Membrane junctions in Xenopus eggs: their distribution suggests a role in calcium regulation

Changes in cortical endoplasmic reticulum clusters in the fertilized mouse oocyte†

Oocytes from many invertebrate and vertebrate species exhibit unique endoplasmic reticulum (ER) specializations (cortical ER clusters), which are thought to be essential for egg activation. In examination of cortical ER clusters, we observed that they were tethered to previously unreported fenestrae within the cortical actin layer. Furthermore, studies demonstrated that sperm preferentially bind to the plasma membrane overlying the fenestrae, establishing close proximity to underlying ER clusters. Moreover, following sperm-oocyte fusion, cortical ER clusters undergo a previously unrecognized global change in volume and shape that persists through sperm incorporation, before dispersing at the pronuclear stage. These changes did not occur in oocytes from females mated with Izumo1 -/- males. In addition to these global changes, highly localized ER modifications were noted at the sperm binding site as cortical ER clusters surround the sperm head during incorporation, then form a diffuse cloud surrounding the decondensing sperm nucleus. This study provides the first evidence that cortical ER clusters interact with the fertilizing sperm, indirectly through a previous unknown lattice work of actin fenestrae, and then directly during sperm incorporation. These observations raise the possibility that oocyte ER cluster-sperm interactions provide a competitive advantage to the oocyte, which may not occur during assisted reproductive technologies such as intracytoplasmic sperm injection.

Neuronal junctophilins recruit specific CaV and RyR isoforms to ER-PM junctions and functionally alter CaV2.1 and CaV2.2

Junctions between the endoplasmic reticulum and plasma membrane that are induced by the neuronal junctophilins are of demonstrated importance, but their molecular architecture is still poorly understood and challenging to address in neurons. This is due to the small size of the junctions and the multiple isoforms of candidate junctional proteins in different brain areas. Using colocalization of tagged proteins expressed in tsA201 cells, and electrophysiology, we compared the interactions of JPH3 and JPH4 with different calcium channels. We found that JPH3 and JPH4 caused junctional accumulation of all the tested high-voltage-activated Ca_V isoforms, but not a low-voltage-activated Ca_V. Also, JPH3 and JPH4 noticeably modify Ca_V2.1 and Ca_V2.2 inactivation rate. RyR3 moderately colocalized at junctions with JPH4, whereas RyR1 and RyR2 did not. By contrast, RyR1 and RyR3 strongly colocalized with JPH3, and RyR2 moderately. Likely contributing to this difference, JPH3 binds to cytoplasmic domain constructs of RyR1 and RyR3, but not of RyR2.

The eggstraordinary story of how life begins

More than 15 years have elapsed since the identification of phospholipase C ζ1 (PLCζ) from a genomic search for mouse testis/sperm-specific PLCs. This molecule was proposed to represent the sperm factor responsible for the initiation of calcium (Ca²⁺ ) oscillations required for egg activation and embryo development in mammals. Supporting evidence for this role emerged from studies documenting its expression in all mammals and other vertebrate species, the physiological Ca²⁺ rises induced by injection of its messenger RNA into mammalian and nonmammalian eggs, and the lack of expression in infertile males that fail intracytoplasmic sperm injection. In the last year, genetic animal models have added support to its role as the long sought-after sperm factor. In this review, we highlight the findings that demonstrated the role of Ca²⁺ as the universal signal of egg activation and the experimental buildup that culminated with the identification of PLCζ as the soluble sperm factor. We also discuss the structural-functional properties that make PLCζ especially suited to evoke oscillations in eggs. Lastly, we examine unresolved aspects of the function and regulation of PLCζ and whether or not it is the only sperm factor in mammalian sperm.

ER-plasma membrane junctions: Why and how do we study them?

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-plasma membrane (PM) junctions are membrane microdomains important for communication between the ER and the PM. ER-PM junctions were first reported in muscle cells in 1957, but mostly ignored in non-excitable cells due to their scarcity and lack of functional significance. In 2005, the discovery of stromal interaction molecule 1 (STIM1) mediating a universal Ca²⁺ feedback mechanism at ER-PM junctions in mammalian cells led to a resurgence of research interests toward ER-PM junctions. In the past decade, several major advancements have been made in this emerging topic in cell biology, including the generation of tools for labeling ER-PM junctions and the unraveling of mechanisms underlying regulation and functions of ER-PM junctions. This review summarizes early studies, recently developed tools, and current advances in the characterization and understanding of ER-PM junctions. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Membrane Contact Sites edited by Christian Ungermann and Benoit Kornmann.

Homeostatic regulation of the PI(4,5)P2-Ca(2+) signaling system at ER-PM junctions

The phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PI(4,5)P2)-Ca(2+) signaling system is important for cell activation in response to various extracellular stimuli. This signaling system is initiated by receptor-induced hydrolysis of PI(4,5)P2 in the plasma membrane (PM) to generate the soluble second messenger inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP3). IP3 subsequently triggers the release of Ca(2+) from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) store to the cytosol to activate Ca(2+)-mediated responses, such as secretion and proliferation. The consumed PM PI(4,5)P2 and ER Ca(2+) must be quickly restored to sustain signaling responses, and to maintain the homeostasis of PI(4,5)P2 and Ca(2+). Since phosphatidylinositol (PI), the precursor lipid for PM PI(4,5)P2, is synthesized in the ER membrane, and a Ca(2+) influx across the PM is required to refill the ER Ca(2+) store, efficient communications between the ER and the PM are critical for the homeostatic regulation of the PI(4,5)P2-Ca(2+) signaling system. This review describes the major findings that established the framework of the PI(4,5)P2-Ca(2+) signaling system, and recent discoveries on feedback control mechanisms at ER-PM junctions that sustain the PI(4,5)P2-Ca(2+) signaling system. Particular emphasis is placed on the characterization of ER-PM junctions where efficient communications between the ER and the PM occur, and the activation mechanisms of proteins that dynamically localize to ER-PM junctions to provide the feedback control during PI(4,5)P2-Ca(2+) signaling, including the ER Ca(2+) sensor STIM1, the extended synaptotagmin E-Syt1, and the PI transfer protein Nir2. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: The cellular lipid landscape edited by Tim P. Levine and Anant K. Menon.

How to make a good egg!: The need for remodeling of oocyte Ca(2+) signaling to mediate the egg-to-embryo transition

The egg-to-embryo transition marks the initiation of multicellular organismal development and is mediated by a specialized Ca(2+) transient at fertilization. This explosive Ca(2+) signal has captured the interest and imagination of scientists for many decades, given its cataclysmic nature and necessity for the egg-to-embryo transition. Learning how the egg acquires the competency to generate this Ca(2+) transient at fertilization is essential to our understanding of the mechanisms controlling egg and the transition to embryogenesis. In this review we discuss our current knowledge of how Ca(2+) signaling pathways remodel during oocyte maturation in preparation for fertilization with a special emphasis on the frog oocyte as additional reviews in this issue will touch on this in other species.

Functional coupling of the metabotropic glutamate receptor, InsP3 receptor and L-type Ca2+ channel in mouse CA1 pyramidal cells

Activity-dependent regulation of calcium dynamics in neuronal cells can play significant roles in the modulation of many cellular processes such as intracellular signalling, neuronal activity and synaptic plasticity. Among many calcium influx pathways into neurons, the voltage-dependent calcium channel (VDCC) is the major source of calcium influx, but its modulation by synaptic activity has still been under debate. While the metabotropic glutamate receptor (mGluR) is supposed to modulate L-type VDCCs (L-VDCCs), its reported actions include both facilitation and suppression, probably reflecting the uncertainty of both the molecular targets of the mGluR agonists and the source of the recorded calcium signal in previous reports. In this study, using subtype-specific knockout mice, we have shown that mGluR5 induces facilitation of the depolarization-evoked calcium current. This facilitation was not accompanied by the change in single-channel properties of the VDCC itself; instead, it required the activation of calcium-induced calcium release (CICR) that was triggered by VDCC opening, suggesting that the opening of CICR-coupled cation channels was essential for the facilitation. This facilitation was blocked or reduced by the inhibitors of both L-VDCCs and InsP3 receptors (InsP3Rs). Furthermore, L-VDCCs and mGluR5 were shown to form a complex by coimmunoprecipitation, suggesting that the specific functional coupling between mGluR5, InsP3Rs and L-VDCCs played a pivotal role in the calcium-current facilitation. Finally, we showed that mGluR5 enhanced VDCC-dependent long-term potentiation (LTP) of synaptic transmission. Our study has identified a novel mechanism of the interaction between the mGluR and calcium signalling, and suggested a contribution of mGluR5 to synaptic plasticity.

Agonist-activated Ca2+ influx occurs at stable plasma membrane and endoplasmic reticulum junctions

Junctate is a 33 kDa integral protein of sarco(endo)plasmic reticulum membranes that forms a macromolecular complex with inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate [Ins(1,4,5)P(3)] receptors and TRPC3 channels. TIRF microscopy shows that junctate enhances the number of fluorescent puncta on the plasma membrane. The size and distribution of these puncta are not affected by the addition of agonists that mobilize Ca(2+) from Ins(1,4,5)P(3)-sensitive stores. Puncta are associated with a significantly larger number of peripheral junctions between endoplasmic reticulum and plasma membrane, which are further enhanced upon stable co-expression of junctate and TRPC3. The gap between the membranes of peripheral junctions is bridged by regularly spaced electron-dense structures of 10 nm. Ins(1,4,5)P(3) inhibits the interaction of the cytoplasmic N-terminus of junctate with the ligand-binding domain of the Ins(1,4,5)P(3) receptor. Furthermore, Ca(2+) influx evoked by activation of Ins(1,4,5)P(3) receptors is increased where puncta are located. We conclude that stable peripheral junctions between the plasma membrane and endoplasmic reticulum are the anatomical sites of agonist-activated Ca(2+) entry.

Internalization of plasma membrane Ca2+-ATPase during Xenopus oocyte maturation

A transient increase in intracellular Ca(2+) is the universal signal for egg activation at fertilization. Eggs acquire the ability to mount the specialized fertilization-specific Ca(2+) signal during oocyte maturation. The first Ca(2+) transient following sperm entry in vertebrate eggs has a slow rising phase followed by a sustained plateau. The molecular determinants of the sustained plateau are poorly understood. We have recently shown that a critical determinant of Ca(2+) signaling differentiation during oocyte maturation is internalization of the plasma membrane calcium ATPase (PMCA). PMCA internalization is representative of endocytosis of several integral membrane proteins during oocyte maturation, a requisite process for early embryogenesis. Here we investigate the mechanisms regulating PMCA internalization. To track PMCA trafficking in live cells we cloned a full-length cDNA of Xenopus PMCA1, and show that GFP-tagged PMCA traffics in a similar fashion to endogenous PMCA. Functional data show that MPF activation during oocyte maturation is required for full PMCA internalization. Pharmacological and co-localization studies argue that PMCA is internalized through a lipid raft endocytic pathway. Deletion analysis reveal a requirement for the N-terminal cytoplasmic domain for efficient internalization. Together these studies define the mechanistic requirements for PMCA internalization during oocyte maturation.

Calcium and morphogenetic fields

Experiments on polarizing fucoid eggs indicate that they drive a steady calcium ion current through themselves as they establish a developmental axis. Moreover, the experiments strongly suggest that this current establishes a pCa gradient within the egg which is part of the mechanism which establishes this axis. It is suggested that Child's 'metabolic gradients' (as well as Bünning's unequal plant cell divisions) likewise include pCa gradients with Child's 'high' ends and Bünning's antimeristemoid ends being regions of low pCa. Evidence for other developmental calcium currents (obtained with a vibrating extracellular voltage electrode) is reviewed, and the development of a vibrating extracellular pCa electrode is proposed. Finally, progress towards direct observations of intracellular pCa gradients is reviewed. This includes visualization of an apparent steady high calcium cap at the vegetal (and perhaps, too, the animal) pole of medaka fish eggs with the aid of aequorin.

Vesicular traffic at the cell membrane regulates oocyte meiotic arrest

Vertebrate oocytes are maintained in meiotic arrest for prolonged periods of time before undergoing oocyte maturation in preparation for fertilization. Cyclic AMP (cAMP) signaling plays a crucial role in maintaining meiotic arrest, which is released by a species-specific hormonal signal. Evidence in both frog and mouse argues that meiotic arrest is maintained by a constitutively active G-protein coupled receptor (GPCR) leading to high cAMP levels. Because activated GPCRs are typically targeted for endocytosis as part of the signal desensitization pathway, we were interested in determining the role of trafficking at the cell membrane in maintaining meiotic arrest. Here we show that blocking exocytosis, using a dominant-negative SNAP25 mutant in Xenopus oocytes, releases meiotic arrest independently of progesterone. Oocyte maturation in response to the exocytic block induces the MAPK and Cdc25C signaling cascades, leading to MPF activation, germinal vesicle breakdown and arrest at metaphase of meiosis II with a normal bipolar spindle. It thus replicates all tested aspects of physiological maturation. Furthermore, inhibiting clathrin-mediated endocytosis hinders the effectiveness of progesterone in releasing meiotic arrest. These data show that vesicular traffic at the cell membrane is crucial in maintaining meiotic arrest in vertebrates, and support the argument for active recycling of a constitutively active GPCR at the cell membrane.

Some assembly required: constructing the elementary units of store-operated Ca2+ entry

The means by which Ca(2+) store depletion evokes the opening of store-operated Ca(2+) channels (SOCs) in the plasma membrane of excitable and non-excitable cells has been a longstanding mystery. Indirect evidence has supported local interactions between the ER and SOCs as well as long-range interactions mediated through a diffusible activator. The recent molecular identification of the ER Ca(2+) sensor (STIM1) and a subunit of the CRAC channel (Orai1), a prototypic SOC, has now made it possible to visualize directly the sequence of events that links store depletion to CRAC channel opening. Following store depletion, STIM1 moves from locations throughout the ER to accumulate in ER subregions positioned within 10-25nm of the plasma membrane. Simultaneously, Orai1 gathers at discrete sites in the plasma membrane directly opposite STIM1, resulting in local CRAC channel activation. These new studies define the elementary units of store-operated Ca(2+) entry, and reveal an unprecedented mechanism for channel activation in which the stimulus brings a channel and its activator/sensor together for interaction across apposed membrane compartments. We discuss the implications of this choreographic mechanism with regard to Ca(2+) dynamics, specificity of Ca(2+) signaling, and the existence of a specialized ER subset dedicated to the control of the CRAC channel.

Ca2+ signaling differentiation during oocyte maturation

Oocyte maturation is an essential cellular differentiation pathway that prepares the egg for activation at fertilization leading to the initiation of embryogenesis. An integral attribute of oocyte maturation is the remodeling of Ca2+ signaling pathways endowing the egg with the capacity to produce a specialized Ca2+ transient at fertilization that is necessary and sufficient for egg activation. Consequently, mechanistic elucidation of Ca2+ signaling differentiation during oocyte maturation is fundamental to our understanding of egg activation, and offers a glimpse into Ca2+ signaling regulation during the cell cycle.

Ca2+ store depletion causes STIM1 to accumulate in ER regions closely associated with the plasma membrane

Stromal interacting molecule 1 (STIM1), reported to be an endoplasmic reticulum (ER) Ca²⁺ sensor controlling store-operated Ca²⁺ entry, redistributes from a diffuse ER localization into puncta at the cell periphery after store depletion. STIM1 redistribution is proposed to be necessary for Ca²⁺ release–activated Ca²⁺ (CRAC) channel activation, but it is unclear whether redistribution is rapid enough to play a causal role. Furthermore, the location of STIM1 puncta is uncertain, with recent reports supporting retention in the ER as well as insertion into the plasma membrane (PM). Using total internal reflection fluorescence (TIRF) microscopy and patch-clamp recording from single Jurkat cells, we show that STIM1 puncta form several seconds before CRAC channels open, supporting a causal role in channel activation. Fluorescence quenching and electron microscopy analysis reveal that puncta correspond to STIM1 accumulation in discrete subregions of junctional ER located 10–25 nm from the PM, without detectable insertion of STIM1 into the PM. Roughly one third of these ER–PM contacts form in response to store depletion. These studies identify an ER structure underlying store-operated Ca²⁺ entry, whose extreme proximity to the PM may enable STIM1 to interact with CRAC channels or associated proteins.

Cortically restricted production of IP3 leads to propagation of the fertilization Ca2+ wave along the cell surface in a model of the Xenopus egg

The fertilization Ca2+ wave in Xenopus laevis is a single, large wave of elevated free cytosolic Ca2+ concentration that emanates from the point of sperm-egg fusion and traverses the entire diameter of the egg. This phenomenon appears to involve an increase in inositol-1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP3) resulting from interaction of the sperm and egg, which then results in the activation of the endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ release machinery. We have proposed models based on a static elevated distribution of IP3, and dynamic [IP3], however, these models have suggested that the fertilization wave passes through the center of the egg. Complementing these earlier models, we propose a more detailed model of the fertilization Ca2+ wave in Xenopus eggs to explore the hypothesis that IP3 is produced only at or near the plasma membrane. In this case, we find that the wave propagates primarily through the cortex of the egg, and that Ca2+ -induced production of IP3 at the plasma membrane allows IP3 to propagate in advance of the wave. Our model includes Ca2+ -dependent production of IP3 at the plasma membrane and IP3 degradation. Simulations in 1 dimension and axi-symmetric 3 dimensions illustrate the basic features of the wave.

Sperm initiate a Ca2+ wave in frog eggs that is more similar to Ca2+ waves initiated by IP3 than by Ca2+

We have measured the initial propagation velocity of the sperm-induced Ca(2+) wave in the egg of Xenopus laevis and have compared it with the initial propagation velocities of the inositol triphosphate (IP(3))-induced and Ca(2+)-induced Ca(2+) waves. The initial mean propagation velocity of the sperm-induced wave (13 microm/s) is very similar to that of the IP(3)-induced waves (12.3 microm/s) and two times faster than the mean Ca(2+)-induced wave velocity (6.6 microm/s). We have generated realistic simulations of the fertilization wave in the frog egg using a computational technique based on the finite difference method. Modeling refinements presented here include equations for the production, degradation, and diffusion of IP(3), a description for Ca(2+) dynamics in the endoplasmic reticulum, and a highly concentrated endoplasmic reticulum in the egg cortex. We conclude that models incorporating sperm-induced IP(3) generation fit the data best and those involving the influx of either Ca(2+) or a diffusible sperm factor fit the data poorly. This independence from Ca(2+) influx is also supported by electrophysiological data indicating that Ca(2+) influx is not needed to maintain open Cl(-) channels that generate the fertilization potential.

Molecular basis of mechanotransduction in living cells

The simplest cell-like structure, the lipid bilayer vesicle, can respond to mechanical deformation by elastic membrane dilation/thinning and curvature changes. When a protein is inserted in the lipid bilayer, an energetic cost may arise because of hydrophobic mismatch between the protein and bilayer. Localized changes in bilayer thickness and curvature may compensate for this mismatch. The peptides alamethicin and gramicidin and the bacterial membrane protein MscL form mechanically gated (MG) channels when inserted in lipid bilayers. Their mechanosensitivity may arise because channel opening is associated with a change in the protein's membrane-occupied area, its hydrophobic mismatch with the bilayer, excluded water volume, or a combination of these effects. As a consequence, bilayer dilation/thinning or changes in local membrane curvature may shift the equilibrium between channel conformations. Recent evidence indicates that MG channels in specific animal cell types (e.g., Xenopus oocytes) are also gated directly by bilayer tension. However, animal cells lack the rigid cell wall that protects bacteria and plants cells from excessive expansion of their bilayer. Instead, a cortical cytoskeleton (CSK) provides a structural framework that allows the animal cell to maintain a stable excess membrane area (i.e., for its volume occupied by a sphere) in the form of membrane folds, ruffles, and microvilli. This excess membrane provides an immediate membrane reserve that may protect the bilayer from sudden changes in bilayer tension. Contractile elements within the CSK may locally slacken or tighten bilayer tension to regulate mechanosensitivity, whereas membrane blebbing and tight seal patch formation, by using up membrane reserves, may increase membrane mechanosensitivity. In specific cases, extracellular and/or CSK proteins (i.e., tethers) may transmit mechanical forces to the process (e.g., hair cell MG channels, MS intracellular Ca(2+) release, and transmitter release) without increasing tension in the lipid bilayer.

Changes in organization of the endoplasmic reticulum during Xenopus oocyte maturation and activation

The organization of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) in the cortex of Xenopus oocytes was investigated during maturation and activation using a green fluorescent protein chimera, immunofluorescence, and electron microscopy. Dense clusters of ER developed on the vegetal side (the side opposite the meiotic spindle) during maturation. Small clusters appeared transiently at the time of nuclear envelope breakdown, disappeared at the time of first polar body formation, and then reappeared as larger clusters in mature eggs. The appearance of the large ER clusters was correlated with an increase in releasability of Ca(2+) by IP(3). The clusters dispersed during the Ca(2+) wave at activation. Possible relationships of ER structure and Ca(2+) regulation are discussed.

Changes in organization of the endoplasmic reticulum during Xenopus oocyte maturation and activation

The organization of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) in the cortex of Xenopus oocytes was investigated during maturation and activation using a green fluorescent protein chimera, immunofluorescence, and electron microscopy. Dense clusters of ER developed on the vegetal side (the side opposite the meiotic spindle) during maturation. Small clusters appeared transiently at the time of nuclear envelope breakdown, disappeared at the time of first polar body formation, and then reappeared as larger clusters in mature eggs. The appearance of the large ER clusters was correlated with an increase in releasability of Ca(2+) by IP(3). The clusters dispersed during the Ca(2+) wave at activation. Possible relationships of ER structure and Ca(2+) regulation are discussed.

Attributes and dynamics of the endoplasmic reticulum in mammalian eggs

The endoplasmic reticulum is a multifunctional continuous network of membrane-enclosed sacs and tubules that extends throughout the cell. The endoplasmic reticulum is the site of protein synthesis and assembly, as well as lipid and membrane synthesis. Additionally, the endoplasmic reticulum contains calcium pumps, intraluminal calcium storage proteins, and specific calcium-releasing channels. Thus, this membrane system plays a central role in intracellular signaling through the storage and release of calcium. At fertilization, the sperm triggers a large and dramatic release of calcium from the endoplasmic reticulum, which activates the egg to begin development. The ability of the egg to fully elevate calcium depends on biochemical and structural changes during oocyte maturation. The sensitivity of the calcium-releasing system increases and the endoplasmic reticulum is reorganized during maturation of the oocyte; together, these dynamic changes place a substantial calcium storage compartment just beneath the membrane, near the site of sperm-egg fusion. Localization of the calcium store may also contribute to the long-lasting calcium oscillations that are characteristic of mammalian fertilization. Examination of the endoplasmic reticulum in living eggs is leading to a better understanding of calcium release at fertilization.

Polarity in intracellular calcium signaling

The concentration of free calcium ions (Ca(2+)) in the cytosol is precisely regulated and can be rapidly increased in response to various types of stimuli. Since Ca(2+) can be used to control different processes in the same cell, the spatial organization of cytosolic Ca(2+) signals is of considerable importance. Polarized cells have advantages for Ca(2+) studies since localized signals can be related to particular organelles. The pancreatic acinar cell is well-characterized with a clearly polarized structure and function. Since the discovery of the intracellular Ca(2+)-releasing function of inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP(3)) in the pancreas in the early 1980s, this cell has become a popular study object and is now one of the best-characterized with regard to Ca(2+) signaling properties. Stimulation of pancreatic acinar cells with the neurotransmitter acetylcholine or the hormone cholecystokinin evokes Ca(2+) signals that are either local or global, depending on the agonist concentration and the length of the stimulation period. The nature of the Ca(2+) transport events across the basal and apical plasma membranes as well as the involvement of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), the nucleus, the mitochondria, and the secretory granules in Ca(2+) signal generation and termination have become much clearer in recent years.

Organisation of Xenopus oocyte and egg cortices

The division of the Xenopus oocyte cortex into structurally and functionally distinct "animal" and "vegetal" regions during oogenesis provides the basis of the organisation of the early embryo. The vegetal region of the cortex accumulates specific maternal mRNAs that specify the development of the endoderm and mesoderm, as well as functionally-defined "determinants" of dorso-anterior development, and recognisable "germ plasm" determinants that segregate into primary germ cells. These localised elements on the vegetal cortex underlie both the primary animal-vegetal polarity of the egg and the organisation of the developing embryo. The animal cortex meanwhile becomes specialised for the events associated with fertilisation: sperm entry, calcium release into the cytoplasm, cortical granule exocytosis, and polarised cortical contraction. Cortical and subcortical reorganisations associated with meiotic maturation, fertilisation, cortical rotation, and the first mitotic cleavage divisions redistribute the vegetal cortical determinants, contributing to the specification of dorso-anterior axis and segregation of the germ line. In this article we consider what is known about the changing organisation of the oocyte and egg cortex in relation to the mechanisms of determinant localisation, anchorage, and redistribution, and show novel ultrastructural views of cortices isolated at different stages and processed by the rapid-freeze deep-etch method. Cortical organisation involves interactions between the different cytoskeletal filament systems and internal membranes. Associated proteins and cytoplasmic signals probably modulate these interactions in stage-specific ways, leaving much to be understood.

Radial localization of inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate-sensitive Ca2+ release sites in Xenopus oocytes resolved by axial confocal linescan imaging

The radial localization and properties of elementary calcium release events ("puffs") were studied in Xenopus oocytes using a confocal microscope equipped with a piezoelectric focussing unit to allow rapid (>100 Hz) imaging of calcium signals along a radial line into the cell with a spatial resolution of <0.7 micrometer. Weak photorelease of caged inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (InsP3) evoked puffs arising predominantly within a 6-micrometer thick band located within a few micrometers of the cell surface. Approximately 25% of puffs had a restricted radial spread, consistent with calcium release from a single site. Most puffs, however, exhibited a greater radial spread (3.25 micrometer), likely involving recruitment of radially neighboring release sites. Calcium waves evoked by just suprathreshold stimuli exhibited radial calcium distributions consistent with inward diffusion of calcium liberated at puff sites, whereas stronger flashes evoked strong, short-latency signals at depths inward from puff sites, indicating deep InsP3-sensitive stores activated at higher concentrations of InsP3. Immunolocalization of InsP3 receptors showed punctate staining throughout a region corresponding to the localization of puffs and subplasmalemmal endoplasmic reticulum. The radial organization of puff sites a few micrometers inward from the plasma membrane may have important consequences for activation of calcium-dependent ion channels and "capacitative" calcium influx. However, on the macroscopic (hundreds of micrometers) scale of global calcium waves, release can be considered to occur primarily within a thin, essentially two-dimensional subplasmalemmal shell.

Calcium and endoplasmic reticulum dynamics during oocyte maturation and fertilization in the marine worm Cerebratulus lacteus

To monitor calcium and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) dynamics during oocyte maturation and fertilization, oocytes of the marine worm Cerebratulus lacteus were injected with the calcium-sensitive indicator calcium green dextran and/or the ER-specific probe "DiI." Based on time-lapse confocal imaging of such specimens, prophase-arrested immature oocytes failed to develop normally after insemination and typically produced non-wave-like calcium transients that were lower in amplitude and less persistent than the wave-like oscillations observed during fertilizations of mature oocytes. Accordingly, the ER of DiI-loaded immature oocytes lacked an obvious substructure, whereas ER clusters, or "microdomains," began to form in maturing specimens at about the time that these oocytes became competent to undergo normal fertilization-induced calcium dynamics and cleavage. The ER microdomains of mature oocytes typically reached widths of 1-8 micrometer and disappeared approximately 1 h after fertilization, which in turn coincided with the termination of the calcium oscillations. Collectively, these findings indicate: (i) changes in ER structure are temporally correlated with the onset and cessation of the calcium oscillations required for subsequent cleavage, and (ii) such ER reorganizations may play an important role in early development by enabling mature oocytes to generate a normal calcium response.

Does a decrease in subplasmalemmal Ca2+ explain how store-operated Ca2+ channels are opened?

The phenomenon of store-activated Ca2+ inflow (capacitative Ca2+ entry) in which the depletion of Ca2+ in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) increases the probability of opening of store-operated Ca2+ channels (SOCs) located in the plasma membrane is ubiquitous in 'non-excitable' animal cells and is also found in some 'excitable' cells. At present, neither the structures of SOCs nor the mechanism(s) by which a decrease in Ca2+ in the lumen of the ER activates SOCs are well understood. This paper discusses the hypothesis that a decrease in the concentration of Ca2+ in restricted regions of the subplasmalemmal space (bounded by the plasma membrane and peripheral regions of the ER) is responsible for the activation of SOCs. The hypothesis rests on observations made by others that Ca2+ is a strong feed-back inhibitor of SOCs and of the endoplasmic reticulum (Ca(2+)+Mg2+)-ATPases (SERCAs), and on the concepts (developed previously by others) of a subplasmalemmal space and the directed flow of Ca2+ through SOCs into the lumen of the ER and from there to the deep cytoplasmic space. The way in which the hypothesis might explain the actions of agonists (acting via inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate) and thapsigargin (an inhibitor of SERCAs) in activating SOCs under physiological conditions is described. The proposed involvement of thapsigargin-insensitive SERCAs, and possible limitations of the hypothesis are discussed.

Calcium release and influx colocalize to the endoplasmic reticulum

Intracellular Ca2+ is released from intracellular stores in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) in response to the second messenger inositol (1,4,5) trisphosphate (InsP3) [1,2]. Then, a poorly understood cellular mechanism, termed capacitative Ca2+ entry, is activated [3,4]; this permits Ca2+ to enter cells through Ca(2+)-selective Ca(2+)-release-activated ion channels [5,6] as well as through less selective store-operated channels [7]. The level of stored Ca2+ is sensed by Ca(2+)-permeant channels in the plasma membrane, but the identity of these channels, and the link between them and Ca2+ stores, remain unknown. It has been argued that either a diffusible second messenger (Ca2+ influx factor; CIF) [8] or a physical link [9,10] connects the ER Ca(2+)-release channel and store-operated channels; strong evidence for either mechanism is lacking, however [7,10]. Petersen and Berridge [11] showed that activation of the lysophosphatidic acid receptor in a restricted region of the oocyte membrane results in stimulation of Ca2+ influx only in that region, and concluded that a diffusible messenger was unlikely. To investigate the relationship between ER stores and Ca2+ influx, we used centrifugation to redistribute into specific layers the organelles inside intact Xenopus laevis oocytes, and used laser scanning confocal microscopy with the two-photon technique to 'uncage' InsP3 while recording intracellular Ca2+ concentration. Ca2+ release was localized to the stratified ER layer and Ca2+ entry to regions of the membrane directly adjacent to this layer. We conclude that Ca2+ depletion and entry colocalize to the ER and that the mechanism linking Ca2+ stores to Ca2+ entry is similarly locally constrained.

Elementary and global aspects of calcium signalling

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Developmental expression of the inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor and structural changes in the endoplasmic reticulum during oogenesis and meiotic maturation of Xenopus laevis

To study the development of the calcium release mechanism, we examined the temporal and spatial expression of inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor (IP3R) during the oogenesis and meiotic maturation of Xenopus laevis. Observation of a series of fixed samples by immunofluoresence microscopy revealed a relocalization of Xenopus IP3R (XIP3R)-positive structures during meiotic maturation. We visualized the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) using ER-sensitive dye, DiI, by observation under confocal laser scanning microscopy. Time-lapse visualization of the living oocytes revealed that while the ER of immature fully grown oocytes underwent relatively little movement, the ER of maturing oocytes and mature eggs moved rapidly. A possible role for the increase of ER mobility in the dynamic redistribution of XIP3R during oocyte maturation is also discussed.

Store-activated Ca2+ inflow in Xenopus laevis oocytes: inhibition by primaquine and evaluation of the role of membrane fusion

The role of membrane fusion in the activation of store-activated Ca2+ channels (SACCs) in the plasma membrane of Xenopus laevis oocytes was investigated with primaquine, an inhibitor of vesicle trafficking, reagents that disrupt the cytoskeleton, and reagents that activate or inhibit the functions of monomeric and trimeric GTP-binding regulatory proteins. Ca2+ inflow was assessed by measuring the rate of increase in the fluorescence of the intracellular Ca2+ chelator fluo-3 after the addition of extracellular Ca2+ to oocytes previously incubated in the absence of added Ca2+. Primaquine inhibited the 3-deoxy-3-fluoro Ins(1,4,5)P3 (Ins(1,4,5)P3F)-stimulated increase in Ca2+O,-induced fluo-3 fluorescence with no detectable effect on the release of Ca2+ from intracellular stores. The effect of primaquine was observed within 1.5 min, showed similarity to the inhibition induced by Gd3+, was reversible, and was observed when primaquine was added either before or after activation of the SACCs. The degree of inhibition of Ca2+ inflow by primaquine was halved when the extracellular concentration of Ca2+ was increased from 3.1 to 12.5 mM. Primaquine also inhibited Ca2+ inflow through cholera toxin-activated divalent cation channels and Drosophila Trpl channels (expressed in oocytes after injection of trp1 cRNA). These results indicate that primaquine inhibits open SACCs, possibly by directly inhibiting Ca2+ flow through the channel pore. Colchicine plus cytochalasin B, Brefeldin A, the peptide Arf-1 (2-17) (introduced by microinjection), lovastatin or pertussis toxin did not inhibit the Ins(1,4,5)P3F stimulated increase in fluo-3 fluorescence. In contrast, guanosine 5'-[gamma-thio]triphosphate (GTP[S]), guanosine 5'-[beta, gamma-imido]triphosphate (p[NH]ppG) and A1F4-, but not guanosine 5'-[beta-thio]diphosphate, inhibited the Ins(1,4,5)P3F-stimulated increase in fluo-3 fluorescence. Co-administration of GTP did not prevent the inhibition by GTP[S] of FA1F4-. Staurosporine largely prevented the inhibition of store-activated Ca2+ inflow by GTP[S]. It is concluded that membrane fusion processes are unlikely to be involved in the link between the release of Ca2+ from the endoplasmic reticulum and activation of SACCs. The idea that this link is achieved by direct interaction of a protein(s) in the endoplasmic reticulum membrane with the SACC protein is briefly discussed.

Wanderlust kinetics and variable Ca(2+)-sensitivity of dSlo [correction of Drosophila], a large conductance CA(2+)-activated K+ channel, expressed in oocytes

Cloned large conductance Ca2+-activated K+ channels (BK or maxi-K+ channels) from Drosophila (dSlo) were expressed in Xenopus oocytes and studied in excised membrane patches with the patch-clamp technique. Both a natural variant and a mutant that eliminated a putative cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase phosphorylation site exhibited large, slow fluctuations in open probability with time. These fluctuations, termed "wanderlust kinetics," occurred with a time course of tens of seconds to minutes and had kinetic properties inconsistent with simple gating models. Wanderlust kinetics was still observed in the presence of 5mM caffeine or 50 nM thapsigargin, or when the Ca2+ buffering capacity of the solution was increased by the addition of 5 mM HEDTA, suggesting that the wanderlust kinetics did not arise from Ca2+ release from caffeine and thapsigargin sensitive internal stores in the excised patch. The slow changes in kinetics associated with wanderlust kinetics could be generated with a discrete-state Markov model with transitions among three or more kinetic modes with different levels of open probability. To average out the wanderlust kinetics, large amounts of data were analyzed and demonstrated up to a threefold difference in the [Ca2+]i required for an open probability of 0.5 among channels expressed from the same injected mRNA. These findings indicate that cloned dSlo channels in excised patches from Xenopus oocytes can exhibit large variability in gating properties, both within a single channel and among channels.

Wanderlust kinetics and variable Ca(2+)-sensitivity of Drosophila, a large conductance Ca(2+)-activated K+ channel, expressed in oocytes

Cloned large conductance Ca(2+)-activated K+ channels (BK or maxi-K+ channels) from Drosophila (dSlo) were expressed in Xenopus oocytes and studied in excised membrane patches with the patch-clamp technique. Both a natural variant and a mutant that eliminated a putative cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase phosphorylation site exhibited large, slow fluctuations in open probability with time. These fluctuations, termed "wanderlust kinetics," occurred with a time course of tens of seconds to minutes and had kinetic properties inconsistent with simple gating models. Wanderlust kinetics was still observed in the presence of 5 mM caffeine or 50 nM thapsigargin, or when the Ca2+ buffering capacity of the solution was increased by the addition of 5 mM HEDTA, suggesting that the wanderlust kinetics did not arise from Ca2+ release from caffeine and thapsigargin sensitive internal stores in the excised patch. The slow changes in kinetics associated with wanderlust kinetics could be generated with a discrete-state Markov model with transitions among three or more kinetic modes with different levels of open probability. To average out the wanderlust kinetics, large amounts of data were analyzed and demonstrated up to a threefold difference in the [Ca2+]i required for an open probability of 0.5 among channels expressed from the same injected mRNA. These findings indicate that cloned dSlo channels in excised patches from Xenopus oocytes can exhibit large variability in gating properties, both within a single channel and among channels.

Capacitative calcium entry

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Cortical changes in starfish (Asterina pectinifera) oocytes during 1-methyladenine-induced maturation and fertilisation/activation

Maturation of the starfish oocyte cortex to produce an effective cortical granule reaction and fertilisation envelope is believed to develop in three phases: (1) pre-methyladenine (1-MA) stimulation; (2) post-1-MA stimulation, pregerminal vesicle breakdown; and (3) post-germinal vesicle breakdown. The present study was initiated to identify what each of these phases may encompass, specifically with respect to structures associated with the oocyte cortex, including cortical granules, microvilli and vitelline layer. 1-MA treatment brought about an orientation of cortical granules such that they became positioned perpendicular to the oocyte surface, and an approximately 4-fold decrease in microvillar length. A-23187 activation of immature oocytes treated with (10 min; pregerminal vesicle breakdown) or without 1-MA resulted in a reduction in cortical granule number of 21% and 41%, respectively (mature oocytes underwent a 96% reduction in cortical granules). Elevation of the fertilisation envelope in both cases was significantly retarded compared with activated mature oocytes. In activated mature oocytes, the vitelline layer elevated 20.0 +/- 5.4 mu m from the egg's surface, whereas in immature oocytes treated with just A-23187 or with 1-MA (10 min) and A-23187, it lifted 0.35 +/- 0.1 and 0.17 +/- 0.04 mu m, respectively. The fertilisation envelopes of activated (or fertilised) immature oocytes also differed morphologically from those of mature oocytes. In activated, immature oocytes, the fertilisation envelope was not uniform in its thickness and possessed thick and thin regions as well as fenestrations. Additionally, it lacked a complete electron-dense stratum that characterised the fertilisation envelopes of mature oocytes. The nascent perivitelline space of immature oocytes was also distinguished by the presence of numerous vesicles which appeared to be derived from microvilli. Differences in the morphology of cortices from activated (fertilised) and non-activated, immature and mature oocytes substantiate previous investigations demonstrating three phases of cortical maturation, and are consistent with physiological changes that occur during oocyte maturation, involving ionic conductance of the plasma membrane, establishment of slow and fast blocks to polyspermy and elevation of a fertilisation envelope.

Direct visualization of a vast cortical calcium compartment in Paramecium by secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS) microscopy: possible involvement in exocytosis

The plasma membrane of ciliates is underlaid by a vast continuous array of membrane vesicles known as cortical alveoli. Previous work had shown that a purified fraction of these vesicles actively pumps calcium, suggesting that alveoli may constitute a calcium-storage compartment. Here we provide direct confirmation of this hypothesis using in situ visualization of total cell calcium on sections of cryofixed and cryosubstituted cells analyzed by SIMS (secondary ion mass spectrometry) microscopy a method never previously applied to protists. A narrow, continuous, Ca-emitting zone located all along the cell periphery was observed on sections including the cortex. In contrast, Na and K were evenly distributed throughout the cell. Various controls confirmed that emission was from the alveoli, in particular, the emitting zone was still seen in mutants totally lacking trichocysts, the large exocytotic organelles docked at the cell surface, indicating that they make no major direct contribution to the emission. Calcium concentration within alveoli was quantified for the first time in SIMS microscopy using an external reference and was found to be in the range of 3 to 5 mM, a value similar to that for sarcoplasmic reticulum. After massive induction of trichocyst discharge, this concentration was found to decrease by about 50%, suggesting that the alveoli are the main source of the calcium involved in exocytosis.

Calcium-containing, smooth-surfaced endoplasmic reticulum and vacuoles in cells of the blastopore-forming region during gastrulation of the newt, Cynops pyrrhogaster

Ultrastructural changes in cells of the blastopore-forming region (BFR) were examined during gastrulation of the newt, Cynops pyrrhogaster. Smooth-surfaced endoplasmic reticulum (sER), tubular in shape and with two types of vacuole, empty vacuoles and multilamellar vacuoles, appeared in cells of the BFR at the beginning of formation of the blastopore. The extent of the tubular sER increased during formation of the blastopore. With the deepening of the blastoporal groove, the tubular sER and multilamellar vacuoles disappeared in cells of the BFR. The empty vacuoles increased in number and appeared throughout the cytoplasm of the cells in the BFR and the marginal zone as formation of the archenteron progressed. Many large empty vacuoles were closely associated with deformed lipid droplets. Cytochemistry and X-ray microanalysis revealed the accumulation of calcium in the tubular sER and in some of the empty vacuoles. These results suggest important roles for the calcium-containing tubular sER in the regulation of the intracellular concentration of calcium during formation of the blastopore, as well as a role for empty vacuoles in the dissolution and consumption of lipid droplets during early gastrulation.

The Xenopus IP3 receptor: structure, function, and localization in oocytes and eggs

To study the role of the IP3 receptor (IP3R) upon egg activation, cDNA clones encoding IP3R expressed in the Xenopus oocytes were isolated. By analyses of the primary structure and functional expression of the cDNA, Xenopus IP3R (XIP3R) was shown to have an IP3-binding domain and a putative Ca2+ channel region. Immunocytochemical studies revealed polarized distribution of XIP3R in the cytoplasm of the animal hemisphere in a well-organized endoplasmic reticulum-like structure and intensive localization in the perinuclear region of stage VI immature oocytes. In ovulated unfertilized eggs, XIP3R was densely enriched in the cortical region of both hemispheres in addition to its polarized localization. After fertilization, XIP3R showed a drastic change in its distribution in the cortical region. These results imply the predominant role of the XIP3R in both the formation and propagation of Ca2+ waves at fertilization.

A membrane model for cytosolic calcium oscillations. A study using Xenopus oocytes

Cytosolic calcium oscillations occur in a wide variety of cells and are involved in different cellular functions. We describe these calcium oscillations by a mathematical model based on the putative electrophysiological properties of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) membrane. The salient features of our membrane model are calcium-dependent calcium channels and calcium pumps in the ER membrane, constant entry of calcium into the cytosol, calcium dependent removal from the cytosol, and buffering by cytoplasmic calcium binding proteins. Numerical integration of the model allows us to study the fluctuations in the cytosolic calcium concentration, the ER membrane potential, and the concentration of free calcium binding sites on a calcium binding protein. The model demonstrates the physiological features necessary for calcium oscillations and suggests that the level of calcium flux into the cytosol controls the frequency and amplitude of oscillations. The model also suggests that the level of buffering affects the frequency and amplitude of the oscillations. The model is supported by experiments indirectly measuring cytosolic calcium by calcium-induced chloride currents in Xenopus oocytes as well as cytosolic calcium oscillations observed in other preparations.

Intercellular communication between follicular angiotensin receptors and Xenopus laevis oocytes: medication by an inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate-dependent mechanism

In Xenopus laevis oocytes, activation of angiotensin II (AII) receptors on the surrounding follicular cells sends a signal through gap junctions to elevate cytoplasmic calcium concentration ([Ca2+]i) within the oocyte. The two major candidates for signal transfer through gap junctions into the oocyte during AII receptor stimulation are Ins(1,4,5)P3 and Ca2+. In [3H]inositol-injected follicular oocytes, AII stimulated two- to fourfold increases in phosphoinositide hydrolysis and production of inositol phosphates. Injection of the glycosaminoglycan, heparin, which selectively blocks Ins(1,4,5)P3 receptors, prevented both AII-stimulated and Ins(1,4,5)P3-induced Ca2+ mobilization in Xenopus follicular oocytes but did not affect mobilization of Ca2+ by ionomycin or GTP. These results indicate that the AII-regulated process of gap junction communication between follicular cells and the oocyte operates through an Ins(1,4,5)P3-dependent mechanism rather than through transfer of Ca2+ into the ooplasm and subsequent Ca(2+)-induced Ca2+ release.

Cortical localization of a calcium release channel in sea urchin eggs

We have used an antibody against the ryanodine receptor/calcium release channel of skeletal muscle sarcoplasmic reticulum to localize a calcium release channel in sea urchin eggs. The calcium release channel is present in less than 20% of immature oocytes, where it does not demonstrate a specific cytoplasmic localization, while it is confined to the cortex of all mature eggs examined. This is in contrast to the cortical and subcortical localization of calsequestrin in mature and immature eggs. Immunolocalization of the calcium release channel reveals a cortical reticulum or honeycomb staining network that surrounds cortical granules and is associated with the plasma membrane. The network consists of some immunoreactive electron-dense material coating small vesicles and elongate cisternae of the endoplasmic reticulum. The fluorescent reticular staining pattern is lost when egg cortices are treated with agents known to affect sarcoplasmic reticulum calcium release and induce cortical granule exocytosis (ryanodine, calcium, A-23187, and caffeine). An approximately 380-kD protein of sea urchin egg cortices is identified by immunoblot analysis with the ryanodine receptor antibody. These results demonstrate: (a) the presence of a ryanodine-sensitive calcium release channel that is located within the sea urchin egg cortex; (b) an altered calcium release channel staining pattern as a result of treatments that initiate the cortical granule reaction; and (c) a spatial and functional dichotomy of the ER which may be important in serving different roles in the mobilization of calcium at fertilization.

Organization of the sea urchin egg endoplasmic reticulum and its reorganization at fertilization

The ER of eggs of the sea urchin Lytechinus pictus was stained by microinjecting a saturated solution of the fluorescent dicarbocyanine DiIC18(3) (DiI) in soybean oil; the dye spread from the oil drop into ER membranes throughout the egg but not into other organelles. Confocal microscopy revealed large cisternae extending throughout the interior of the egg and a tubular membrane network at the cortex. Since diffusion of DiI is confined to continuous bilayers, the spread of the dye supports the concept that the ER is a cell-wide, interconnected compartment. In time lapse observations, the internal cisternae were seen to be in continuous motion, while the cortical ER was stationary. After fertilization, the internal ER appeared to become more finely divided, beginning as a wave apparently coincident with the calcium wave and becoming most marked by 2-3 min. By 5-8 min the ER returned to an organization similar to that of the unfertilized egg. The cortical network also changed at fertilization; it became disrupted and eventually recovered. DiI labeling allowed continuous observations of the ER during pronuclear migration and mitosis. DiI-stained membranes accumulated in the region of the microtubule array surrounding the sperm nucleus and centriole (the sperm aster) as it migrated to the center of the egg; this accumulation persisted near the centrosomes and zygote nucleus throughout pronuclear fusion and the first two mitotic cycles. We have used a new method to observe the spatial and temporal organization of the ER in a living cell, and we have demonstrated a striking reorganization of the ER at fertilization.

An electron-microscope and freeze-fracture study of the egg cortex of Brachydanio rerio

We have examined the cortex of the teleost (Brachydanio rerio) egg before and during exocytosis of cortical granules by scanning, transmission, and freeze-fracture electron microscopy. In the unactivated egg, the P-face of the plasma membrane exhibits a random distribution of intramembranous particles, showing a density of 959/micron2 and an average diameter of 8 nm. Particles over P- and E-faces of the membranes of cortical granules are substantially larger and display a significantly lower density. An anastomosing cortical endoplasmic reticulum forms close associations with both the plasma membrane of the egg and the membranes of cortical granules. Exocytosis begins with cortical granules pushing up beneath the plasma membrane to form dome-shaped swellings, coupled with an apparent clearing of particles from the site of contact between the apposed membranes. A depression in the particle-free plasma membrane appears to mark sites of fusion and pore formation between cortical granules and plasma membranes. Profiles of exocytotic vesicles undergo a predictable sequence of morphological change, but maintain their identity in the egg surface during this transformation. Coated vesicles form at sites of cortical granule breakdown. Differences in particle density between cortical granules and egg plasma membranes persist during transformation of the exocytotic profiles. This suggests that constituents of the 2 membrane domains remain segregated and do not intermix rapidly, lending support to the view that the process of membrane retrieval is selective (i.e., cortical granule membrane is removed).