic pathways and NOX2 activity regulation through neutrophil activation and the level of released ROS, and 2) the role of membrane phosphoinositides in controlling the duration of NOX2 activity.

Lack of Functional P110δ Affects Expression of Activation Marker CD80 but Does Not Influence Functions of Neutrophils

Neutrophils are specialized immune cells that are essential constituents of the innate immune response. They defend the organism against pathogens through various mechanisms. It was reported that phosphatidylinositols are key players in neutrophil functions, especially in the activity of class-I phosphoinositide 3-kinases (PI3Ks). P110δ, one of the PI3K subunits, is mostly expressed in immune cells, and its activity plays an important role in inflammatory responses. The aim of this study was to investigate the role of p110δ in neutrophil antimicrobial functions, activation status and cytokine production. To this end, we used bone marrow and splenic neutrophils isolated from a murine model expressing catalytically inactive p110δ^D910A/D910A. The level of phagocytosis and degranulation, the expressions of activation markers and cytokine production were determined by flow cytometry. ROS generation and NET release were assessed by fluorometry and fluorescent microscopy. We observed a significantly higher percentage of CD80-positive cells among the splenic granulocytes and found granulocytes subpopulations of differing phenotypes between WT and p110δ^D910A/D910A mice by multiparametric tSNE analysis. Moreover, we detected some differences in the expressions of activation markers, intracellular production of cytokines and bacterial killing. However, we did not observe any alterations in the selected neutrophil functions in p110δ mutant mice. Altogether, our data suggest that the catalytic p110 subunit(s), other than p110δ, is a key player in most neutrophil functions in mice. A follow-up study to correlate these in vitro results with in vivo observations is highly recommended.

Transcriptome Changes and Potential Immunotoxicity Analysis in RAW264.7 Macrophages Caused by Bisphenol F

As a viable substitute for bisphenol A (BPA), BPF has been widely used in the plastic industry and daily consumer goods, resulting in its detection in humans at a comparable concentration. Evidence reveals that BPF and BPA may have similar toxic effects due to their similar structures. However, there is less information about BPF and its latent implications on the immune system, which is associated with many disorders. In this study, the in vitro toxicity of BPF on RAW264.7 macrophages was explored. The cells were treated with different concentrations of BPF (5, 10, 20, 50, 100, and 200 μM), the cell viability and apoptosis were detected, the gene expression profile was analyzed by whole-transcriptome sequencing, and the mRNA levels were detected by qRT-PCR. The results showed a high concentration of BPF could significantly reduce the survival rate of RAW264.7 macrophages. Although the medium concentration (20–50 μM) of BPF seemed to have no impact on the cell activity of macrophages, it caused the occurrence of apoptosis. The results of differential transcription showed that compared with the control group, 121 genes were upregulated and 82 genes were downregulated in the BPF group. The significantly changed gene functions were mainly concentrated in cell cycle, phagosome, lysosome, and antigen processing and presentation. These findings provide valuable information for correctly understanding the immunotoxicity risk of BPF and may help to improve the hazard identification of bisphenol compounds.

Anisotropic presentation of ligands on cargos modulates degradative function of phagosomes

Anisotropic arrangement of cell wall components is ubiquitous among bacteria and fungi, but how such functional anisotropy affects interactions between microbes and host immune cells is not known. Here we address this question with regard to phagosome maturation, the process used by host immune cells to degrade internalized microbes. We developed two-faced microparticles as model pathogens that display ligands on only one hemisphere and simultaneously function as fluorogenic sensors for probing biochemical reactions inside phagosomes during degradation. The fluorescent indicator on just one hemisphere gives the particle sensors a moon-like appearance. We show that anisotropic presentation of ligands on particles delays the start of acidification and proteolysis in phagosomes, but does not affect their degradative capacity. Our work suggests that the spatial presentation of ligands on pathogens plays a critical role in modulating the degradation process in phagosomes during host-pathogen interactions.

Detection and quantification of the vacuolar H+ATPase using the Legionella effector protein SidK

Acidification of secretory and endocytic organelles is required for proper receptor recycling, membrane traffic, protein degradation, and solute transport. Proton-pumping vacuolar H+ ATPases (V-ATPases) are responsible for this luminal acidification, which increases progressively as secretory and endocytic vesicles mature. An increasing density of V-ATPase complexes is thought to account for the gradual decrease in pH, but available reagents have not been sufficiently sensitive or specific to test this hypothesis. We introduce a new probe to localize and quantify V-ATPases. The probe is derived from SidK, a Legionella pneumophila effector protein that binds to the V-ATPase A subunit. We generated plasmids encoding fluorescent chimeras of SidK1-278, and labeled recombinant SidK1-278 with Alexa Fluor 568 to visualize and quantify V-ATPases with high specificity in live and fixed cells, respectively. We show that V-ATPases are acquired progressively during phagosome maturation, that they distribute in discrete membrane subdomains, and that their density in lysosomes depends on their subcellular localization.

Roles for 3' Phosphoinositides in Macropinocytosis

The distinct movements of macropinosome formation and maturation have corresponding biochemical activities which occur in a defined sequence of stages and transitions between those stages. Each stage in the process is regulated by variously phosphorylated derivatives of phosphatidylinositol (PtdIns) which reside in the cytoplasmic face of the membrane lipid bilayer. PtdIns derivatives phosphorylated at the 3' position of the inositol moiety, called 3' phosphoinositides (3'PIs), regulate different stages of the sequence. 3'PIs are synthesized by numerous phosphoinositide 3'-kinases (PI3K) and other lipid kinases and phosphatases, which are themselves regulated by small GTPases of the Ras superfamily. The combined actions of these enzymes localize four principal species of 3'PI to distinct domains of the plasma membrane or to discrete organelles, with distinct biochemical activities confined to those domains. Phosphatidylinositol (3,4,5)-trisphosphate (PtdIns(3,4,5)P₃) and phosphatidylinositol (3,4)-bisphosphate (PtdIns(3,4)P₂) regulate the early stages of macropinosome formation, which include cell surface ruffling and constrictions of circular ruffles which close into macropinosomes. Phosphatidylinositol 3-phosphate (PtdIns3P) regulates macropinosome fusion with other macropinosomes and early endocytic organelles. Phosphatidylinositol (3,5)-bisphosphate (PtdIns(3,5)P₂) mediates macropinosome maturation and shrinkage, through loss of ions and water, and subsequent traffic to lysosomes. The different characteristic rates of macropinocytosis in different cell types indicate levels of regulation which may be governed by the cell's capacity to generate 3'PIs.

PI3K Isoforms in Cell Signalling and Innate Immune Cell Responses

Phosphoinositide-3-kinases (PI3Ks) are enzymes involved in signalling and modification of the function of all mammalian cells. These enzymes phosphorylate the 3-hydroxyl group of the inositol ring of phosphatidylinositol, resulting in lipid products that act as second messengers responsible for coordinating many cellular functions, including activation, chemotaxis, proliferation and survival. The identification of the functions that are mediated by a specific PI3K isoform is complex and depends on the specific cell type and inflammatory context. In this chapter we will focus on the role of PI3K isoforms in the context of innate immunity, focusing on the mechanisms by which PI3K signalling regulates phagocytosis, the activation of immunoglobulin, chemokine and cytokines receptors, production of ROS and cell migration, and how PI3K signalling plays a central role in host defence against infections and tissue injury.

Efferocytosis in the Central Nervous System

The effective clearance of apoptotic cells is essential for maintaining central nervous system (CNS) homeostasis and restoring homeostasis after injury. In most cases of physiological apoptotic cell death, efferocytosis prevents inflammation and other pathological conditions. When apoptotic cells are not effectively cleared, destruction of the integrity of the apoptotic cell membrane integrity, leakage of intracellular contents, and secondary necrosis may occur. Efferocytosis is the mechanism by which efferocytes quickly remove apoptotic cells from tissues before they undergo secondary necrosis. Cells with efferocytosis functions, mainly microglia, help to eliminate apoptotic cells from the CNS. Here, we discuss the impacts of efferocytosis on homeostasis, the mechanism of efferocytosis, the associations of efferocytosis failure and CNS diseases, and the current clinical applications of efferocytosis. We also identify efferocytosis as a novel potential target for exploring the causes and treatments of CNS diseases.

Implications of Phosphoinositide 3-Kinase-Akt (PI3K-Akt) Pathway in the Pathogenesis of Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the foremost type of dementia that afflicts considerable morbidity and mortality in aged population. Several transcription molecules, pathways, and molecular mechanisms such as oxidative stress, inflammation, autophagy, and immune system interact in a multifaceted way that disrupt physiological processes (cell growth, differentiation, survival, lipid and energy metabolism, endocytosis) leading to apoptosis, tauopathy, β-amyloidopathy, neuron, and synapse loss, which play an important role in AD pathophysiology. Despite of stupendous advancements in pathogenic mechanisms, treatment of AD is still a nightmare in the field of medicine. There is compelling urgency to find not only symptomatic but effective disease-modifying therapies. Recently, phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) and Akt are identified as a pathway triggered by diverse stimuli, including insulin, growth factors, cytokines, and cellular stress, that link amyloid-β, neurofibrillary tangles, and brain atrophy. The present review aims to explore and analyze the role of PI3K-Akt pathway in AD and agents which may modulate Akt and have therapeutic prospects in AD. The literature was researched using keywords "PI3K-Akt" and "Alzheimer's disease" from PubMed, Web of Science, Bentham, Science Direct, Springer Nature, Scopus, and Google Scholar databases including books. Articles published from 1992 to 2021 were prioritized and analyzed for their strengths and limitations, and most appropriate ones were selected for the purpose of review. PI3K-Akt pathway regulates various biological processes such as cell proliferation, motility, growth, survival, and metabolic functions, and inhibits many neurotoxic mechanisms. Furthermore, experimental data indicate that PI3K-Akt signaling might be an important therapeutic target in treatment of AD.

Host factors subverted by Mycobacterium tuberculosis: Potential targets for host directed therapy

INTRODUCTION

Despite new approaches in the diagnosis and treatment of tuberculosis (TB), it continues to be a major health burden. Several immunotherapies that potentiate the immune response have come up as adjuncts to drug therapies against drug resistant TB strains; however, there needs to be an urgent appraisal of host specific drug targets for improving their clinical management and to curtail disease progression. Presently, various host directed therapies (HDTs) exist (repurposed drugs, nutraceuticals, monoclonal antibodies and immunomodulatory agents), but these mostly address molecules that combat disease progression.

AREAS COVERED

The current review discusses major Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M. tuberculosis) survival paradigms inside the host and presents a plethora of host targets subverted by M. tuberculosis which can be further explored for future HDTs. The host factors unique to M. tuberculosis infection (in humans) have also been identified through an in-silico interaction mapping.

EXPERT OPINION

HDTs could become the next-generation adjunct therapies in order to counter antimicrobial resistance and virulence, as well as to reduce the duration of existing TB treatments. However, current scientific efforts are largely directed toward combatants rather than host molecules co-opted by M. tuberculosis for its survival. This might drive the immune system to a hyper-inflammatory condition; therefore, we emphasize that host factors subverted by M. tuberculosis, and their subsequent neutralization, must be considered for development of better HDTs.

Phagosome maturation in macrophages: Eat, digest, adapt, and repeat

Phagocytosis is a dynamic process that requires an intricate interplay between phagocytic receptors, membrane lipids, and numerous signalling proteins and their effectors, to coordinate the engulfment of a bound particle. These particles are diverse in their physico-chemical properties such as size and shape and include bacteria, fungi, apoptotic cells, living tumour cells, and abiotic particles. Once engulfed, these particles are enclosed within a phagosome, which undergoes a striking transformation referred to as phagosome maturation, which will ultimately lead to the processing and degradation of the enclosed particulate. In this review, we focus on recent advancements in phagosome maturation in macrophages, highlighting new discoveries and emerging themes. Such advancements include identification of new GTPases and their effectors and the intricate spatio-temporal dynamics of phosphoinositides in governing phagosome maturation. We then explore phagosome fission and recycling, the emerging role of membrane contact sites, and delve into mechanisms of phagosome resolution to recycle and reform lysosomes. We further illustrate how phagosome maturation is context-dependent, subject to the type of particle, phagocytic receptors, the phagocytes and their state of activation during phagocytosis. Lastly, we discuss how phagosomes serve as signalling platforms to help phagocytes adapt to their environmental conditions. Overall, this review aims to cover recent findings, identify emerging themes, and highlight current challenges and directions to improve our understanding of phagosome maturation in macrophages.

SNX19 restricts endolysosome motility through contacts with the endoplasmic reticulum

The ability of endolysosomal organelles to move within the cytoplasm is essential for the performance of their functions. Long-range movement involves coupling of the endolysosomes to motor proteins that carry them along microtubule tracks. This movement is influenced by interactions with other organelles, but the mechanisms involved are incompletely understood. Herein we show that the sorting nexin SNX19 tethers endolysosomes to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), decreasing their motility and contributing to their concentration in the perinuclear area of the cell. Tethering depends on two N-terminal transmembrane domains that anchor SNX19 to the ER, and a PX domain that binds to phosphatidylinositol 3-phosphate on the endolysosomal membrane. Two other domains named PXA and PXC negatively regulate the interaction of SNX19 with endolysosomes. These studies thus identify a mechanism for controlling the motility and positioning of endolysosomes that involves tethering to the ER by a sorting nexin.

Molecular Mechanisms of Borrelia burgdorferi Phagocytosis and Intracellular Processing by Human Macrophages

Lyme disease is the most common vector-borne illness in North America and Europe. Its causative agents are spirochetes of the Borrelia burgdorferi sensu latu complex. Infection with borreliae can manifest in different tissues, most commonly in the skin and joints, but in severe cases also in the nervous systems and the heart. The immune response of the host is a crucial factor for preventing the development or progression of Lyme disease. Macrophages are part of the innate immune system and thus one of the first cells to encounter infecting borreliae. As professional phagocytes, they are capable of recognition, uptake, intracellular processing and final elimination of borreliae. This sequence of events involves the initial capture and internalization by actin-rich cellular protrusions, filopodia and coiling pseudopods. Uptake into phagosomes is followed by compaction of the elongated spirochetes and degradation in mature phagolysosomes. In this review, we discuss the current knowledge about the processes and molecular mechanisms involved in recognition, capturing, uptake and intracellular processing of Borrelia by human macrophages. Moreover, we highlight interactions between macrophages and other cells of the immune system during these processes and point out open questions in the intracellular processing of borreliae, which include potential escape strategies of Borrelia.

The role of endolysosomal trafficking in anticancer drug resistance

Multidrug resistance (MDR) remains a major obstacle towards curative treatment of cancer. Despite considerable progress in delineating the basis of intrinsic and acquired MDR, the underlying molecular mechanisms remain to be elucidated. Emerging evidences suggest that dysregulation in endolysosomal compartments is involved in mediating MDR through multiple mechanisms, such as alterations in endosomes, lysosomes and autophagosomes, that traffic and biodegrade the molecular cargo through macropinocytosis, autophagy and endocytosis. For example, altered lysosomal pH, in combination with transcription factor EB (TFEB)-mediated lysosomal biogenesis, increases the sequestration of hydrophobic anti-cancer drugs that are weak bases, thereby producing an insufficient and off-target accumulation of anti-cancer drugs in MDR cancer cells. Thus, the use of well-tolerated, alkalinizing compounds that selectively block Vacuolar H⁺-ATPase (V-ATPase) may be an important strategy to overcome MDR in cancer cells and increase chemotherapeutic efficacy. Other mechanisms of endolysosomal-mediated drug resistance include increases in the expression of lysosomal proteases and cathepsins that are involved in mediating carcinogenesis and chemoresistance. Therefore, blocking the trafficking and maturation of lysosomal proteases or direct inhibition of cathepsin activity in the cytosol may represent novel therapeutic modalities to overcome MDR. Furthermore, endolysosomal compartments involved in catabolic pathways, such as macropinocytosis and autophagy, are also shown to be involved in the development of MDR. Here, we review the role of endolysosomal trafficking in MDR development and discuss how targeting endolysosomal pathways could emerge as a new therapeutic strategy to overcome chemoresistance in cancer.

Rapid removal of phagosomal ferroportin in macrophages contributes to nutritional immunity

Nutrient sequestration is an essential facet of host innate immunity. Macrophages play a critical role in controlling iron availability through expression of the iron transport protein ferroportin (FPN), which extrudes iron from the cytoplasm to the extracellular milieu. During phagocytosis, the limiting phagosomal membrane, which derives from the plasmalemma, can be decorated with FPN and, if functional, will move iron from the cytosol into the phagosome lumen. This serves to feed iron to phagocytosed microbes and would be counterproductive to the many other known host mechanisms working to starve microbes of this essential metal. To understand how FPN is regulated during phagocytosis, we expressed FPN as a green fluorescent protein-fusion protein in macrophages and monitored its localization during uptake of various phagocytic targets, including Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium, human erythrocytes, and immunoglobulin G opsonized latex beads. We find that FPN is rapidly removed, independently of Vps34 and PI(3)P, from early phagosomes and does not follow recycling pathways that regulate transferrin receptor recycling. Live-cell video microscopy showed that FPN movement on the phagosome is dynamic, with punctate and tubular structures forming before FPN is trafficked back to the plasmalemma. N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor, which disrupts soluble NSF attachment protein receptor (SNARE)-mediated membrane fusion and trafficking, prevented FPN removal from the phagosome. Our data support the hypothesis that removal of FPN from the limiting phagosomal membrane will, at the cellular level, ensure that iron cannot be pumped into phagosomes. We propose this as yet another mechanism of host nutritional immunity to subvert microbial growth.

PI3KC3 complex subunit NRBF2 is required for apoptotic cell clearance to restrict intestinal inflammation

NRBF2, a regulatory subunit of the ATG14-BECN1/Beclin 1-PIK3C3/VPS34 complex, positively regulates macroautophagy/autophagy. In this study, we report that NRBF2 is required for the clearance of apoptotic cells and alleviation of inflammation during colitis in mice. NRBF2-deficient mice displayed much more severe colitis symptoms after the administration of ulcerative colitis inducer, dextran sulfate sodium salt (DSS), accompanied by prominent intestinal inflammation and apoptotic cell accumulation. Interestingly, we found that nrbf2-/- mice and macrophages displayed impaired apoptotic cell clearance capability, while adoptive transfer of nrbf2+/+ macrophages to nrbf2-/- mice alleviated DSS-induced colitis lesions. Mechanistically, NRBF2 is required for the generation of the active form of RAB7 to promote the fusion between phagosomes containing engulfed apoptotic cells and lysosomes via interacting with the MON1-CCZ1 complex and regulating the guanine nucleotide exchange factor (GEF) activity of the complex. Evidence from clinical samples further reveals the physiological role of NRBF2 in maintaining intestinal homeostasis. In biopsies of UC patient colon, we observed upregulated NRBF2 in the colon macrophages and the engulfment of apoptotic cells by NRBF2-positive cells, suggesting a potential protective role for NRBF2 in UC. To confirm the relationship between apoptotic cell clearance and IBD development, we compared TUNEL-stained cell counts in the UC with UC severity (Mayo Score) and observed a strong correlation between the two indexes, indicating that apoptotic cell population in colon tissue correlates with UC severity. The findings of our study reveal a novel role for NRBF2 in regulating apoptotic cell clearance to restrict intestinal inflammation.Abbreviation: ANOVA: analysis of variance; ATG14: autophagy related 14; ATG16L1: autophagy related 16-like 1 (S. cerevisiae); BMDM: bone marrow-derived macrophage; BSA: bovine serum albumin; CD: Crohn disease; CD68: CD68 molecule; CFP: cyan fluorescent protein; CMFDA: 5-chloromethylfluorescein diacetate; Co-IP, co-immunoprecipitation; CPR: C-reactive protein; Cy7: cyanine 7 maleimide; DAB: diaminobezidine 3; DAI: disease activity indexes; DAPI: 4'6-diamidino-2-phenylindole; DMEM: dulbecco's modified eagle's medium; DMSO: dimethyl sulfoxide; DOC: sodium deoxycholate; DSS: dextran sulfate sodium; EDTA: ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid; EGTA: ethylenebis (oxyethylenenitrilo) tetraacetic acid; FBS: fetal bovine serum; FITC: fluorescein isothiocyanate; FRET: Förster resonance energy transfer; GDP: guanine dinucleotide phosphate; GEF: guanine nucleotide exchange factor; GFP: green fluorescent protein; GTP: guanine trinucleotide phosphate; GWAS: genome-wide association studies; HEK293: human embryonic kidney 293 cells; HRP: horseradish peroxidase; IBD: inflammatory bowel disease; IgG: immunoglobin G; IL1B/IL-1β: interleukin 1 beta; IL6: interleukin 6; IRGM: immunity related GTPase M; ITGAM/CD11b: integrin subunit alpha M; KO: knockout; LRRK2: leucine rich repeat kinase 2; MAP1LC3/LC3: microtubule associated protein 1 light chain 3; MOI: multiplicity of infection; MPO: myeloperoxidase; NaCl: sodium chloride; NEU: neutrophil; NOD2: nucleotide binding oligomerization domain containing 2; NP40: nonidet-P40; NRBF2: nuclear receptor binding factor 2; PBS: phosphate buffer saline; PCR: polymerase chain reaction; PE: P-phycoerythrin; PIK3C3/VPS34: phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase catalytic subunit type 3; PtdIns3P: phosphatidylinositol-3-phosphate; PTPRC/CD45: protein tyrosine phosphatase receptor type C; SDS-PAGE: sodium dodecylsulphate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis; TBST: tris-buffered saline Tween-20; Tris-HCl: trihydroxymethyl aminomethane hydrochloride; TUNEL: TdT-mediated dUTP nick-end labeling; UC: ulcerative colitis; ULK1: unc-51 like autophagy activating kinase 1; WB: western blotting; WT: wild type; YFP: yellow fluorescent protein.

Macrophage SR-BI modulates autophagy via VPS34 complex and PPARα transcription of Tfeb in atherosclerosis

Autophagy modulates lipid turnover, cell survival, inflammation, and atherogenesis. Scavenger receptor class B type I (SR-BI) plays a crucial role in lysosome function. Here, we demonstrate that SR-BI regulates autophagy in atherosclerosis. SR-BI deletion attenuated lipid-induced expression of autophagy mediators in macrophages and atherosclerotic aortas. Consequently, SR-BI deletion resulted in 1.8- and 2.5-fold increases in foam cell formation and apoptosis, respectively, and increased oxidized LDL-induced inflammatory cytokine expression. Pharmacological activation of autophagy failed to reduce lipid content or apoptosis in Sr-b1-/- macrophages. SR-BI deletion reduced both basal and inducible levels of transcription factor EB (TFEB), a master regulator of autophagy, causing decreased expression of autophagy genes encoding VPS34 and Beclin-1. Notably, SR-BI regulated Tfeb expression by enhancing PPARα activation. Moreover, intracellular macrophage SR-BI localized to autophagosomes, where it formed cholesterol domains resulting in enhanced association of Barkor and recruitment of the VPS34-Beclin-1 complex. Thus, SR-BI deficiency led to lower VPS34 activity in macrophages and in atherosclerotic aortic tissues. Overexpression of Tfeb or Vps34 rescued the defective autophagy in Sr-b1-/- macrophages. Taken together, our results show that macrophage SR-BI regulates autophagy via Tfeb expression and recruitment of the VPS34-Beclin-1 complex, thus identifying previously unrecognized roles for SR-BI and potentially novel targets for the treatment of atherosclerosis.

Lysosome (Dys)function in Atherosclerosis-A Big Weight on the Shoulders of a Small Organelle

Atherosclerosis is a progressive insidious chronic disease that underlies most of the cardiovascular pathologies, including myocardial infarction and ischemic stroke. The malfunctioning of the lysosomal compartment has a central role in the etiology and pathogenesis of atherosclerosis. Lysosomes are the degradative organelles of mammalian cells and process endogenous and exogenous substrates in a very efficient manner. Dysfunction of these organelles and consequent inefficient degradation of modified low-density lipoproteins (LDL) and apoptotic cells in atherosclerotic lesions have, therefore, numerous deleterious consequences for cellular homeostasis and disease progression. Lysosome dysfunction has been mostly studied in the context of the inherited lysosomal storage disorders (LSDs). However, over the last years it has become increasingly evident that the consequences of this phenomenon are more far-reaching, also influencing the progression of multiple acquired human pathologies, such as neurodegenerative diseases, cancer, and cardiovascular diseases (CVDs). During the formation of atherosclerotic plaques, the lysosomal compartment of the various cells constituting the arterial wall is under severe stress, due to the tremendous amounts of lipoproteins being processed by these cells. The uncontrolled uptake of modified lipoproteins by arterial phagocytic cells, namely macrophages and vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs), is the initial step that triggers the pathogenic cascade culminating in the formation of atheroma. These cells become pathogenic "foam cells," which are characterized by dysfunctional lipid-laden lysosomes. Here, we summarize the current knowledge regarding the origin and impact of the malfunctioning of the lysosomal compartment in plaque cells. We further analyze how the field of LSD research may contribute with some insights to the study of CVDs, particularly how therapeutic approaches that target the lysosomes in LSDs could be applied to hamper atherosclerosis progression and associated mortality.

Phosphoinositides: Roles in the Development of Microglial-Mediated Neuroinflammation and Neurodegeneration

Microglia are increasingly recognized as vital players in the pathology of a variety of neurodegenerative conditions including Alzheimer’s (AD) and Parkinson’s (PD) disease. While microglia have a protective role in the brain, their dysfunction can lead to neuroinflammation and contributes to disease progression. Also, a growing body of literature highlights the seven phosphoinositides, or PIPs, as key players in the regulation of microglial-mediated neuroinflammation. These small signaling lipids are phosphorylated derivates of phosphatidylinositol, are enriched in the brain, and have well-established roles in both homeostasis and disease.Disrupted PIP levels and signaling has been detected in a variety of dementias. Moreover, many known AD disease modifiers identified via genetic studies are expressed in microglia and are involved in phospholipid metabolism. One of these, the enzyme PLCγ2 that hydrolyzes the PIP species PI(4,5)P₂, displays altered expression in AD and PD and is currently being investigated as a potential therapeutic target.Perhaps unsurprisingly, neurodegenerative conditions exhibiting PIP dyshomeostasis also tend to show alterations in aspects of microglial function regulated by these lipids. In particular, phosphoinositides regulate the activities of proteins and enzymes required for endocytosis, toll-like receptor signaling, purinergic signaling, chemotaxis, and migration, all of which are affected in a variety of neurodegenerative conditions. These functions are crucial to allow microglia to adequately survey the brain and respond appropriately to invading pathogens and other abnormalities, including misfolded proteins. AD and PD therapies are being developed to target many of the above pathways, and although not yet investigated, simultaneous PIP manipulation might enhance the beneficial effects observed. Currently, only limited therapeutics are available for dementia, and although these show some benefits for symptom severity and progression, they are far from curative. Given the importance of microglia and PIPs in dementia development, this review summarizes current research and asks whether we can exploit this information to design more targeted, or perhaps combined, dementia therapeutics. More work is needed to fully characterize the pathways discussed in this review, but given the strength of the current literature, insights in this area could be invaluable for the future of neurodegenerative disease research.

Better Together: Current Insights Into Phagosome-Lysosome Fusion

Following phagocytosis, the nascent phagosome undergoes maturation to become a phagolysosome with an acidic, hydrolytic, and often oxidative lumen that can efficiently kill and digest engulfed microbes, cells, and debris. The fusion of phagosomes with lysosomes is a principal driver of phagosomal maturation and is targeted by several adapted intracellular pathogens. Impairment of this process has significant consequences for microbial infection, tissue inflammation, the onset of adaptive immunity, and disease. Given the importance of phagosome-lysosome fusion to phagocyte function and the many virulence factors that target it, it is unsurprising that multiple molecular pathways have evolved to mediate this essential process. While the full range of these pathways has yet to be fully characterized, several pathways involving proteins such as members of the Rab GTPases, tethering factors and SNAREs have been identified. Here, we summarize the current state of knowledge to clarify the ambiguities in the field and construct a more comprehensive phagolysosome formation model. Lastly, we discuss how other cellular pathways help support phagolysosome biogenesis and, consequently, phagocyte function.

Common Signal Transduction Molecules Activated by Bacterial Entry into a Host Cell and by Reactive Oxygen Species

Significance: An increasing number of pathogens are acquiring resistance to antibiotics. Efficient antimicrobial drug regimens are important even for the most advanced therapies, which range from cutting-edge invasive clinical protocols, such as robotic surgeries, to the treatment of harmless bacterial diseases and to minor scratches to the skin. Therefore, there is an urgent need to survey alternative antimicrobial drugs that can reinforce or replace existing antibiotics. Recent Advances: Bacterial proteins that are critical for energy metabolism, promising novel anticancer thiourea derivatives, and the use of synthetic molecules that increase the sensitivity of currently used antibiotics are among the recently discovered antimicrobial drugs. Critical Issues: In the development of new drugs, serious consideration should be given to the previous bacterial evolutionary selection caused by antibiotics, by the high proliferation rate of bacteria, and by the simple prokaryotic structure of bacteria. Future Directions: The survey of drug targets has mainly focused on bacterial proteins, although host signaling molecules involved in the treatment of various pathologies may have unknown antimicrobial characteristics. Recent data have suggested that small molecule inhibitors might enhance the effect of antibiotics, for example, by limiting bacterial entry into host cells. Phagocytosis, the mechanism by which host cells internalize pathogens through β-actin cytoskeletal rearrangement, induces calcium signaling, small GTPase activation, and phosphorylation of the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase-serine/threonine-specific protein kinase B pathway. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 34, 486-503.

Monitoring Phosphoinositide Fluxes and Effectors During Leukocyte Chemotaxis and Phagocytosis

The dynamic re-organization of cellular membranes in response to extracellular stimuli is fundamental to the cell physiology of myeloid and lymphoid cells of the immune system. In addition to maintaining cellular homeostatic functions, remodeling of the plasmalemma and endomembranes endow leukocytes with the potential to relay extracellular signals across their biological membranes to promote rolling adhesion and diapedesis, migration into the tissue parenchyma, and to ingest foreign particles and effete cells. Phosphoinositides, signaling lipids that control the interface of biological membranes with the external environment, are pivotal to this wealth of functions. Here, we highlight the complex metabolic transitions that occur to phosphoinositides during several stages of the leukocyte lifecycle, namely diapedesis, migration, and phagocytosis. We describe classical and recently developed tools that have aided our understanding of these complex lipids. Finally, major downstream effectors of inositides are highlighted including the cytoskeleton, emphasizing the importance of these rare lipids in immunity and disease.

Role of Apoptotic Cell Clearance in Pneumonia and Inflammatory Lung Disease

Pneumonia and inflammatory diseases of the pulmonary system such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and asthma continue to cause significant morbidity and mortality globally. While the etiology of these diseases is highly different, they share a number of similarities in the underlying inflammatory processes driving disease pathology. Multiple recent studies have identified failures in efferocytosis-the phagocytic clearance of apoptotic cells-as a common driver of inflammation and tissue destruction in these diseases. Effective efferocytosis has been shown to be important for resolving inflammatory diseases of the lung and the subsequent restoration of normal lung function, while many pneumonia-causing pathogens manipulate the efferocytic system to enhance their growth and avoid immunity. Moreover, some treatments used to manage these patients, such as inhaled corticosteroids for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and the prevalent use of statins for cardiovascular disease, have been found to beneficially alter efferocytic activity in these patients. In this review, we provide an overview of the efferocytic process and its role in the pathophysiology and resolution of pneumonia and other inflammatory diseases of the lungs, and discuss the utility of existing and emerging therapies for modulating efferocytosis as potential treatments for these diseases.

Class III phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase complex I subunit NRBF2/Atg38 - from cell and structural biology to health and disease

Macroautophagy/autophagy is triggered by various starvation and stress conditions. The phospholipid phosphatidylinositol-3-phosphate (PtdIns3P) is essential for the formation of the autophagosome both in yeast and mammals. The class III phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase, PIK3C3C in humans or Vps34 in yeast, produces PtdIns3P by phosphorylating the 3'-OH position of phosphatidylinositol (PtdIns). In order to synthesize PtdIns3P for the initiation of autophagy, PIK3C3/Vps34 has a heterotetrameric core, the PIK3C3 complex I (hereafter complex I) composed of PIK3C3/Vps34, PIK3R4/Vps15, BECN1/Vps30, and ATG14/Atg14. A fifth component of complex I, NRBF2 in mammals and Atg38 in yeast, was found and has been characterized in the past decade. The field has been expanding from cell and structural biology to mouse model and cohort studies. Here I will summarize the structures and models of complex I binding NRBF2/Atg38, its intracellular roles, and its involvement in health and disease. Along with this expansion of the field, different conclusions have been drawn in several topics. I will clarify what has and has not been agreed, and what is to be clarified in the future.

Toll-like receptor-mediated innate immunity against herpesviridae infection: a current perspective on viral infection signaling pathways

Background

In the past decades, researchers have demonstrated the critical role of Toll-like receptors (TLRs) in the innate immune system. They recognize viral components and trigger immune signal cascades to subsequently promote the activation of the immune system.

Main body

Herpesviridae family members trigger TLRs to elicit cytokines in the process of infection to activate antiviral innate immune responses in host cells. This review aims to clarify the role of TLRs in the innate immunity defense against herpesviridae, and systematically describes the processes of TLR actions and herpesviridae recognition as well as the signal transduction pathways involved.

Conclusions

Future studies of the interactions between TLRs and herpesviridae infections, especially the subsequent signaling pathways, will not only contribute to the planning of effective antiviral therapies but also provide new molecular targets for the development of antiviral drugs.

Polyphosphate is an extracellular signal that can facilitate bacterial survival in eukaryotic cells

Polyphosphate is a linear chain of phosphate residues and is present in organisms ranging from bacteria to humans. Pathogens such as Mycobacterium tuberculosis accumulate polyphosphate, and reduced expression of the polyphosphate kinase that synthesizes polyphosphate decreases their survival. How polyphosphate potentiates pathogenicity is poorly understood. Escherichia coli K-12 do not accumulate detectable levels of extracellular polyphosphate and have poor survival after phagocytosis by Dictyostelium discoideum or human macrophages. In contrast, Mycobacterium smegmatis and Mycobacterium tuberculosis accumulate detectable levels of extracellular polyphosphate, and have relatively better survival after phagocytosis by D. discoideum or macrophages. Adding extracellular polyphosphate increased E. coli survival after phagocytosis by D. discoideum and macrophages. Reducing expression of polyphosphate kinase 1 in M. smegmatis reduced extracellular polyphosphate and reduced survival in D. discoideum and macrophages, and this was reversed by the addition of extracellular polyphosphate. Conversely, treatment of D. discoideum and macrophages with recombinant yeast exopolyphosphatase reduced the survival of phagocytosed M. smegmatis or M. tuberculosis D. discoideum cells lacking the putative polyphosphate receptor GrlD had reduced sensitivity to polyphosphate and, compared to wild-type cells, showed increased killing of phagocytosed E. coli and M. smegmatis Polyphosphate inhibited phagosome acidification and lysosome activity in D. discoideum and macrophages and reduced early endosomal markers in macrophages. Together, these results suggest that bacterial polyphosphate potentiates pathogenicity by acting as an extracellular signal that inhibits phagosome maturation.

Phagosomal F-Actin Retention by Cryptococcus gattii Induces Dendritic Cell Immunoparalysis

Cryptococcus yeast species typically display characteristics of opportunistic pathogens, with the exception of C. gattii, which can cause life-threatening respiratory and disseminated brain infections in otherwise healthy people. The pathogenesis of C. gattii is not well understood, but an important characteristic is that C. gattii is capable of evading host cell-mediated immune defenses initiated by DCs. Here, we report that when virulent C. gattii becomes ingested by a DC, the intracellular compartment containing the fungi is covered by a persistent protein cage structure consisting of F-actin. This F-actin cage acts as a barrier to prevent interaction with other intracellular compartments, and as a result, the DC fails to kill the fungi and activate important cell-mediated immune responses. We propose that this unique immune evasion mechanism permits C. gattii to remain unchallenged within host cells, leading to persistent infection.

Cryptococcus gattii is a major cause of life-threatening mycosis in immunocompetent individuals and responsible for the ongoing epidemic outbreak of cryptococcosis in the Pacific Northwest of North America. This deadly fungus is known to evade important host immune responses, including dendritic cell (DC) maturation and concomitant T cell immunity, via immune evasion mechanisms that remain unclear. Here, we demonstrate that primary human DCs phagocytose C. gattii but the maturation of phagosomes to phagolysosomes was blocked as a result of sustained filamentous actin (F-actin) that entrapped and concealed the phagosomes from recognition. Superresolution structured illumination microscopy (SR-SIM) revealed that the persistent phagosomal F-actin formed a cage-like structure that sterically hindered and functionally blocked the fusion of lysosomes. Blocking lysosome fusion was sufficient to inhibit phagosomal acidification and subsequent intracellular fungal killing by DCs. Retention of phagosomal F-actin by C. gattii also caused DC immunoparalysis. Disrupting the retained F-actin cage with cytochalasin D not only restored DC phagosomal maturation but also promoted DC costimulatory maturation and robust T cell activation and proliferation. Collectively, these results reveal a unique mechanism of DC immune evasion that enhances intracellular fungal pathogenicity and may explain suppressed cell-mediated immunity.

Bone marrow mesenchymal cells: polymorphism associated with transformation of rough endoplasmic reticulum

To understand the behavior and function of bone-marrow mesenchymal cells (BMMCs), we overviewed the morphological presentation of BMMCs in bone-marrow granules (b-BMMCs), isolated BMMCs (i-BMMCs), and BMMCs (c-BMMCs) cultured in H4434 methylcellulose semisolid and MEM media. All samples were derived from bone-marrow aspirates of 30 patients with hematocytopenia. Light microscopy exhibited b-BMMCs and i-BMMCs characterized by abundant cytoplasm and irregular shape in bone-marrow smears, as well as c-BMMCs in culture conditions. Scanning electron microscopy demonstrated cultured c-BMMCs with a sheet-like feature enveloping hematopoietic cells. Transmission electron microscopy revealed b-BMMCs constructing a honeycomb-like structure by thin bifurcate processes among hematopoietic cells. Furthermore, i-BMMCs had bifurcate parapodiums on the surface and prominent rough endoplasmic reticulum (rER) connected with the plasmalemma of the parapodiums. The detailed images suggested that rER may serve as a membrane resource for plasmalemmal expansion in BMMCs in bone marrow.

Phosphatidylinositol-4-kinase IIα licenses phagosomes for TLR4 signaling and MHC-II presentation in dendritic cells

Toll-like receptor (TLR) recruitment to phagosomes in dendritic cells (DCs) and downstream TLR signaling are essential to initiate antimicrobial immune responses. However, the mechanisms underlying TLR localization to phagosomes are poorly characterized. We show herein that phosphatidylinositol-4-kinase IIα (PI4KIIα) plays a key role in initiating phagosomal TLR4 responses in murine DCs by generating a phosphatidylinositol-4-phosphate (PtdIns4P) platform conducive to the binding of the TLR sorting adaptor Toll-IL1 receptor (TIR) domain-containing adaptor protein (TIRAP). PI4KIIα is recruited to maturing lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-containing phagosomes in an adaptor protein-3 (AP-3)-dependent manner, and both PI4KIIα and PtdIns4P are detected on phagosomal membrane tubules. Knockdown of PI4KIIα-but not the related PI4KIIβ-impairs TIRAP and TLR4 localization to phagosomes, reduces proinflammatory cytokine secretion, abolishes phagosomal tubule formation, and impairs major histocompatibility complex II (MHC-II) presentation. Phagosomal TLR responses in PI4KIIα-deficient DCs are restored by reexpression of wild-type PI4KIIα, but not of variants lacking kinase activity or AP-3 binding. Our data indicate that PI4KIIα is an essential regulator of phagosomal TLR signaling in DCs by ensuring optimal TIRAP recruitment to phagosomes.

An iron-dependent metabolic vulnerability underlies VPS34-dependence in RKO cancer cells

VPS34 is a key regulator of endomembrane dynamics and cargo trafficking, and is essential in cultured cell lines and in mice. To better characterize the role of VPS34 in cell growth, we performed unbiased cell line profiling studies with the selective VPS34 inhibitor PIK-III and identified RKO as a VPS34-dependent cellular model. Pooled CRISPR screen in the presence of PIK-III revealed endolysosomal genes as genetic suppressors. Dissecting VPS34-dependent alterations with transcriptional profiling, we found the induction of hypoxia response and cholesterol biosynthesis as key signatures. Mechanistically, acute VPS34 inhibition enhanced lysosomal degradation of transferrin and low-density lipoprotein receptors leading to impaired iron and cholesterol uptake. Excess soluble iron, but not cholesterol, was sufficient to partially rescue the effects of VPS34 inhibition on mitochondrial respiration and cell growth, indicating that iron limitation is the primary driver of VPS34-dependency in RKO cells. Loss of RAB7A, an endolysosomal marker and top suppressor in our genetic screen, blocked transferrin receptor degradation, restored iron homeostasis and reversed the growth defect as well as metabolic alterations due to VPS34 inhibition. Altogether, our findings suggest that impaired iron mobilization via the VPS34-RAB7A axis drive VPS34-dependence in certain cancer cells.

A guide to measuring phagosomal dynamics

Phagocytosis is an essential mechanism for immunity and homeostasis, performed by a subset of cells known as phagocytes. Upon target engulfment, de novo formation of specialized compartments termed phagosomes takes place. Phagosomes then undergo a series of fusion and fission events as they interact with the endolysosomal system and other organelles, in a dynamic process known as phagosome maturation. Because phagocytes play a key role in tissue patrolling and immune surveillance, phagosome maturation is associated with signaling pathways that link phagocytosis to antigen presentation and the development of adaptive immune responses. In addition, and depending on the nature of the cargo, phagosome integrity may be compromised, triggering additional cellular mechanisms including inflammation and autophagy. Upon completion of maturation, phagosomes enter a recently described phase: phagosome resolution, where catabolites from degraded cargo are metabolized, phagosomes are resorbed, and vesicles of phagosomal origin are recycled. Finally, phagocytes return to homeostasis and become ready for a new round of phagocytosis. Altogether, phagosome maturation and resolution encompass a series of dynamic events and organelle crosstalk that can be measured by biochemical, imaging, photoluminescence, cytometric, and immune‐based assays that will be described in this guide.

Differential effects of the Akt pathway on the internalization of Klebsiella by lung epithelium and macrophages

Host response to lung infection includes coordinated efforts of multiple cell types, including the lung epithelium and macrophages. Importantly, both the lung epithelium and macrophages can internalize and clear invading pathogens. However, the mechanisms and their ability to internalize or phagocytose differ. Akt is a key cellular pathway that controls cell proliferation and survival, in addition to its role in host defense. The role of the Akt pathway was assessed using pharmacological Akt modulators in lung epithelial (A549) and macrophage (RAW 264.7) cell lines during Klebsiella bacterial infection. Our data show that the inhibition of the Akt pathway using specific Akt inhibitor MK2206 increased the phagocytic ability of lung epithelial cells but not of macrophages. In contrast, the activation of Akt using specific activator SC-79 decreased the phagocytic ability of epithelial cells, while it increased the phagocytic ability of macrophages. The altered phagocytic ability in both cell types using Akt modulators was not due to changes in bacterial adhesion to the host cell. The clinical usefulness of these Akt modulators may vary based on the type of infection and on the relative contribution of epithelial cells and macrophages in clearing the particular bacterial infection. The Akt pathway has differential roles in the internalization of Klebsiella bacteria by respiratory epithelial cells and immune cells.

Coordinated Ras and Rac Activity Shapes Macropinocytic Cups and Enables Phagocytosis of Geometrically Diverse Bacteria

Engulfment of extracellular material by phagocytosis or macropinocytosis depends on the ability of cells to generate specialized cup-shaped protrusions. To effectively capture and internalize their targets, these cups are organized into a ring or ruffle of actin-driven protrusion encircling a non-protrusive interior domain. These functional domains depend on the combined activities of multiple Ras and Rho family small GTPases, but how their activities are integrated and differentially regulated over space and time is unknown. Here, we show that the amoeba Dictyostelium discoideum coordinates Ras and Rac activity using the multidomain protein RGBARG (RCC1, RhoGEF, BAR, and RasGAP-containing protein). We find RGBARG uses a tripartite mechanism of Ras, Rac, and phospholipid interactions to localize at the protruding edge and interface with the interior of both macropinocytic and phagocytic cups. There, we propose RGBARG shapes the protrusion by expanding Rac activation at the rim while suppressing expansion of the active Ras interior domain. Consequently, cells lacking RGBARG form enlarged, flat interior domains unable to generate large macropinosomes. During phagocytosis, we find that disruption of RGBARG causes a geometry-specific defect in engulfing rod-shaped bacteria and ellipsoidal beads. This demonstrates the importance of coordinating small GTPase activities during engulfment of more complex shapes and thus the full physiological range of microbes, and how this is achieved in a model professional phagocyte.

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We identify a new regulator that shapes macropinocytic and phagocytic cups

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Shaping protrusions into cups requires differential regulation of Ras and Rac

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Cups are organized by integrating interactions with phospholipids and multiple GTPases

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Defective cup formation causes a target shape-specific defect in phagocytosis