Monomer-polymer equilibria in the axon: direct measurement of tubulin and actin as polymer and monomer in axoplasm

The Axonal Actin Filament Cytoskeleton: Structure, Function, and Relevance to Injury and Degeneration

Early investigations of the neuronal actin filament cytoskeleton gave rise to the notion that, although growth cones exhibit high levels of actin filaments, the axon shaft exhibits low levels of actin filaments. With the development of new tools and imaging techniques, the axonal actin filament cytoskeleton has undergone a renaissance and is now an active field of research. This article reviews the current state of knowledge about the actin cytoskeleton of the axon shaft. The best understood forms of actin filament organization along axons are axonal actin patches and a submembranous system of rings that endow the axon with protrusive competency and structural integrity, respectively. Additional forms of actin filament organization along the axon have also been described and their roles are being elucidated. Extracellular signals regulate the axonal actin filament cytoskeleton and our understanding of the signaling mechanisms involved is being elaborated. Finally, recent years have seen advances in our perspective on how the axonal actin cytoskeleton is impacted by, and contributes to, axon injury and degeneration. The work to date has opened new venues and future research will undoubtedly continue to provide a richer understanding of the axonal actin filament cytoskeleton.

Functional Genomics of Axons and Synapses to Understand Neurodegenerative Diseases

Functional genomics studies through transcriptomics, translatomics and proteomics have become increasingly important tools to understand the molecular basis of biological systems in the last decade. In most cases, when these approaches are applied to the nervous system, they are centered in cell bodies or somatodendritic compartments, as these are easier to isolate and, at least in vitro, contain most of the mRNA and proteins present in all neuronal compartments. However, key functional processes and many neuronal disorders are initiated by changes occurring far away from cell bodies, particularly in axons (axopathologies) and synapses (synaptopathies). Both neuronal compartments contain specific RNAs and proteins, which are known to vary depending on their anatomical distribution, developmental stage and function, and thus form the complex network of molecular pathways required for neuron connectivity. Modifications in these components due to metabolic, environmental, and/or genetic issues could trigger or exacerbate a neuronal disease. For this reason, detailed profiling and functional understanding of the precise changes in these compartments may thus yield new insights into the still intractable molecular basis of most neuronal disorders. In the case of synaptic dysfunctions or synaptopathies, they contribute to dozens of diseases in the human brain including neurodevelopmental (i.e., autism, Down syndrome, and epilepsy) as well as neurodegenerative disorders (i.e., Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases). Histological, biochemical, cellular, and general molecular biology techniques have been key in understanding these pathologies. Now, the growing number of omics approaches can add significant extra information at a high and wide resolution level and, used effectively, can lead to novel and insightful interpretations of the biological processes at play. This review describes current approaches that use transcriptomics, translatomics and proteomic related methods to analyze the axon and presynaptic elements, focusing on the relationship that axon and synapses have with neurodegenerative diseases.

Neurofilaments in disease: what do we know?

Neurofilaments are proteins selectively expressed in the cytoskeleton of neurons, and increased levels are a marker of damage. Elevated neurofilament levels can serve as a marker of ongoing disease activity as well as a tool to measure response to therapeutic intervention. The potential utility of neurofilaments has drastically increased as recent advances have made it possible to measure levels in both the cerebrospinal fluid and blood. There is mounting evidence that neurofilament light chain (NfL) and phosphorylated neurofilament heavy chain (NfH) are abnormal in a host of neurodegenerative diseases. In this review we examine how both of these proteins behave across diseases and what we know about how these biomarkers relate to in vivo white matter pathology and each other.

Dynamical decoration of stabilized-microtubules by Tau-proteins

Tau is a microtubule-associated protein that regulates axonal transport, stabilizes and spatially organizes microtubules in parallel networks. The Tau-microtubule pair is crucial for maintaining the architecture and integrity of axons. Therefore, it is essential to understand how these two entities interact to ensure and modulate the normal axonal functions. Based on evidence from several published experiments, we have developed a two-dimensional model that describes the interaction between a population of Tau proteins and a stabilized microtubule at the scale of the tubulin dimers (binding sites) as an adsorption-desorption dynamical process in which Tau can bind on the microtubule outer surface via two distinct modes: a longitudinal (along a protofilament) and lateral (across adjacent protofilaments) modes. Such a process yields a dynamical distribution of Tau molecules on the microtubule surface referred to as microtubule decoration that we have characterized at the equilibrium using two observables: the total microtubule surface coverage with Tau's and the distribution of nearest neighbors Tau's. Using both analytical and numerical approaches, we have derived expressions and computed these observables as a function of key parameters controlling the binding reaction: the stoichiometries of the Taus in the two binding modes, the associated dissociation constants and the ratio of the Tau concentration to that of microtubule tubulin dimers.

Processive flow by biased polymerization mediates the slow axonal transport of actin

Chakrabarty et al. propose a model in which slow axonal transport of actin can occur by a biased polymerization of actin filaments along the axon shaft without the involvement of microtubules (MTs) or MT-based motors. These dynamics are distinct from polymer sliding—the canonical mechanism thought to convey cytoskeletal cargoes in slow transport.

Classic pulse-chase studies have shown that actin is conveyed in slow axonal transport, but the mechanistic basis for this movement is unknown. Recently, we reported that axonal actin was surprisingly dynamic, with focal assembly/disassembly events (“actin hotspots”) and elongating polymers along the axon shaft (“actin trails”). Using a combination of live imaging, superresolution microscopy, and modeling, in this study, we explore how these dynamic structures can lead to processive transport of actin. We found relatively more actin trails elongated anterogradely as well as an overall slow, anterogradely biased flow of actin in axon shafts. Starting with first principles of monomer/filament assembly and incorporating imaging data, we generated a quantitative model simulating axonal hotspots and trails. Our simulations predict that the axonal actin dynamics indeed lead to a slow anterogradely biased flow of the population. Collectively, the data point to a surprising scenario where local assembly and biased polymerization generate the slow axonal transport of actin without involvement of microtubules (MTs) or MT-based motors. Mechanistically distinct from polymer sliding, this might be a general strategy to convey highly dynamic cytoskeletal cargoes.

HIV Glycoprotein Gp120 Impairs Fast Axonal Transport by Activating Tak1 Signaling Pathways

Sensory neuropathies are the most common neurological complication of HIV. Of these, distal sensory polyneuropathy (DSP) is directly caused by HIV infection and characterized by length-dependent axonal degeneration of dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons. Mechanisms for axonal degeneration in DSP remain unclear, but recent experiments revealed that the HIV glycoprotein gp120 is internalized and localized within axons of DRG neurons. Based on these findings, we investigated whether intra-axonal gp120 might impair fast axonal transport (FAT), a cellular process critical for appropriate maintenance of the axonal compartment. Significantly, we found that gp120 severely impaired both anterograde and retrograde FAT. Providing a mechanistic basis for these effects, pharmacological experiments revealed an involvement of various phosphotransferases in this toxic effect, including members of mitogen-activated protein kinase pathways (Tak-1, p38, and c-Jun N-terminal Kinase (JNK)), inhibitor of kappa-B-kinase 2 (IKK2), and PP1. Biochemical experiments and axonal outgrowth assays in cell lines and primary cultures extended these findings. Impairments in neurite outgrowth in DRG neurons by gp120 were rescued using a Tak-1 inhibitor, implicating a Tak-1 mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway in gp120 neurotoxicity. Taken together, these observations indicate that kinase-based impairments in FAT represent a novel mechanism underlying gp120 neurotoxicity consistent with the dying-back degeneration seen in DSP. Targeting gp120-based impairments in FAT with specific kinase inhibitors might provide a novel therapeutic strategy to prevent axonal degeneration in DSP.

Comparison of [corrected] actin- and glass-supported phospholipid bilayer diffusion coefficients

The formation of biomimetic lipid membranes has the potential to provide insights into cellular lipid membrane dynamics. The construction of such membranes necessitates not only the utilization of appropriate lipids, but also physiologically relevant substrate/support materials. The substrate materials employed have been shown to have demonstrable effects on the behavior of the overlying lipid membrane, and thus must be studied before use as a model cushion support. To our knowledge, we report the formation and investigation of a novel actin protein-supported lipid membrane. Specifically, inner leaflet lateral mobility of globular actin-supported DMPC (1,2-dimyristoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine) bilayers, deposited via the Langmuir-Blodgett/Langmuir Schaefer methodology, was investigated by z-scan fluorescence correlation spectroscopy across a temperature range of 20-44°C. The actin substrate was found to decrease the diffusion coefficient when compared to an identical membrane supported on glass. The depression of the diffusion coefficient occurred across all measured temperatures. These results indicated that the actin substrate exerted a direct effect on the fluidity of the lipid membrane and highlighted the fact that the choice of substrate/support is critical in studies of model lipid membranes.

Developing Biomarkers for MS

Existing clinical outcomes of disease activity, including relapse rates, are inherently insensitive to the underlying pathological process in MS. Moreover, it is extremely difficult to measure clinical disability in patients, which is often a retrospective assessment, and definitely not within the time frame of a clinical trial. Biomarkers , conversely are more specific for a pathologic process and if used correctly can prove invaluable in the diagnosis, stratification and monitoring of disease activity, including any subclinical activity which is not visible to the naked eye. In this chapter, we discuss the development of neurofilaments as surrogate outcomes of disability in MS. The validation and qualification are vital steps in biomarker development and to gaining acceptance in scientific community, and the pitfalls leading up to this are also discussed.

Bidirectional actin transport is influenced by microtubule and actin stability

Local and long-distance transport of cytoskeletal proteins is vital to neuronal maintenance and growth. Though recent progress has provided insight into the movement of microtubules and neurofilaments, mechanisms underlying the movement of actin remain elusive, in large part due to rapid transitions between its filament states and its diverse cellular localization and function. In this work, we integrated live imaging of rat sensory neurons, image processing, multiple regression analysis, and mathematical modeling to perform the first quantitative, high-resolution investigation of GFP-actin identity and movement in individual axons. Our data revealed that filamentous actin densities arise along the length of the axon and move short but significant distances bidirectionally, with a net anterograde bias. We directly tested the role of actin and microtubules in this movement. We also confirmed a role for actin densities in extension of axonal filopodia, and demonstrated intermittent correlation of actin and mitochondrial movement. Our results support a novel mechanism underlying slow component axonal transport, in which the stability of both microtubule and actin cytoskeletal components influence the mobility of filamentous actin.

Fast axonal transport in isolated axoplasm from the squid giant axon

The giant axon of the squid provides a unique cell biological model for analyzing the biochemistry and cell biology of the axon. These axons may exceed 500 μm in diameter and can be readily dissected. Once the surrounding small axons and connective tissue are removed, the axoplasm can be extruded as an intact cylinder of isolated cytoplasm. This isolated axoplasm is morphologically indistinguishable from the intact axon, but without permeability barriers. Fast axonal transport will continue for more than 4 h after extrusion and can be visualized in real time. By perfusing defined concentrations of proteins and/or reagents into the axoplasm, this preparation represents a powerful model for study of intracellular trafficking and its underlying molecular mechanisms.

Analysis of microtubules in isolated axoplasm from the squid giant axon

Biochemical specialization of cellular microtubules has emerged as a primary mechanism in specifying microtubule dynamics and function. However, study of specific subcellular populations of cytoplasmic microtubules has been limited, particularly in the nervous system. The complexity of nervous tissue makes it difficult to distinguish neuronal microtubules from glial microtubules, and axonal microtubules from dendritic and cell body microtubules. The problem is further compounded by the finding that a large fraction of neuronal tubulin is lost during standard preparations of brain tubulin, and this population of stable microtubules is enriched in axons. Here, we consider a unique biological model that provides a unique opportunity to study axonal microtubules both in situ and in vitro: isolated axoplasm from the squid giant axon. The axoplasm model represents a powerful system for addressing fundamental questions of microtubule structure and function in the axon.

Quantitative measurements and modeling of cargo-motor interactions during fast transport in the living axon

The kinesins have long been known to drive microtubule-based transport of sub-cellular components, yet the mechanisms of their attachment to cargo remain a mystery. Several different cargo-receptors have been proposed based on their in vitro binding affinities to kinesin-1. Only two of these-phosphatidyl inositol, a negatively charged lipid, and the carboxyl terminus of the amyloid precursor protein (APP-C), a trans-membrane protein-have been reported to mediate motility in living systems. A major question is how these many different cargo, receptors and motors interact to produce the complex choreography of vesicular transport within living cells. Here we describe an experimental assay that identifies cargo-motor receptors by their ability to recruit active motors and drive transport of exogenous cargo towards the synapse in living axons. Cargo is engineered by derivatizing the surface of polystyrene fluorescent nanospheres (100 nm diameter) with charged residues or with synthetic peptides derived from candidate motor receptor proteins, all designed to display a terminal COOH group. After injection into the squid giant axon, particle movements are imaged by laser-scanning confocal time-lapse microscopy. In this report we compare the motility of negatively charged beads with APP-C beads in the presence of glycine-conjugated non-motile beads using new strategies to measure bead movements. The ensuing quantitative analysis of time-lapse digital sequences reveals detailed information about bead movements: instantaneous and maximum velocities, run lengths, pause frequencies and pause durations. These measurements provide parameters for a mathematical model that predicts the spatiotemporal evolution of distribution of the two different types of bead cargo in the axon. The results reveal that negatively charged beads differ from APP-C beads in velocity and dispersion, and predict that at long time points APP-C will achieve greater progress towards the presynaptic terminal. The significance of this data and accompanying model pertains to the role transport plays in neuronal function, connectivity, and survival, and has implications in the pathogenesis of neurological disorders, such as Alzheimer's, Huntington and Parkinson's diseases.

Mitotic spindle form and function

The Saccharomyces cerevisiae mitotic spindle in budding yeast is exemplified by its simplicity and elegance. Microtubules are nucleated from a crystalline array of proteins organized in the nuclear envelope, known as the spindle pole body in yeast (analogous to the centrosome in larger eukaryotes). The spindle has two classes of nuclear microtubules: kinetochore microtubules and interpolar microtubules. One kinetochore microtubule attaches to a single centromere on each chromosome, while approximately four interpolar microtubules emanate from each pole and interdigitate with interpolar microtubules from the opposite spindle to provide stability to the bipolar spindle. On the cytoplasmic face, two to three microtubules extend from the spindle pole toward the cell cortex. Processes requiring microtubule function are limited to spindles in mitosis and to spindle orientation and nuclear positioning in the cytoplasm. Microtubule function is regulated in large part via products of the 6 kinesin gene family and the 1 cytoplasmic dynein gene. A single bipolar kinesin (Cin8, class Kin-5), together with a depolymerase (Kip3, class Kin-8) or minus-end-directed kinesin (Kar3, class Kin-14), can support spindle function and cell viability. The remarkable feature of yeast cells is that they can survive with microtubules and genes for just two motor proteins, thus providing an unparalleled system to dissect microtubule and motor function within the spindle machine.

Scapinin-induced inhibition of axon elongation is attenuated by phosphorylation and translocation to the cytoplasm

Scapinin is an actin- and PP1-binding protein that is exclusively expressed in the brain; however, its function in neurons has not been investigated. Here we show that expression of scapinin in primary rat cortical neurons inhibits axon elongation without affecting axon branching, dendritic outgrowth, or polarity. This inhibitory effect was dependent on its ability to bind actin because a mutant form that does not bind actin had no effect on axon elongation. Immunofluorescence analysis showed that scapinin is predominantly located in the distal axon shaft, cell body, and nucleus of neurons and displays a reciprocal staining pattern to phalloidin, consistent with previous reports that it binds actin monomers to inhibit polymerization. We show that scapinin is phosphorylated at a highly conserved site in the central region of the protein (Ser-277) by Cdk5 in vitro. Expression of a scapinin phospho-mimetic mutant (S277D) restored normal axon elongation without affecting actin binding. Instead, phosphorylated scapinin was sequestered in the cytoplasm of neurons and away from the axon. Because its expression is highest in relatively plastic regions of the adult brain (cortex, hippocampus), scapinin is a new regulator of neurite outgrowth and neuroplasticity in the brain.

Tension management in the kinetochore

The kinetochore is the protein machine built at the centromere that integrates mechanical force and chemical energy from dynamic microtubules into directed chromosome motion. The kinetochore also provides a powerful signaling function that is able to alter the properties of the spindle checkpoint and initiate a signal transduction cascade that leads to inhibition of the anaphase promoting complex and cell cycle arrest. Together, the kinetochore accomplishes the feat of chromosome segregation with unparalleled accuracy. Errors in segregation lead to Down's syndrome, the most frequent inherited birth defect, pregnancy loss, and cancer. Over a century after the discovery of the kinetochore, an architectural map comprising greater than 100 proteins is emerging. Understanding the architecture and physical biology of the key components provides new insights into how this fascinating machine moves genomes.

A diffusion-based neurite length-sensing mechanism involved in neuronal symmetry breaking

Shootin1, one of the earliest markers of neuronal symmetry breaking, accumulates in the neurite tips of polarizing neurons in a neurite length-dependent manner. Thus, neurons sense their neurites' length and translate this spatial information into a molecular signal, shootin1 concentration.

Quantitative live cell imaging of shootin1 dynamics combined with mathematical modeling analyses reveals that its anterograde transport and retrograde diffusion in neurite shafts account for the neurite length-dependent accumulation of shootin1.

The neurite length-dependent shootin1 accumulation and shootin1-induced neurite outgrowth constitute a positive feedback loop that amplifies stochastic shootin1 signals in neurite tips.

Quantitative mathematical modeling shows that the above positive feedback loop, together with shootin1 upregulation, constitutes a core mechanism for neuronal symmetry breaking.

Cell morphology and size must be properly controlled to ensure cellular function. Although there has been significant progress in understanding the molecular signals that change cell morphology, the manner in which cells monitor their size and length to regulate their morphology is poorly understood. Cultured hippocampal neurons polarize by forming a single long axon and multiple short dendrites (Craig and Banker, 1994; Arimura and Kaibuchi, 2007), and symmetry breaking is the initial step of this process. This symmetry-breaking step reproduces even when the neuronal axon is transected; the longest neurite usually grows rapidly to become an axon after transection, regardless of whether it is the axonal stump or another neurite (Goslin and Banker, 1989). Elongation of an immature neurite by mechanical tension also leads to its axonal specification (Lamoureux et al, 2002). These results suggest that cultured hippocampal neurons can sense neurite length, identify the longest one, and induce its subsequent axonogenesis for symmetry breaking. However, little is known about the mechanism for this process.

Shootin1 is one of the earliest markers of neuronal symmetry breaking (Toriyama et al, 2006). During the symmetry-breaking step, it undergoes a stochastic accumulation in neurite tips, and eventually accumulates predominantly in a single neurite that subsequently grows to become an axon. In this study, we demonstrated that shootin1 accumulates in neurite tips in a neurite length-dependent manner, regardless of whether it is the axonal stump or another neurite (Figure 3A, C–F). Thus, morphological information (neurite length) is translated into a molecular signal (shootin1 concentration in neurite tips).

We previously reported that shootin1 is transported from the cell body to neurite tips as discrete boluses and diffuses back to the cell body (Toriyama et al, 2006). The boluses containing variable amounts of shootin1 traveled repeatedly but irregularly along neurites, and their arrival caused large stochastic fluctuations in shootin1 concentration in the neurite tips. To understand the mechanism of length-dependent shootin1 accumulation, we performed quantitative live cell imaging of the anterograde transport and retrograde diffusion of shootin1 and fitted the obtained data into mathematical models of the anterograde transport and retrograde diffusion. The parameters of these two models were derived entirely from quantitative experimental data, without any adjustment. Shootin1 concentration at neurite tips, calculated by integrating the two models, was neurite length dependent (Figure 3B) and showed good agreement with the experimental data (Figure 3A). These results suggest that the neurite length-dependent accumulation of shootin1 is quantitatively explained by its anterograde transport and retrograde diffusion.

This length-dependent shootin1 accumulation constitutes a positive feedback interaction with the previously reported shootin1-induced neurite outgrowth (Shimada et al, 2008). To analyze the functional role of this feedback loop, we quantified shootin1 upregulation (Toriyama et al, 2006) and shootin1-induced neurite outgrowth, and integrated them, together with the above model of length-dependent shootin1 accumulation, into a model neuron (Figure 7A). Furthermore, the parameters of the model components were chosen to give the best fit to the quantitative experimental data without any adjustment. Integrating the three components into a model neuron resulted in spontaneous symmetry breaking (Figure 7B and C). Furthermore, there are a total of 15 agreements between the model predictions and the experimental data, including the neurite length-dependent axon specification and regeneration (Goslin and Banker, 1989; Lamoureux et al, 2002). These data suggest that the three components in our model—namely, diffusion-based neurite length sensing system, shootin1-induced neurite outgrowth and shootin1 upregulation—are sufficient to induce neuronal symmetry breaking.

Bolus-like transport of shootin1 caused large stochastic fluctuations in shootin1 concentration in neurite tips. Interestingly, the generation of continuous shootin1 transport in our model neuron impaired the symmetry-breaking process (Figure 7D). This is consistent with theoretical models in which feedback amplification of fluctuations in signaling can give rise to robust patterns (Turing, 1952; Meinhardt and Gierer, 2000; Kondo, 2002), and underscores the importance of the stochastic fluctuating signals in spontaneous neuronal symmetry breaking.

The combination of quantitative experimentation and mathematical modeling is regarded as a powerful strategy for attaining a profound understanding of biological systems (Hodgkin and Huxley, 1952b; Lewis, 2008; Ferrell, 2009). By focusing on a simple system involving one of the earliest markers of neuronal symmetry breaking, shootin1, we were able to evaluate here the core components of neuronal symmetry breaking on the basis of quantitative experimental data. The present model may thus provide a core mechanism of neuronal symmetry breaking, to which other possible mechanisms can be added to increase the model's complexity in future studies.

Although there has been significant progress in understanding the molecular signals that change cell morphology, mechanisms that cells use to monitor their size and length to regulate their morphology remain elusive. Previous studies suggest that polarizing cultured hippocampal neurons can sense neurite length, identify the longest neurite, and induce its subsequent outgrowth for axonogenesis. We observed that shootin1, a key regulator of axon outgrowth and neuronal polarization, accumulates in neurite tips in a neurite length-dependent manner; here, the property of cell length is translated into shootin1 signals. Quantitative live cell imaging combined with modeling analyses revealed that intraneuritic anterograde transport and retrograde diffusion of shootin1 account for its neurite length-dependent accumulation. Our quantitative model further explains that the length-dependent shootin1 accumulation, together with shootin1-dependent neurite outgrowth, constitutes a positive feedback loop that amplifies stochastic fluctuations of shootin1 signals, thereby generating an asymmetric signal for axon specification and neuronal symmetry breaking.

The amino terminus of tau inhibits kinesin-dependent axonal transport: implications for filament toxicity

The neuropathology of Alzheimer's disease (AD) and other tauopathies is characterized by filamentous deposits of the microtubule-associated protein tau, but the relationship between tau polymerization and neurotoxicity is unknown. Here, we examined effects of filamentous tau on fast axonal transport (FAT) using isolated squid axoplasm. Monomeric and filamentous forms of recombinant human tau were perfused in axoplasm, and their effects on kinesin- and dynein-dependent FAT rates were evaluated by video microscopy. Although perfusion of monomeric tau at physiological concentrations showed no effect, tau filaments at the same concentrations selectively inhibited anterograde (kinesin-dependent) FAT, triggering the release of conventional kinesin from axoplasmic vesicles. Pharmacological experiments indicated that the effect of tau filaments on FAT is mediated by protein phosphatase 1 (PP1) and glycogen synthase kinase-3 (GSK-3) activities. Moreover, deletion analysis suggested that these effects depend on a conserved 18-amino-acid sequence at the amino terminus of tau. Interestingly, monomeric tau isoforms lacking the C-terminal half of the molecule (including the microtubule binding region) recapitulated the effects of full-length filamentous tau. Our results suggest that pathological tau aggregation contributes to neurodegeneration by altering a regulatory pathway for FAT.

Tau binding to microtubules does not directly affect microtubule-based vesicle motility

Tau protein is a major microtubule (MT)-associated brain protein enriched in axons. Multiple functional roles are proposed for tau protein, including MT stabilization, generation of cell processes, and targeting of phosphotransferases to MTs. Recently, experiments involving exogenous tau expression in cultured cells suggested a role for tau as a regulator of kinesin-1-based motility. Tau was proposed to inhibit attachment of kinesin-1 to MTs by competing for the kinesin-1 binding site. In this work, we evaluated effects of tau on fast axonal transport (FAT) by using vesicle motility assays in isolated squid axoplasm. Effects of recombinant tau constructs on both kinesin-1 and cytoplasmic dynein-dependent FAT rates were evaluated by video microscopy. Exogenous tau binding to endogenous squid MTs was evidenced by a dramatic change in individual MT morphologies. However, perfusion of tau at concentrations approximately 20-fold higher than physiological levels showed no effect on FAT. In contrast, perfusion of a cytoplasmic dynein-derived peptide that competes with kinesin-1 and cytoplasmic dynein binding to MTs in vitro rapidly inhibited FAT in both directions. Taken together, our results indicate that binding of tau to MTs does not directly affect kinesin-1- or cytoplasmic dynein-based motilities. In contrast, our results provide further evidence indicating that the functional binding sites for kinesin-1 and cytoplasmic dynein on MTs overlap.

In vivo assay of presynaptic microtubule cytoskeleton dynamics in Drosophila

Disrupted microtubule dynamics in neuronal synapses has been suggested as an underlying cause for several devastating neurological diseases, including Hereditary Spastic Paraplegia (HSP) and Fragile X Syndrome (FXS). However, previous studies have been restricted to indirect assays of synaptic microtubules, i.e. immunocytochemistry of microtubule-associated proteins and post-translationally modified tubulins characteristic of microtubules with different stabilities. Very little is known about synaptic microtubule dynamics in vivo, or how microtubule dynamics may be disrupted in disease states. In this study, we develop methods to analyze microtubule dynamics directly in living synaptic boutons in situ. We use fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP) of transgenic green fluorescent protein (GFP) tagged tubulin at the well-characterized Drosophila neuromuscular junction (NMJ) synapse. FRAP measurements of tubulin-GFP demonstrate biphasic recovery kinetics. Treatment with taxol to stabilize microtubules and promote microtubule assembly reduces both recovery phases. Treatment with vinblastine to disassemble microtubules increases the fast recovery phase and decreases the slow recovery phase. These data indicate that the fast recovery phase is generated by rapid diffusion of tubulin subunits and the slow phase is generated by the relatively slow turnover of microtubules. This study demonstrates that tubulin-GFP fluorescence recovery after photobleaching can be used to assay microtubule dynamics directly in living synapses.

Neuropathogenic Forms of Huntingtin and Androgen Receptor Inhibit Fast Axonal Transport

Huntington's and Kennedy's disease are autosomal dominant neurodegenerative diseases caused by pathogenic expansion of polyglutamine tracts. Expansion of glutamine repeats must in some way confer a gain of pathological function that disrupts an essential cellular process and leads to loss of affected neurons. Association of huntingtin with vesicular structures raised the possibility that axonal transport might be altered. Here we show that polypeptides containing expanded polyglutamine tracts, but not normal N-terminal huntingtin or androgen receptor, directly inhibit both fast axonal transport in isolated axoplasm and elongation of neuritic processes in intact cells. Effects were greater with truncated polypeptides and occurred without detectable morphological aggregates.

Characterization of the phosphorylation sites of the squid (Loligo pealei) high-molecular-weight neurofilament protein from giant axon axoplasm

Axonal caliber in vertebrates is attributed, in part, to the extensive phosphorylation of NFM and NFH C-terminal tail domain KSP repeats by proline-directed kinases. The squid giant axon, primarily involved in rapid impulse conduction during jet propulsion motility, is enriched in squid-specific neurofilaments, particularly the highly phosphorylated NF-220. Of the 228 serine-threonine candidate phosphate acceptor sites in the NF-220 tail domain (residues 401-1220), 82 are found in numerous repeats of three different motifs SAR/K, SEK/R, K/RSP, with 62 of these tightly clustered in the C-terminal repeat segment (residues 840-1160). Characterization of the in vivo NF-220 phosphorylated sites should provide clues as to the relevant kinases. To characterize these sites, proteolytic digests of NF-220 were analyzed by a combination of HPLC, electrospray tandem mass spectrometry and database searching. A total of 53 phosphorylation sites were characterized, with 47 clustered in the C-terminal repeat segment (residues 840-1160), representing 76% (47/62) of the total acceptor sites in the region. As in mammalian NFH, approximately 64% of the K/RSP sites (14/22) in this region were found to be phosphorylated implicating proline-directed kinases. Significantly, 78% of serines (31/40) in the KAES*EK and EKS*ARSP motifs were also phosphorylated suggesting that non proline-directed kinases such as CKI may also be involved. This is consistent with previous studies showing that CKI is the principal kinase associated with axoplasmic NF preparations. It also suggests that phosphorylation of large macromolecules with multiple phospho-sites requires sequential phosphorylation by several kinases.

Tubulin and neurofilament proteins are transported differently in axons of chicken motoneurons

1. We previously showed that actin is transported in an unassembled form with its associated proteins actin depolymerizing factor, cofilin, and profilin. Here we examine the specific activities of radioactively labeled tubulin and neurofilament proteins in subcellular fractions of the chicken sciatic nerve following injection of L-[35S]methionine into the lumbar spinal cord. 2. At intervals of 12 and 20 days after injection, nerves were cut into 1-cm segments and separated into Triton X-100-soluble and particulate fractions. Analysis of the fractions by high-resolution two-dimensional gel electrophoresis, immunoblotting, fluorography, and computer densitometry showed that tubulin was transported as a unimodal wave at a slower average rate (2-2.5 mm/day) than actin (4-5 mm/day). Moreover, the specific activity of soluble tubulin was five times that of its particulate form, indicating that tubulin is transported in a dimeric or small oligomeric form and is assembled into stationary microtubules. 3. Neurofilament triplet proteins were detected only in the particulate fractions and transported at a slower average rate (1 mm/day) than either actin or tubulin. 4. Our results indicate that the tubulin was transported in an unpolymerized form and that the neurofilament proteins were transported in an insoluble, presumably polymerized form.

Protein synthesis in axons and terminals: significance for maintenance, plasticity and regulation of phenotype. With a critique of slow transport theory

This article focuses on local protein synthesis as a basis for maintaining axoplasmic mass, and expression of plasticity in axons and terminals. Recent evidence of discrete ribosomal domains, subjacent to the axolemma, which are distributed at intermittent intervals along axons, are described. Studies of locally synthesized proteins, and proteins encoded by RNA transcripts in axons indicate that the latter comprise constituents of the so-called slow transport rate groups. A comprehensive review and analysis of published data on synaptosomes and identified presynaptic terminals warrants the conclusion that a cytoribosomal machinery is present, and that protein synthesis could play a role in long-term changes of modifiable synapses. The concept that all axonal proteins are supplied by slow transport after synthesis in the perikaryon is challenged because the underlying assumptions of the model are discordant with known metabolic principles. The flawed slow transport model is supplanted by a metabolic model that is supported by evidence of local synthesis and turnover of proteins in axons. A comparison of the relative strengths of the two models shows that, unlike the local synthesis model, the slow transport model fails as a credible theoretical construct to account for axons and terminals as we know them. Evidence for a dynamic anatomy of axons is presented. It is proposed that a distributed "sprouting program," which governs local plasticity of axons, is regulated by environmental cues, and ultimately depends on local synthesis. In this respect, nerve regeneration is treated as a special case of the sprouting program. The term merotrophism is proposed to denote a class of phenomena, in which regional phenotype changes are regulated locally without specific involvement of the neuronal nucleus.

Axonal cytoskeletal changes after nondisruptive axonal injury. II. Intermediate sized axons

Earlier studies of axonal cytoskeletal responses to stretch injury in the guinea pig optic nerve, a model of nondisruptive axonal injury such as occurs in human diffuse axonal injury, have demonstrated different cytoskeletal responses between the smallest and largest axons. But these form only approximately 3% of the total number of axons in the optic nerve. It was then posited that the pathology described in the latter axons may not be representative of the pathology in the majority of axons after stretch injury. In order to test this hypothesis, we carried out a quantitative, morphological analysis of structural changes in the cytoskeleton of intermediate (axonal diameter of 0.5-2.0 mM) sized axons at 4 h after stretch injury. Neurofilaments in axons up to 1.00 microm in diameter increased in number and in axons up to 1.50 microm diameter were compacted. This did not occur in larger axons (diameter of 1.51-2.00 microm) in the present study. However, there was focal compaction of neurofilaments in some of the larger fibers at sites where the integrity of the axolemma was lost. The response by microtubules to stretch injury differed from that of neurofilaments in that there was an increased spacing between microtubules and a loss of their number in axons of >1.51 microm diameter. We provide quantitative, morphological evidence (a) that the neurofilamentous cytoskeleton of different sized axons responds in different ways to stretch and (b) that the response by microtubules differs from that of neurofilaments.

Transport of ER vesicles on actin filaments in neurons by myosin V

Axoplasmic organelles in the giant axon of the squid have been shown to move on both actin filaments and microtubules and to switch between actin filaments and microtubules during fast axonal transport. The objectives of this investigation were to identify the specific classes of axoplasmic organelles that move on actin filaments and the myosin motors involved. We developed a procedure to isolate endoplasmic reticulum (ER) from extruded axoplasm and to reconstitute its movement in vitro. The isolated ER vesicles moved on exogenous actin filaments adsorbed to coverslips in an ATP-dependent manner without the addition of soluble factors. Therefore myosin was tightly bound and not extracted during isolation. These vesicles were identified as smooth ER by use of an antibody to an ER-resident protein, ERcalcistorin/protein disulfide isomerase (EcaSt/PDI). Furthermore, an antibody to squid myosin V was used in immunogold EM studies to show that myosin V localized to these vesicles. The antibody was generated to a squid brain myosin (p196) that was classified as myosin V based on comparisons of amino acid sequences of tryptic peptides of this myosin with those of other known members of the myosin V family. Dual labeling with the squid myosin V antibody and a kinesin heavy chain antibody showed that the two motors colocalized on the same vesicles. Finally, antibody inhibition experiments were performed with two myosin V-specific antibodies to show that myosin V motor activity is required for transport of vesicles on actin filaments in axoplasm. One antibody was made to a peptide in the globular tail domain and the other to the globular head fragment of myosin V. Both antibodies inhibited vesicle transport on actin filaments by greater than 90% compared to controls. These studies provide the first direct evidence that ER vesicles are transported on actin filaments by myosin V. These data confirm the role of actin filaments in fast axonal transport and provide support for the dual filament model of vesicle transport.

A role for cyclin-dependent kinase(s) in the modulation of fast anterograde axonal transport: effects defined by olomoucine and the APC tumor suppressor protein

Proteins that interact with both cytoskeletal and membrane components are candidates to modulate membrane trafficking. The tumor suppressor proteins neurofibromin (NF1) and adenomatous polyposis coli (APC) both bind to microtubules and interact with membrane-associated proteins. The effects of recombinant NF1 and APC fragments on vesicle motility were evaluated by measuring fast axonal transport along microtubules in axoplasm from squid giant axons. APC4 (amino acids 1034-2844) reduced only anterograde movements, whereas APC2 (aa 1034-2130) or APC3 (aa 2130-2844) reduced both anterograde and retrograde transport. NF1 had no effect on organelle movement in either direction. Because APC contains multiple cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) consensus phosphorylation motifs, the kinase inhibitor olomoucine was examined. At concentrations in which olomoucine is specific for cyclin-dependent kinases (5 microM), it reduced only anterograde transport, whereas anterograde and retrograde movement were both affected at concentrations at which other kinases are inhibited as well (50 microM). Both anterograde and retrograde transport also were inhibited by histone H1 and KSPXK peptides, substrates for proline-directed kinases, including CDKs. Our data suggest that CDK-like axonal kinases modulate fast anterograde transport and that other axonal kinases may be involved in modulating retrograde transport. The specific effect of APC4 on anterograde transport suggests a model in which the binding of APC to microtubules may limit the activity of axonal CDK kinase or kinases in restricted domains, thereby affecting organelle transport.

A role for cyclin-dependent kinase(s) in the modulation of fast anterograde axonal transport: effects defined by olomoucine and the APC tumor suppressor protein

Proteins that interact with both cytoskeletal and membrane components are candidates to modulate membrane trafficking. The tumor suppressor proteins neurofibromin (NF1) and adenomatous polyposis coli (APC) both bind to microtubules and interact with membrane-associated proteins. The effects of recombinant NF1 and APC fragments on vesicle motility were evaluated by measuring fast axonal transport along microtubules in axoplasm from squid giant axons. APC4 (amino acids 1034-2844) reduced only anterograde movements, whereas APC2 (aa 1034-2130) or APC3 (aa 2130-2844) reduced both anterograde and retrograde transport. NF1 had no effect on organelle movement in either direction. Because APC contains multiple cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) consensus phosphorylation motifs, the kinase inhibitor olomoucine was examined. At concentrations in which olomoucine is specific for cyclin-dependent kinases (5 microM), it reduced only anterograde transport, whereas anterograde and retrograde movement were both affected at concentrations at which other kinases are inhibited as well (50 microM). Both anterograde and retrograde transport also were inhibited by histone H1 and KSPXK peptides, substrates for proline-directed kinases, including CDKs. Our data suggest that CDK-like axonal kinases modulate fast anterograde transport and that other axonal kinases may be involved in modulating retrograde transport. The specific effect of APC4 on anterograde transport suggests a model in which the binding of APC to microtubules may limit the activity of axonal CDK kinase or kinases in restricted domains, thereby affecting organelle transport.

Node-paranode regions as local degradative centres in alpha-motor axons

Lysosomes play an important role for the maintenance of a normal internal milieu in the cell. In neurons lysosomes are abundant in the perikaryon and dendrites, but have been observed to a much lesser degree in the axon. A general opinion has therefore formed among biologists interested in the nervous system that axonal material destined for degradation has to be transported to the neuronal perikaryon. The lysosomal occurrence and distribution at the level of the axon have, however, not been investigated systematically. This review summarizes recent morphological data based on light, fluorescence, and electron microscopic observations in peripheral nerve fibres of cats and rats providing evidence that node-paranode regions mainly along the peripheral parts of alpha motor axons, where the axon cross-section area decreases to 10-25% of internodal values, can control the passage and participate in a lysosome-mediated degradation of axonally transported materials directed towards the neuronal perikaryon. An important role is played by the paranodal axon-Schwann cell networks, which are lysosome-rich entities whereby the Schwann cells can sequester material from the axoplasm of large myelinated peripheral nerve fibres. The networks also seem to serve as depots for axonal waste products. The degradative ability of node-paranode regions in alpha-motor axons could be of some significance for the protection of the motor neuron perikarya from being flooded with and perhaps injured by indigestible materials as well as potentially deleterious, exogenous substances imbibed by the axon terminals in the muscle. A similar degradative capacity may not be needed in nerve fibres with synaptic terminals in the CNS where the local environment is regulated by the blood-brain barrier.

Assembly of microfilaments and microtubules from axonally transported actin and tubulin after axotomy

The slow component (SC) of axonal transport conveys structural proteins, regulatory proteins, and glycolytic enzymes toward the axon tip at 1-6 mm/day. Following axon interruption (axotomy), the rate of outgrowth corresponds to the rate of SCb-the fastest subcomponent of SC. Both axonal outgrowth and SCb accelerate 20-25% after axotomy. Tubulin and actin are the major proteins being carried by SCb. To further characterize the acceleration of SCb, we measured the equilibrium between subunits and polymers for both actin and tubulin. We radiolabeled newly synthesized proteins in rat motor neurons by microinjecting [35S]methionine into the spinal cord 7 days after crushing the sciatic nerve (85 mm from the spinal cord). Nerves were removed 7 days later for homogenization in polymer-stabilizing buffer (PSB) and centrifugation, followed by SDS-PAGE of supernatants (S) and pellets (P). We removed beta-tubulin, actin, and the medium-weight neurofilament protein (NF-M) from each gel by using the fluorogram as a template. After solubilizing gel segments for liquid scintillation spectrometry, we expressed counts as a polymerization ratio: P/[S+P]. In the nerve segments that contained radiolabeled Scb proteins, located 24-36 mm from the spinal cord, axotomy increased the polymerization ratio of SCb actin from 0.23 to 0.36 (P < 0.05) but had no effect on SCb beta-tubulin. In a separate experiment, we added 12 microM taxol to PSB to stabilize newly assembled microtubules. Adding taxol did not alter the polymerization ratio for SCb beta-tubulin in sham-axotomized nerves but aid increase the ratio in axotomized nerves, from 0.44 to 0.63 (P < 0.05); polymerization ratios for SCb actin were unaffected. We conclude that the assembly of microfilaments and microtubules increases to provide cytoskeletal elements for axon sprouts. The resulting loss of actin and tubulin subunits may play a role in the acceleration of SCb.

Glia-to-axon communication: enrichment of glial proteins transferred to the squid giant axon

The transfer of newly synthesized proteins from the glial sheath into the axon is a well-documented process for the squid giant axon. In this study, we used a novel approach to separate the transferred glial proteins (TGPs) from the endogenous axoplasmic proteins of the squid giant axon. Axoplasm, containing radiolabelled TGPs, was extruded as a cylinder and immersed in an intracellular buffer. After 1-30 min, the TGPs were enriched in the intracellular buffer, because they were eluted from the axoplasm into the intracellular buffer much faster than the endogenous axoplasmic proteins. Most of the TGPs enriched in the intracellular buffer did not pellet when centrifuged at 24,000 g for 20 min and were susceptible to protease digestion without the addition of Triton X-100. Additionally, transmission electron microscopic autoradiography of intact axons, containing radiolabelled TGPs, suggested that most TGPs were not associated with vesicular organelles within the axon. We conclude that most of the TGPs are not contained within vesicles in the axoplasm of the squid giant axon, as would be expected if the mechanism of glia-to-axon transfer were conventional exocytosis-endocytosis or microphagocytosis.

Movement of axoplasmic organelles on actin filaments from skeletal muscle

It was recently shown that, in addition to the well-established microtubule-dependent mechanism, fast transport of organelles in squid giant axons also occurs in the presence of actin filaments [Kuznetsov et al., 1992, Nature 356:722-725]. The objectives of this study were to obtain direct evidence of axoplasmic organelle movement on actin filaments and to demonstrate that these organelles are able to move on skeletal muscle actin filaments. Organelles and actin filaments were visualized by video-enhanced contrast differential interference contrast (AVEC-DIC) microscopy and by video intensified fluorescence microscopy. Actin filaments, prepared by polymerization of monomeric actin purified from rabbit skeletal muscle, were stabilized with rhodamine-phalloidin and adsorbed to cover slips. When axoplasm was extruded on these cover slips in the buffer containing cytochalasin B that prevents the formation of endogenous axonal actin filaments, organelles were observed to move at the fast transport rate. Also, axoplasmic organelles were observed to move on bundles of actin filaments that were of sufficient thickness to be detected directly by AVEC-DIC microscopy. The range of average velocities of movement on the muscle actin filaments was not statistically different from that on axonal filaments. The level of motile activity (number of organelles moving/min/field) on the exogenous filaments was less than on endogenous filaments probably due to the entanglement of filaments on the cover slip surface. We also found that calmodulin (CaM) increased the level of motile activity of organelles on actin filaments. In addition, CaM stimulated the movement of elongated membranous organelles that appeared to be tubular elements of smooth endoplasmic reticulum or extensions of prelysosomes. These studies provide the first direct evidence that organelles from higher animal cells such as neurons move on biochemically defined actin filaments.

Heterogeneity of carbonic anhydrase and 68 kDa neurofilament in nerve roots analyzed by two-dimensional electrophoresis

The heterogeneity of carbonic anhydrase (CA) and 68 kDa neurofilament (NF) in nerve roots of Japanese monkeys (Macaca Macacus) was analyzed by two-dimensional electrophoresis combined with immunoblotting. CA was detected as heterogeneous spots of type I and II having the same molecular weight (M(r)) but different isoelectric point (pI), in the range of pH 4.5-5.5. CA had much higher concentrations in soluble fractions of dorsal roots than ventral roots but not in membrane-bound fractions of either root. NF was detected as a single spot at the position of 68 kDa and pI 5.2 in soluble fractions of both roots, however, it was detected in the membrane-bound fractions as heterogeneous spots having different molecular masses and pI in the range of 60-68 kDa and 5.0-5.5, respectively. The presence of heterogeneous CA type I and II at high concentrations in dorsal roots enables us to distinguish the sensory nerves from the motor nerves. Furthermore, the heterogeneity of NF in membrane-bound fractions gives us information for understanding the dynamic assembly and the degradation of NF in nerve roots.

Whole intact tissue electrophoresis of nerve proteins

We describe a rapid and simple method for analyzing proteins along the length of a nerve tissue using sodium dodecylsulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE). A long length of nerve tissue is placed on a slab gel, layered with SDS-buffer, and electrophoresed. In this whole-intact-tissue procedure, the in situ differences in location and/or concentration of protein along the length of a nerve tissue are not disturbed by homogenization and dilution prior to electrophoresis.

Neurofilaments move apart freely when released from the circumferential constraint of the axonal plasma membrane

Squid giant axons were used to obtain axonal cytoskeletons that had been separated from the confines of their plasma membranes. To remove the plasma membrane, axoplasm was extruded from the giant axon directly into an artificial axoplasm solution (AAS). This procedure produces a smooth axoplasmic cylinder in which neurofilaments (NFs) are the most prevalent cytological elements. The NFs scatter light strongly and thus dark-field light microscopy can be used to quantify the volume occupied by these polymers. Measurements of the widths of the dark-field images of the axoplasmic cylinders showed that the cross-sectional area of the NF population increased by 60-110% (n = 8) between 1-100 min after plasma membrane removal, and then continued to increase more slowly for many hours. After 1,000 min, the cross-sectional area was 75-160% (n = 8) larger than at 1 min. These light microscopic measurements of axoplasm suggest that the NF population disperses to occupy a continuously increasing volume after removal of the plasma membrane and immersion in AAS. This inference was confirmed by quantitative ultrastructural studies of NFs in axoplasmic cross-sections, which demonstrated that the spacing between the NFs increased between 1-1,000 min after plasma membrane removal. Comparison of the NF density distribution after 1,000 min with a theoretical distribution calculated using the Poisson theorem indicated that the NFs dispersed randomly. These studies on NFs in isolated axoplasm suggest that ordinary thermal forces of Brownian motion are sufficient to move axonal NFs apart independently and thereby to disperse them. We propose that, in the intact axon, the dispersive movements of the NFs spread the NF cytoskeleton radially and expansively to fill out the cylindrical space contained by the axonal plasma membrane and its surrounding connective tissue elements.

Assembly and disassembly of axonal microtubules of the toad Xenopus laevis under the effect of temperature

In toads Xenopus laevis living at 11 degrees (winter), the microtubular density of 4-microns myelinated axons of lumbosacral nerves was assessed with the electron microscope. In controls, the density was 11.2 microtubules/microns2. In nerves incubated at 0 degrees, microtubules decreased following a simple exponential curve with a half time of 4.7 min (k = 0.149 min-1); residual microtubules were 4.5%. After rewarming, the full complement of microtubules reappeared within 60 min. In steady state, the microtubular density exhibited a linear relationship with temperature (range: 0-22 degrees; slope 0.94 microtubules/microns 2 per degree; r, 0.96). After heating the nerve by 11 degrees above the physiological temperature, microtubules increased by 83%, whereby the pool of unpolymerized tubulin was at least 2.7 mg/ml of axoplasm. A seasonal variation of the microtubular density was observed which accorded with the environmental temperature. The macroscopic kinetics of microtubule disassembly in the axoplasm is similar to that reported for purified tubulin but that of assembly is slower. Microtubules of peripheral axons of Xenopus are cold-labile and vary during the annual cycle.

Slow axonal transport mechanisms move neurofilaments relentlessly in mouse optic axons

Pulse-labeling studies of slow axonal transport in many kinds of axons (spinal motor, sensory ganglion, oculomotor, hypoglossal, and olfactory) have led to the inference that axonal transport mechanisms move neurofilaments (NFs) unidirectionally as a single continuous kinetic population with a diversity of individual transport rates. One study in mouse optic axons (Nixon, R. A., and K. B. Logvinenko. 1986. J. Cell Biol. 102:647-659) has given rise to the different suggestion that a significant and distinct population of NFs may be entirely stationary within axons. In mouse optic axons, there are relatively few NFs and the NF proteins are more lightly labeled than other slowly transported slow component b (SCb) proteins (which, however, move faster than the NFs); thus, in mouse optic axons, the radiolabel of some of these faster-moving SCb proteins may confuse NF protein analyses that use one dimensional (1-D) SDS-PAGE, which separates proteins by size only. To test this possibility, we used a 2-mm "window" (at 3-5 mm from the posterior of the eye) to compare NF kinetics obtained by 1-D SDS-PAGE and by the higher resolution two-dimensional (2-D) isoelectric focusing/SDS-PAGE, which separates proteins both by their net charge and by their size. We found that 1-D SDS-PAGE is insufficient for definitive NF kinetics in the mouse optic system. By contrast, 2-D SDS-PAGE provides essentially pure NF kinetics, and these indicate that in the NF-poor mouse optic axons, most NFs advance as they do in other, NF-rich axons. In mice, greater than 97% of the radiolabeled NFs were distributed in a unimodal wave that moved at a continuum of rates, between 3.0 and 0.3 mm/d, and less than 0.1% of the NF population traveled at the very slowest rates of less than 0.005 mm/d. These results are inconsistent with the proposal (Nixon and Logvinenko, 1986) that 32% of the transported NFs remain within optic axons in an entirely stationary state. As has been found in other axons, the axonal transport system of mouse optic axons moves NFs and other cytoskeletal elements relentlessly from the cell body to the axon tip.

Actin-dependent organelle movement in squid axoplasm

Studies of organelle movement in axoplasm extruded from the squid giant axon have led to the basic discoveries of microtubule-dependent organelle motility and the characterization of the microtubule-based motor proteins kinesin and cytoplasmic dynein. Rapid organelle movement in higher animal cells, especially in neurons, is considered to be microtubule-based. The role of actin filaments, which are also abundant in axonal cytoplasm, has remained unclear. The inhibition of organelle movement in axoplasm by actin-binding proteins such as DNase I, gelsolin and synapsin I has been attributed to their ability to disorganize the microtubule domains where most of the actin-filaments are located. Here we provide evidence of a new type of organelle movement in squid axoplasm which is independent of both microtubules and microtubule-based motors. This movement is ATP-dependent, unidirectional, actin-dependent, and probably generated by a myosin-like motor. These results demonstrate that an actomyosin-like mechanism can be directly involved in the generation of rapid organelle transport in nerve cells.

Differential behavior of photoactivated microtubules in growing axons of mouse and frog neurons

To characterize the behavior of axonal microtubules in vivo, we analyzed the movement of tubulin labeled with caged fluorescein after activation to be fluorescent by irradiation of 365-nm light. When mouse sensory neurons were microinjected with caged fluorescein-labeled tubulin and then a narrow region of the axon was illuminated with a 365-nm microbeam, photoactivated tubulin was stationary regardless of the position of photoactivation. We next introduced caged fluorescein-labeled tubulin into Xenopus embryos and nerve cells isolated from injected embryos were analyzed by photoactivation. In this case, movement of the photoactivated zone toward the axon tip was frequently observed. The photoactivated microtubule segments in the Xenopus axon moved out from their initial position without significant spreading, suggesting that fluorescent microtubules are not sliding as individual filaments, but rather translocating en bloc. Since these observations raised the possibility that the mechanism of nerve growth might differ between two types of neurons, we further characterized the movement of another component of the axon structure, the plasma membrane. Analysis of the position of polystyrene beads adhering to the neurites of Xenopus neurons revealed anterograde movement of the beads at the rate similar to the rate of microtubule movement. In contrast, no movement of the beads relative to the cell body was observed in mouse sensory neurons. These results suggest that the mode of translocation of cytoskeletal polymers and some components of the axon surface differ between two neuron types and that most microtubules are stationary within the axon of mammalian neurons where the surface-related motility of the axon is not observed.

The plus ends of stable microtubules are the exclusive nucleating structures for microtubules in the axon

Microtubules (MTs) in the axon have a uniform polarity orientation that is recapitulated during recovery from episodes of MT depolymerization (Heidemann, S. R., M. A. Hamborg, S. J. Thomas, B. Song, S. Lindley, and D. Chu. 1984. J. Cell Biol. 99:1289-1295). This tight regulation of their organization indicates that axonal MTs are spatially regulated by discrete nucleating structures comparable in function to the centrosome. Several authors have proposed that an especially stable class of MTs in the axon may serve as these nucleating structures. In a previous report (Baas, P. W., and M. M. Black. 1990. J. Cell Biol. 111:495-509), we determined that the axons of cultured sympathetic neurons contain two classes of MT polymer, stable and labile, that differ in their sensitivity to nocodazole by roughly 35-fold. The stable and labile polymer represent long-lived and recently assembled polymer, respectively. We also determined that these two classes of polymer can be visually distinguished at the immunoelectron microscopic level based on their content of tyrosinated alpha-tubulin: the labile polymer stains densely, while the stable polymer does not stain. In the present study, we have taken advantage of these observations to directly identify MT nucleating structures in the axon. Neuron cultures were treated with nocodazole for 6 h to completely depolymerize the labile polymer in the axon, and substantially shorten the stable polymer. The cultures were then rinsed free of the drug, permitted to reassemble polymer for various periods of time, and prepared for immunoelectron microscopic localization of tyrosinated alpha-tubulin. Serial reconstruction of consecutive thin sections was undertaken to determine the spatial relationship between the stable MTs and the newly assembled polymer. All of the new polymer assembled in direct continuity with the plus ends of stable MTs, indicating that these ends are assembly competent, and hence capable of acting as nucleating structures. Our results further indicate that no self-assembly of MTs occurs in the axon, nor do any MT nucleating structures exist in the axon other than the plus ends of stable MTs. Thus the plus ends of stable MTs are the exclusive nucleating structures for MTs in the axon.

Lysosomal activity in developing cat alpha-motor axons under normal conditions and during retrograde axonal transport of horseradish peroxidase

The occurrence of acid phosphatase (AcPase)-positive bodies, i.e., lysosomes, in lumbosacral alpha-motor axons of kittens, 0-16 weeks of age, was analyzed by light and electron cytochemical methods under normal conditions and after intramuscular injection of horseradish peroxidase (HRP). Axonal lysosomes were rare early postnatally. In 3-week-old animals, a few AcPase-positive bodies appeared in the axoplasm at some nodes of Ranvier in the peripheral nervous system (PNS) and internodally in the intrafunicular motor axon parts within the central nervous system (CNS). From 6 weeks postnatally, a nodal concentration of AcPase-positive bodies was also noted in the CNS. The number of AcPase-positive bodies continued to increase gradually in the course of neuronal maturation. In 16-week-old animals, axonal AcPase activity was still at considerably lower levels than at adult stages. At all ages, acid hydrolase-containing organelles were most commonly found at ventral root nodes. After injection of HRP in the medial gastrocnemius muscle, accumulations of AcPase-positive bodies were seen in the axoplasm at some PNS nodes of the HRP-injected sides of kittens aged 8, 12, and 16 weeks. Incubation for demonstration of both HRP and AcPase activity showed that some organelles at HRP-transporting nodes contained both types of reaction product. The nodal AcPase activity in the intrafunicular, CNS parts of alpha-motor axons of the HRP-exposed sides did not differ from that of the contralateral, uninjected sides. In view of our previous observations in alpha-motor neurons of adult cats in which a lysosome-mediated degradation of axonally transported materials may take place at PNS nodes of Ranvier, the present study illuminates possible differences in the ability to interfere with axonal transport between developing and mature neurons. The infrequent presence of lysosomes in developing alpha-motor axons and the implied disability of their nodal regions to interfere with axonally transported constituents in a way similar to that seen in adult animals may be of significance in that trophic and chemical signals can pass unhindered between the periphery and perikaryon. However, this could also have negative consequences for the vulnerable immature neuron in that various materials retrieved at the axon terminals outside the CNS are permitted a more-or-less free access to the perikaryon.

Axonal cytoskeleton at the nodes of Ranvier

The relationship between the degree of nodal narrowing and the changes in the structure of the axonal cytoskeleton was studied in 53 fibres of mouse sciatic nerve. Nodal narrowing increased with increasing fibre calibre to reach about 20% of the internodal area in the thicker fibres. The narrowing corresponded quantitatively to a decreased number of nodal neurofilaments. Nodal microtubule numbers varied greatly, and a majority of fibres had considerably (approximately 55%) more microtubules in their nodal profile than in the internode. Nodal profiles of different calibre showed an increase in the number of filaments and of microtubules with nodal calibre, although at rates different from those in the internode. The degree of observed axon non-circularities had no discernible effect on the restructuring of the axonal cytoskeleton at the node. A transnodal transport of the axonal cytoskeleton can occur with: (1) accelerated transnodal transport of filaments, (2) stationary internodal fraction of filaments, (3) depolymerization of filaments proximal to the node and repolymerization distally, or (4) different nodal and internodal polymerization equilibria.

Transport complexes associated with slow axonal flow

Cytoskeletal proteins--neurofilament polypeptides, tubulin and actin--are transported along axons by slow transport. How or in what form they are transported is not known. One hypothesis is that they are assembled into the cytoskeleton at the cell body and transported as intact polymers down the axon. However, recent radiolabeling and photobleaching studies have shown that tubulin and actin exist in both a mobile phase and a stationary phase in the axon. Consequently, it is more likely that cytoskeletal proteins move along the axon in some form of transport complex and are assembled into a cytoskeleton which is stationary. In this overview we discuss these topics and consider the evidence for the existence of transport complexes associated with slow axonal flow. Such evidence includes the slow transport of particulate complexes containing tubulin and neurofilament polypeptides along reconstituted microtubules in vitro, and the coordinate slow transport of actin with actin-binding proteins in vivo.

Evidence for cooperativity of protein dissolution in Brij 58 permeabilized L929 cells

Mouse L929 cells were exposed to the nonionic detergent Brij 58. As has been shown in some other cell types, protein leaked from Brij 58 exposed cells only after a lag phase. In the current study we have extended the observations of the kinetics of protein efflux using cultured L cells subjected to treatment with buffers containing Brij 58. The results show that while the cells become permeable essentially at first exposure to the detergent, proteins do not escape immediately. This lag in efflux is at least partly dependent on the concentration of detergent such that a greater lag is seen in cells exposed to the lowest concentrations of Brij. Data are presented that are most readily interpreted as protein leakage having occurred fairly rapidly from individual cells and that show that the time course of protein efflux results, to a large extent, from different sensitivities of individual cells to the detergent. The permeabilized suspension cells consist of only two types, whereas the conversion of cells from one type to the other occurs through the loss of protein to the permeabilization medium. Only two bands are seen in continuous density gradients and there is a conversion of the more dense type to the less dense with longer exposure to detergent. Moreover, the less dense cells contained about half of the protein per cell as the bottom banding cells, and the proteins of the more dense cells appear to be the sum of those released into the permeabilization medium plus those found in the less dense cells.

Possible regulation of the in vitro assembly of bovine brain tubulin by the bovine thioredoxin system

Microtubule assembly in vitro and in vivo is highly sensitive to a variety of sulfhydryl-reactive reagents, raising the question of the possible existence of a physiological sulfhydryl-mediated system for regulating microtubule assembly. However, the specific reagents which have previously been used to inhibit microtubule assembly in vitro are either nonphysiological or, if physiological, effective only at concentrations much higher than their physiological ones. Because of reports of association in vivo between microtubules and the sulfhydryl-reactive proteins thioredoxin and thioredoxin reductase, we decided to examine the interaction in vitro between microtubules and the thioredoxin system, comprising thioredoxin, thioredoxin reductase and NADPH. At pH 6.8, both the mammalian and the Escherichia coli thioredoxin systems inhibited microtubule assembly by 4-35% (19 +/- 9%) by reducing one intra-subunit disulfide bond in the tubulin dimer. The thioredoxin-reducible disulfide of the tubulin dimer remains protected from thioredoxin in the assembled microtubules. Thioredoxin or thioredoxin reductase alone, or together in the absence of NADPH, were incapable of either reducing tubulin or inhibiting microtubule assembly. Microtubules formed from reduced tubulin were found to be stable and morphologically identical to those obtained from native tubulin dimers. Since the components of the thioredoxin system were used at concentrations similar to their physiological ones, our results suggest a potential role of the thioredoxin system in regulation of microtubule assembly in vivo.

Individual microtubules in the axon consist of domains that differ in both composition and stability

We have explored the composition and stability properties of individual microtubules (MTs) in the axons of cultured sympathetic neurons. Using morphometric means to quantify the MT mass remaining in axons after various times in 2 micrograms/ml nocodazole, we observed that approximately 48% of the MT mass in the axon is labile, depolymerizing with a t1/2 of approximately 5 min, whereas the remaining 52% of the MT mass is stable, depolymerizing with a t1/2 of approximately 240 min. Immunofluorescence analyses show that the labile MTs in the axon are rich in tyrosinated alpha-tubulin, whereas the stable MTs contain little or no tyrosinated alpha-tubulin and are instead rich in posttranslationally detyrosinated and acetylated alpha-tubulin. These results were confirmed quantitatively by immunoelectron microscopic analyses of the distribution of tyrosinated alpha-tubulin among axonal MTs. Individual MT profiles were typically either uniformly labeled for tyrosinated alpha-tubulin all along their length, or were completely unlabeled. Roughly 48% of the MT mass was tyrosinated, approximately 52% was detyrosinated, and approximately 85% of the tyrosinated MTs were depleted within 15 min of nocodazole treatment. Thus, the proportion of MT profiles that were either tyrosinated or detyrosinated corresponded precisely with the proportion of MTs that were either labile or stable respectively. We also observed MT profiles that were densely labeled for tyrosinated alpha-tubulin at one end but completely unlabeled at the other end. In all of these latter cases, the tyrosinated, and therefore labile domain, was situated at the plus end of the MT, whereas the detyrosinated, and therefore stable domain was situated at the minus end of the MT, and in each case there was an abrupt transition between the two domains. Based on the frequency with which these latter MT profiles were observed, we estimate that minimally 40% of the MTs in the axon are composite, consisting of a stable detyrosinated domain in direct continuity with a labile tyrosinated domain. The extreme drug sensitivity of the labile domains suggests that they are very dynamic, turning over rapidly within the axon. The direct continuity between the labile and stable domains indicates that labile MTs assemble directly from stable MTs. We propose that stable MTs act as MT nucleating structures that spatially regulate MT dynamics in the axon.

Glucose metabolism and the channeling of glycolytic intermediates in permeabilized L-929 cells

L-929 cells (mouse fibroblasts) permeabilized with dextran sulfate (DSP cells) carry out vigorous and linear rates of glycolysis when supplied with a suitable incubation medium. Glycolysis in DSP cells is pH dependent, being strongly inhibited at pH 6.5. Compared to their nonpermeabilized counterparts, DSP cells exhibit faster glycolytic rates, but tend to convert a smaller proportion of the glucose utilized to lactate. [14C]Glucose is converted to lactate by DSP cells without dilution from endogenous substrates. When exogenous 12C-labeled glycolytic intermediates (12C-I) are added to glycolyzing DSP cells the [14C]lactate produced from [14C]glucose is diluted to varying extents, depending on the intermediate. However, the extent of that dilution (reduced specific activity) is not that expected from the complete mixing of exogenous 12C-I with their corresponding 14C-labeled intermediates coming from [14C]-glucose. DSP cells also respire and convert glucose to CO2. The amount of 14CO2 produced from [14C]glucose is also reduced by addition of most 12C-I, an interesting exception being pyruvate, which had no measurable effect on 14CO2 production and caused only a modest stimulation of respiration in glycolyzing DSP cells. These results suggest that channeling, or some other form of coupling, takes place between the glycolytic production of pyruvate and its further oxidation. These observations confirm previously published data and add further support to the proposition that channeling of glycolytic intermediates occurs in DSP cells but is of the "leaky" type. Although abundant evidence in the literature indicates that various glycolytic enzymes associate with F-actin, as well as other elements of the cytomatrix, we observed no effect of cytochalasin D on lactate production even at very high concentrations of this compound. Our results are compared with those from other laboratories and discussed in the context of metabolic organization.

A monoclonal antibody against kinesin inhibits both anterograde and retrograde fast axonal transport in squid axoplasm

One of our monoclonal antibodies against the heavy chain of bovine kinesin (H2) also recognized the heavy chain of squid kinesin. The immunofluorescence pattern of H2 in axoplasm was similar to that seen in mammalian cells with antibodies specific for kinesin light and heavy chains, indicating that squid kinesin is also concentrated on membrane-bounded organelles. Although kinesin is assumed to be a motor for translocation of membrane-bounded organelles in fast axonal transport, direct evidence has been lacking. Perfusion of axoplasm with purified H2 at 0.1-0.4 mg/ml resulted in a profound inhibition of both the rates and number of organelles moving in anterograde and retrograde directions in the interior of the axoplasm, and comparable inhibition was noted in bidirectional movement along individual microtubules at the periphery. Maximal inhibition developed over 30-60 min. Perfusion with higher concentrations of H2 (greater than 1 mg of IgG per ml) were less effective, whereas perfusion with 0.04 mg of H2 per ml resulted in minimal inhibition. Movement of membrane-bounded organelles after perfusion with comparable levels of irrelevant mouse IgG (0.04 to greater than 1 mg/ml) were not distinguishable from perfusion with buffer controls. Inhibition of fast axonal transport by an antibody specific for kinesin provides direct evidence that kinesin is involved in the translocation of membrane-bounded organelles in axons. Moreover, the inhibition of bidirectional axonal transport by H2 raises the possibility that kinesin may play some role in both anterograde and retrograde axonal transport.