Pathogenic profiles and molecular signatures of antinuclear autoantibodies rescued from NZM2410 lupus mice

Antibodies to an Epstein Barr Virus protein that cross-react with dsDNA have pathogenic potential

Pathogens such as the Epstein Barr virus (EBV) have long been implicated in the etiology of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). The Epstein Barr virus nuclear antigen I (EBNA-1) has been shown to play a role in the development of anti-nuclear antibodies characteristic of SLE. One mechanism by which EBV may play a role in SLE is molecular mimicry. We previously generated two monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) to EBNA-1 and demonstrated that they cross-react with double-stranded DNA (dsDNA). In the present study, we demonstrate that these mAbs have pathogenic potential. We show that they can bind to isolated rat glomeruli and that binding can be greatly diminished by pretreatment of glomeruli with DNase I, suggesting that these mAbs bind dsDNA in the kidney. We also demonstrate that these antibodies can deposit in the kidney when injected into mice and can induce proteinuria and elicit histopathological alterations consistent with glomerulonephritis. Finally, we show that these antibodies can cross-react with laminin and collagen IV in the extracellular matrix suggesting that direct binding to the glomerular basement membrane or mesangial matrix may also contribute to the antibody deposition in the kidney. In summary, our results indicate that EBNA-1 can elicit antibodies that cross-react with dsDNA, that can deposit in the kidney, and induce kidney damage. These results are significant because they support the role of a viral protein in SLE and lupus nephritis.

Loss of an IgG plasma cell checkpoint in patients with lupus

BACKGROUND

IgG antinuclear antibodies (ANAs) are a feature of several autoimmune diseases. These antibodies arise through defects in central or peripheral tolerance checkpoints. The specific checkpoints breached in patients with autoimmune disease are not fully understood.

OBJECTIVES

We sought to study whether autoreactive plasma cells in lupus models and patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) arise as a consequence of defective antigen-specific selection or a global enhancement of IgG plasma cell differentiation.

METHODS

We optimized and validated a novel technique to detect naturally occurring ANA⁺ B cells and plasma cells.

RESULTS

We observed a major checkpoint for generation of ANA⁺ IgG⁺ plasma cells in both nonautoimmune mice and healthy human subjects. Interestingly, we observed increased numbers of ANA⁺ IgG⁺ plasma cells despite normal tolerance checkpoints in immature and naive B cells of lupus-prone MRL/lpr and NZB/W mice, as well as patients with SLE. This increase was due to increased numbers of total IgG⁺ plasma cells rather than lack of selection against ANA⁺ plasma cells.

CONCLUSION

Using a method that permits quick and accurate quantification of autoreactive B cells and plasma cells in vivo within a native B-cell repertoire in mice and human subjects, we demonstrate the importance of a checkpoint that restricts the generation of IgG plasma cells and protects against IgG ANAs. Our observations suggest a fundamentally revised understanding of SLE: that it is a disease of aberrant B-cell differentiation rather than a defect in antigen-specific B-cell tolerance.

Mechanisms of Tissue Injury in Lupus Nephritis

Disease heterogeneity remains a major challenge for the understanding of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). Recent work has revealed the important role of nonimmune factors in the development of end-organ damage involvement, shifting the current paradigm that views SLE as a disease inflicted by a disturbed immune system on passive target organs. Here, we discuss the pathogenesis of lupus nephritis in a comprehensive manner, by incorporating the role that target organs play by withstanding and modulating the local inflammatory response. Moreover, we consider the effects that genetic variants exert on immune and nonimmune cells in order to shape the phenotype of the disease in each affected individual.

Blockade of CD354 (TREM-1) Ameliorates Anti-GBM-Induced Nephritis

CD354, Triggering Receptor of Myeloid Cells-1 (TREM-1), is a potent amplifier of myeloid immune responses. Our goal was to determine the expression and function of TREM-1 in immune-mediated nephritis. An anti-glomerular basement membrane antibody (anti-GBM)-induced nephritis model was employed, where mice were sensitized with rabbit IgG followed by anti-GBM serum to induce disease. Anti-GBM-treated 129x1/svJ mice developed severe nephritis whereas C57BL/6 (B6) mice were resistant to disease. Anti-GBM disease resulted in elevated renal TREM-1 messenger RNA (mRNA) and protein levels and increased urine TREM-1 levels in 129x1/svJ. TREM-1 blockade with an inhibitory peptide, LP17, inhibited proteinuria and renal disease as measured by glomerulonephritis class, severity of tubulointerstitial disease, crescent formation, and inflammatory cell infiltrates. In sum, TREM-1 is upregulated in renal inflammation and plays a vital role in driving disease. Thus, TREM-1 blockade emerges as a potential therapeutic avenue for immune-mediated renal diseases such as lupus nephritis.

The contribution of the programmed cell death machinery in innate immune cells to lupus nephritis

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a chronic multi-factorial autoimmune disease initiated by genetic and environmental factors, which in combination trigger disease onset in susceptible individuals. Damage to the kidney as a consequence of lupus nephritis (LN) is one of the most prevalent and severe outcomes, as LN affects up to 60% of SLE patients and accounts for much of SLE-associated morbidity and mortality. As remarkable strides have been made in unlocking new inflammatory mechanisms associated with signaling molecules of programmed cell death pathways, this review explores the available evidence implicating the action of these pathways specifically within dendritic cells and macrophages in the control of kidney disease. Although advancements into the underlying mechanisms responsible for inducing cell death inflammatory pathways have been made, there still exist areas of unmet need. By understanding the molecular mechanisms by which dendritic cells and macrophages contribute to LN pathogenesis, we can improve their viability as potential therapeutic targets to promote remission.

Monoclonal antibodies specific for human IgM Fc receptor inhibit ligand-binding activity

A panel of six different murine hybridoma clones secreting IgG monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) specific for the human IgM Fc receptor (FcμR) was generated. All MAbs specifically precipitated a major protein of ∼60 kDa from membrane lysates of FcμR-bearing, but not FcμR-negative, cells as did IgM-ligands. Pre-incubation of membrane lysate of FcμR-bearing cells with these MAbs completely removed the ∼60 kDa IgM-reactive protein. By using recombinant human/mouse chimeric FcμR proteins, the epitope recognized by HM7 and HM10 MAbs was mapped to the Ig-like domain of human FcμR, whereas the other MAbs recognized the stalk region. Pre-incubation of FcμR(+) cells with the Ig-like domain-specific MAbs, but not with others, markedly inhibited subsequent IgM-ligand binding. A similar, but much weaker, inhibition was also observed when the incubation order was reversed. When FcμR(+) cells were simultaneously incubated with both IgM-ligands and MAbs, HM7 MAb efficiently competed with IgM for FcμR binding. Unlike control Jurkat cells, FcμR-bearing cells were resistant to apoptosis induced by agonistic IgM anti-Fas MAb (CH11); however, addition of the HM7 MAb inhibited the interaction of the Fc portion of CH11 MAb with FcμR, thereby promoting apoptosis of FcμR-bearing Jurkat cells. The variable regions of the HM7 MAb were composed of Ighv14-3, Ighd1-2, and Ighj2 for the γ2b heavy chain and Igk3-4 and Igkj2 for the κ light chain. These findings suggest that HM7 MAb efficiently blocks the ligand-binding activity of FcμR.

What is damaging the kidney in lupus nephritis?

Despite marked improvements in the survival of patients with severe lupus nephritis over the past 50 years, the rate of complete clinical remission after immune suppression therapy is <50% and renal impairment still occurs in 40% of affected patients. An appreciation of the factors that lead to the development of chronic kidney disease following acute or subacute renal injury in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus is beginning to emerge. Processes that contribute to end-stage renal injury include continuing inflammation, activation of intrinsic renal cells, cell stress and hypoxia, metabolic abnormalities, aberrant tissue repair and tissue fibrosis. A deeper understanding of these processes is leading to the development of novel or adjunctive therapies that could protect the kidney from the secondary non-immune consequences of acute injury. Approaches based on a molecular-proteomic-lipidomic classification of disease should yield new information about the functional basis of disease heterogeneity so that the most effective and least toxic treatment regimens can be formulated for individual patients.

The lupus susceptibility locus Sle1 facilitates the peripheral development and selection of anti-DNA B cells through impaired receptor editing

Systemic lupus erythematosus is characterized by the spontaneous production of IgG autoantibodies in patients and lupus-prone mice. In this study, we investigated the effect of the Sle1 lupus susceptibility locus on the peripheral development of 56R(+) anti-DNA transgenic B cells by tracking 56R(+) B cells in mice without (B6.56R) or with (B6.Sle1.56R) the Sle1 locus. Compared with B6.56R mice, B6.Sle1.56R mice exhibited increased class-switched IgG2a anti-DNA Abs in their serum, encoded by the transgene. Interestingly, within the spleen, Sle1 facilitated the development of these cells into clusters of IgG2a class-switched B cells juxtaposed to CD4(+) T cells within extrafollicular sites. Through sequence analysis of B cell hybridomas, we also found that B cells from B6.Sle1.56R mice are inefficient at Ig H and L chain editing. Thus, the Ig H chains in Sle1.56R(+) B cells are partnered more often with cationic L chains that facilitate DNA binding. Taken together, these findings indicate that the Sle1 lupus-susceptibility locus may facilitate the emergence of anti-DNA B cells by subduing BCR revision and possibly by shaping the extrafollicular development of effector B cells, although the precise molecular mechanisms await further study.

RGMb is a novel binding partner for PD-L2 and its engagement with PD-L2 promotes respiratory tolerance

We report that programmed death ligand 2 (PD-L2), a known ligand of PD-1, also binds to repulsive guidance molecule b (RGMb), which was originally identified in the nervous system as a co-receptor for bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs). PD-L2 and BMP-2/4 bind to distinct sites on RGMb. Normal resting lung interstitial macrophages and alveolar epithelial cells express high levels of RGMb mRNA, whereas lung dendritic cells express PD-L2. Blockade of the RGMb-PD-L2 interaction markedly impaired the development of respiratory tolerance by interfering with the initial T cell expansion required for respiratory tolerance. Experiments with PD-L2-deficient mice showed that PD-L2 expression on non-T cells was critical for respiratory tolerance, but expression on T cells was not required. Because PD-L2 binds to both PD-1, which inhibits antitumor immunity, and to RGMb, which regulates respiratory immunity, targeting the PD-L2 pathway has therapeutic potential for asthma, cancer, and other immune-mediated disorders. Understanding this pathway may provide insights into how to optimally modulate the PD-1 pathway in cancer immunotherapy while minimizing adverse events.

Splenic B-1a Cells Expressing CD138 Spontaneously Secrete Large Amounts of Immunoglobulin in Naïve Mice

B-1a cells constitutively secrete natural antibody that provides immediate protection against microbial pathogens and functions homeostatically to speed removal of apoptotic cell debris. Although B-1a cells are especially prominent in the peritoneal and pleural cavities, some B-1a cells reside in the spleen. A small subset of splenic B-1a cells in naïve, unimmunized mice express CD138, a recognized plasma cell antigen, whereas the bulk of splenic B-1a cells are CD138 negative. Splenic B-1a cells in toto have been shown to generate much more antibody per cell than peritoneal B-1a cells; however, specific functional information regarding CD138⁺ splenic B-1a cells has been lacking. Here, we find a higher proportion of CD138⁺ splenic B-1a cells spontaneously secrete more IgM as compared to CD138⁻ B-1a cells. Moreover, IgM secreted by CD138⁺ splenic B-1a cells is skewed with respect to N-region addition, and some aspects of V_H and J_H utilization, as compared to CD138⁻ splenic B-1a cells and peritoneal B-1a cells. The small population of CD138⁺ splenic B-1a cells is likely responsible for a substantial portion of natural IgM and differs from IgM produced by other B-1a cell subsets.

Discovery of biomarkers for systemic lupus erythematosus using a library of synthetic autoantigen surrogates

Antibodies to a wide range of self-antigens, including those directed against nucleic acids or nucleic acid-binding proteins are the essential biomarkers for diseases such as systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). Highly complex libraries of nonamers consisting of N-substituted glycines (peptoids) were screened for compounds that bound IgG from patients with SLE and earlier, incomplete autoimmune syndromes. Peptoids were identified that could identify subjects with SLE and related syndromes with a high sensitivity (70%) and specificity (97.5%). Immobilized peptoids were used to isolate IgG from both healthy subjects and SLE patients that reacted with known RNA-binding proteins. In the case of SLE patients, the peptoid-purified IgG reacted with several autoantigens, suggesting that the peptoids are capable of interacting with multiple, structurally similar molecules. These results show that the measurement of IgG binding to peptoids can identify subjects with high levels of pathogenic autoantibodies.

Antigen microarrays for the study of autoimmune diseases

BACKGROUND

The immune response involves the activation of heterogeneous populations of T cells and B cells that show different degrees of affinity and specificity for target antigens. Although several techniques have been developed to study the molecular pathways that control immunity, there is a need for high-throughput assays to monitor the specificity of the immune response.

CONTENT

Antigen microarrays provide a new tool to study the immune response. We reviewed the literature on antigen microarrays and their advantages and limitations, and we evaluated their use for the study of autoimmune diseases. Antigen arrays have been successfully used for several purposes in the investigation of autoimmune disorders: for disease diagnosis, to monitor disease progression and response to therapy, to discover mechanisms of pathogenesis, and to tailor antigen-specific therapies to the autoimmune response of individual patients. In this review we discuss the use of antigen microarrays for the study of 4 common autoimmune diseases and their animal models: type 1 diabetes, systemic lupus erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis, and multiple sclerosis.

CONCLUSIONS

Antigen microarrays constitute a new tool for the investigation of the immune response in autoimmune disorders and also in other conditions such as tumors and allergies. Once current limitations are overcome, antigen microarrays have the potential to revolutionize the investigation and management of autoimmune diseases.

Lupus-prone strains vary in susceptibility to antibody-mediated end organ disease

Renal involvement is the major cause of morbidity and mortality in lupus. Besides autoantibodies, intrinsic renal factors may contribute to the susceptibility to lupus nephritis. To determine how different mouse strains that develop spontaneous lupus fare in their susceptibility to immune mediated nephritis, mice from six lupus-prone strains and two non-lupus control strains (B6 and BALB/c) were challenged with rabbit anti-GBM sera. Among the strains tested, NZM2410 (or NZM) mice developed severe glomerulonephritis (GN), whereas BXSB and B6.lpr, NZB mice were relatively resistant to anti-GBM disease, as were the BALB/c controls. BWF1 and B6.Yaa mice exhibited intermediate degrees of GN that was comparable to the B6 controls. The severity of the renal disease in these strains did not appear to be related to the degree of the systemic immune response to the administered rabbit Ig. In addition, cytokine profiling demonstrated differential urinary excretion of several molecules in the NZM mice, compared with the controls. Together with our previous reports, our studies demonstrate that lupus-prone strains vary in their susceptibility to immune mediated nephritis, despite similar levels of circulating autoantibodies and comparable degrees of immune complex deposition in the kidneys.

Unexpected T cell regulatory activity of anti-histone H1 autoantibody: its mode of action in regulatory T cell-dependent and -independent manners

Induction of anti-nuclear antibodies against DNA or histones is a hallmark of autoimmune disorders, but their actual contribution to disease predisposition remains to be clarified. We have previously reported that autoantibodies against histone H1 work as a critical graft survival factor in a rat model of tolerogeneic liver transplantation. Here we show that an immunosuppressive anti-histone H1 monoclonal antibody (anti-H1 mAb) acts directly on T cells to inhibit their activation in response to T cell receptor (TCR) ligation. Intriguingly, the T cell activation inhibitory activity of anti-H1 mAb under suboptimal dosages required regulatory T (Treg) cells, while high dose stimulation with anti-H1 mAb triggered a Treg cell-independent, direct negative regulation of T cell activation upon TCR cross-linking. In the Treg cell-dependent mode of immunosuppressive action, anti-H1 mAb did not induce the expansion of CD4(+-)Foxp3(+) Treg cells, but rather potentiated their regulatory capacity. These results reveal a previously unappreciated T cell regulatory role of anti-H1 autoantibody, whose overproduction is generally thought to be pathogenic in the autoimmune settings.

IL-21 promotes the production of anti-DNA IgG but is dispensable for kidney damage in lyn-/- mice

The autoimmune disease systemic lupus erythematosus is characterized by loss of tolerance to nuclear Ags and a heightened inflammatory environment, which together result in end organ damage. Lyn-deficient mice, a model of systemic lupus erythematosus, lack an inhibitor of B-cell and myeloid cell activation. This results in B-cell hyper-responsiveness, plasma cell accumulation, autoantibodies, and glomerulonephritis (GN). IL-21 is associated with autoimmunity in mice and humans and promotes B-cell differentiation and class switching. Here, we explore the role of IL-21 in the autoimmune phenotypes of lyn(-/-) mice. We find that IL-21 mRNA is reduced in the spleens of lyn(-/-) IL-6(-/-) and lyn(-/-) Btk(lo) mice, neither of which produce pathogenic autoantibodies or develop significant GN. While IL-21 is dispensable for plasma cell accumulation and IgM autoantibodies in lyn(-/-) mice, it is required for anti-DNA IgG antibodies and some aspects of T-cell activation. Surprisingly, GN still develops in lyn(-/-) IL-21(-/-) mice. This likely results from the presence of IgG autoantibodies against a limited set of non-DNA Ags. These studies identify a specific role for IL-21 in the class switching of anti-DNA B cells and demonstrate that neither IL-21 nor anti-DNA IgG is required for kidney damage in lyn(-/-) mice.

The antigen-binding fragment of anti-double-stranded DNA IgG enhances F-actin formation in mesangial cells by binding to alpha-actinin-4

Anti-double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) IgG causes renal damage in patients with lupus nephritis by cross-reacting with multiple autoantigens, including alpha-actinin-4, in mesangial cells (MCs). However, how the cross-reactions play a role in mesangial phenotypic abnormalities is not well understood. Here, we investigated the effects of the fragment antigen-binding (Fab) of anti-dsDNA IgG3 on the biochemical properties of alpha-actinin-4. Experiments revealed that anti-dsDNA Fab specifically binds to alpha-actinin-4, but not G-actin. The binding by anti-dsDNA Fab sequentially increases the positive charge of alpha-actinin-4 and inhibits the affinity of alpha-actinin-4 to calcium ions. By the low shear viscosity and a co-sedimentation assay, we found that the alpha-actinin-4-induced F-actin gelation improves when anti-dsDNA Fab is added. However, the Fab control has no such effect on F-actin gelation. Furthermore, the in vitro cultured MCs exhibit higher F-actin expression and transforming growth factor- β1 synthesis after the incubation with anti-dsDNA Fab. Therefore, our results indicated that anti-dsDNA Fab may enhance F-actin formation by the proprietary modification of alpha-actinin-4, which could partially explain the myofibroblast-like phenotype of MCs in anti-dsDNA-positive lupus nephritis.

Activation-induced deaminase contributes to the antibody-independent role of B cells in the development of autoimmunity

B cells contribute to autoimmunity both as secretors of pathogenic antibodies and through the activation of autoreactive T cells. B cells and antibodies acquire higher affinity to self-antigen through a process known as immunoglobulin hypermutation or SHM. The contribution of SHM to pathogenic antibody development in lupus has been established in various autoimmune mouse models and by examining antibodies from patients. However, its role in the antibody-independent contribution of B cells to autoimmunity has not been examined. Herein, we generate lupus-prone MRL/lpr mice with a limited IgM-only B cell repertoire, no secreted antibodies and no SHM. This enabled us to isolate the role of somatic hypermutation in B cell-mediated autoimmunity. We found that SHM-deficiency correlated with a reduction in autoreactive B cells, a decrease in T cell activation and a decrease in kidney lymphocytic infiltration. These data establish AID as an important contributor to the antibody-independent role of B cells in autoimmunity.

Murine lupus strains differentially model unique facets of human lupus serology

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a polygenic autoimmune disease characterized by the production of anti-nuclear autoantibodies that lead to subsequent end organ damage. Previous array-based studies in patients with SLE have shown that high immunoglobulin (Ig)G anti-nuclear autoantibody reactivity was associated with severe renal lupus, whereas IgM polyreactivity was associated with less severe disease. To ascertain how different murine lupus strains recapitulate these different autoantibody profiles seen in patients, serum from New Zealand black (NZB)/NZ white (W) F(1), Murphy Roths large (MRL)/lpr, NZ mixed (M)2410 and BXSB strains were compared using a comprehensive array-based screen. The array results were verified using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs). Serum from MRL/lpr mice exhibited high levels of IgG anti-nuclear antibodies as well as anti-glomerular antibodies and variable levels of antibodies to myosin, Matrigel and thyroglobulin. Elevated anti-nuclear IgG antibodies were associated with severe nephritis in this strain. In contrast, NZM2410 mice exhibited lower IgG autoantibody levels with less severe nephritis but a significantly higher polyreactive IgM autoantibody profile. ELISA analysis confirmed these results. The NZB/NZW F(1) and BXSB strains exhibited an intermediate serological profile. Hence, just as in patients with SLE, whereas strong IgG reactivity to nuclear antigens is associated with severe renal disease, a polyreactive IgM seroprofile is also less ominous in murine lupus.

Rescue of HIV-1 broad neutralizing antibody-expressing B cells in 2F5 VH x VL knockin mice reveals multiple tolerance controls

The HIV-1 broadly neutralizing Ab (bnAb) 2F5 has been shown to be poly-/self-reactive in vitro, and we previously demonstrated that targeted expression of its VDJ rearrangement alone was sufficient to trigger a profound B cell developmental blockade in 2F5 V(H) knockin (KI) mice, consistent with central deletion of 2F5 H chain-expressing B cells. In this study, we generate a strain expressing the entire 2F5 bnAb specificity, 2F5 V(H) × V(L) KI mice, and find an even higher degree of tolerance control than observed in the 2F5 V(H) KI strain. Although B cell development was severely impaired in 2F5 V(H) × V(L) KI animals, we demonstrate rescue of their B cells when cultured in IL-7/BAFF. Intriguingly, even under these conditions, most rescued B cell hybridomas produced mAbs that lacked HIV-1 Envelope (Env) reactivity due to editing of the 2F5 L chain, and the majority of rescued B cells retained an anergic phenotype. Thus, when clonal deletion is circumvented, κ editing and anergy are additional safeguards preventing 2F5 V(H)/V(L) expression by immature/transitional B cells. Importantly, 7% of rescued B cells retained 2F5 V(H)/V(L) expression and secreted Env-specific mAbs with HIV-1-neutralizing activity. This partial rescue was further corroborated in vivo, as reflected by the anergic phenotype of most rescued B cells in 2F5 V(H) × V(L) KI × Eμ-Bcl-2 transgenic mice and significant (yet modest) enrichment of Env-specific B cells and serum Igs. The rescued 2F5 mAb-producing B cell clones in this study are the first examples, to our knowledge, of in vivo-derived bone marrow precursors specifying HIV-1 bnAbs and provide a starting point for design of strategies aimed at rescuing such B cells.

Cellular and molecular pathogenesis of systemic lupus erythematosus: lessons from animal models

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a complex disease characterized by the appearance of autoantibodies against nuclear antigens and the involvement of multiple organ systems, including the kidneys. The precise immunological events that trigger the onset of clinical manifestations of SLE are not yet well understood. However, research using various mouse strains of spontaneous and inducible lupus in the last two decades has provided insights into the role of the immune system in the pathogenesis of this disease. According to our present understanding, the immunological defects resulting in the development of SLE can be categorized into two phases: (a) systemic autoimmunity resulting in increased serum antinuclear and antiglomerular autoantibodies and (b) immunological events that occur within the target organ and result in end organ damage. Aberrations in the innate as well as adaptive arms of the immune system both play an important role in the genesis and progression of lupus. Here, we will review the present understanding - as garnered from studying mouse models - about the roles of various immune cells in lupus pathogenesis.

Activation-induced deaminase-deficient MRL/lpr mice secrete high levels of protective antibodies against lupus nephritis

OBJECTIVE

We previously generated MRL/lpr mice deficient in activation-induced deaminase (AID) that lack isotype switching and immunoglobulin hypermutation. These mice have high levels of unmutated (germline) autoreactive IgM, yet they experienced an increase in survival and an improvement in lupus nephritis that exceeded that of MRL/lpr mice lacking IgG. The purpose of the present study was to test the hypothesis that high levels of germline autoreactive IgM in these mice confer protection against lupus nephritis.

METHODS

Autoreactive IgM antibodies of various specificities, including antibodies against double-stranded DNA (dsDNA), from AID-deficient MRL/lpr mice were given to asymptomatic MRL/lpr mice, and the levels of cytokines, proteinuria, immune complex deposition in the kidneys, and glomerulonephritis were examined. Novel AID-deficient MRL/lpr mice that lack any antibodies were generated for comparison to AID-deficient MRL/lpr mice that secrete only IgM.

RESULTS

Treatment with IgM anti-dsDNA resulted in a dramatic improvement in lupus nephritis. Other autoreactive IgM antibodies, such as antiphospholipid and anti-Sm, did not alter the pathologic changes. Secretion of proinflammatory cytokines by macrophages and the levels of inflammatory cells and apoptotic debris in the kidneys were lower in mice receiving IgM anti-dsDNA. Protective IgM derived from AID-deficient MRL/lpr mice displayed a distinct B cell repertoire, with a bias toward members of the V(H) 7183 family.

CONCLUSION

IgM anti-dsDNA protected MRL/lpr mice from lupus nephritis, likely by stopping the inflammatory cascade leading to kidney damage. A distinct repertoire of V(H) usage in IgM anti-dsDNA hybridomas from AID-deficient mice suggests that there is enrichment of a dedicated B cell population that secretes unmutated protective IgM in these mice.

Anti-nuclear antibody reactivity in lupus may be partly hard-wired into the primary B-cell repertoire

When monoclonal ANAs and non-ANAs generated from a genetically simplified mouse model of lupus, B6.Sle1, were recently compared, the ANAs exhibited three sequence motifs in their immunoglobulin heavy chains, including increased cationicity in CDR3 ("motif A"), reduced anionicity in CDR2 ("motif B") and increased aspartate at H50 ("motif C"). The present study was designed to elucidate the extent to which these ANA-associated sequence motifs might be hard-wired into the primary B-cell repertoire in lupus. The immunoglobulin heavy chain sequence of total splenic B-cells, follicular B-cells and marginal zone B-cells from B6.Sle1 congenic mice and C57BL/6 controls were amplified by single-cell PCR and compared. Analysis of the primary immunoglobulin heavy chain repertoire indicated that the first two sequence motifs "A" and "B" were already encoded in the naïve repertoire of B6.Sle1(z) mice, whereas the third motif "C" was introduced in part by somatic mutation. Site-directed mutagenesis confirmed that non-anionic CDR2 and cationic CDR3 residues in the immunoglobulin heavy chain facilitated nuclear antigen binding in concert, whereas aspartate at H50 strongly vetoed DNA-binding, while preserving nucleosome reactivity. Hence, anti-nuclear antibodies appear to arise as a consequence of two distinct processes-genetically programmed selection of specific CDR charge motifs into the primary immunoglobulin repertoire, with secondary contribution from somatic mutation. Polymorphisms in the lupus susceptibility gene Ly108 that impair central B-cell tolerance may be mechanistically responsible for these early repertoire differences in lupus.

The MHC haplotype H2b converts two pure nonlupus mouse strains to producers of antinuclear antibodies

Studies of mouse lupus models have linked the MHC H2(b) haplotype with the earlier appearance of antinuclear autoantibodies and the worsening of nephritis. However, it is unknown whether H2(b) by itself, in the context of pure nonlupus strains, is "silent" or sufficient with regard to loss of tolerance to chromatin (nucleosomes). In this study we show that, beginning approximately 6-9 mo of age, H2(b)-congenic BALB/c (denoted BALB.B) mice, unlike BALB/c (H2(d)) and H2(k)-congenic BALB/c (denoted BALB.K) mice, develop strikingly increased serum levels of anti-chromatin Ab dominated by the IgG2a subclass, along with minor increase of Abs to DNA and moderately increased total serum IgG2a. The BALB.B mice did not have glomerulonephritis or an increased mortality rate. H2(b)-congenic C3H/He mice (designated C3.SW mice), unlike C3H/He (H2(k)) mice, showed low but measurable serum levels of chromatin-reactive IgG2a Abs and minor but significant hypergammaglobulinemia. By immunofluorescence, IgG2a of sera from both H2(b)-congenic strains stained HEp-2 cell nuclei, confirming the presence of antinuclear autoantibodies. Thus, in the context of two pure nonlupus genomes, the MHC H2(b) haplotype in homozygous form is sufficient to induce loss of tolerance to chromatin.

Molecular hallmarks of anti-chromatin antibodies associated with the lupus susceptibility locus, Sle1

Anti-nuclear antibodies constitute the hallmark of lupus. The NZM2410-derived Sle1 lupus susceptibility interval on murine chromosome 1 breaches tolerance, leading to the emergence of anti-nuclear autoantibodies targeting nucleosomes. However, little is known about the molecular structure of the anti-nucleosome autoantibodies from this genetically simplified mouse model of lupus. In this study, the immunoglobulin heavy chain and light chain sequences of 50 anti-nuclear monoclonal antibodies derived from five B6.Sle1(z) mice were compared to non-nuclear antibody controls. Compared to two different sets of non-nuclear antibodies, anti-nucleosome antibodies derived from B6.Sle1(z) congenic mice exhibited a high degree of clonal expansion and three distinct sequence motifs in their heavy chains - cationic CDR3 stretches, non-anionic CDR2 regions, and an increased frequency of aspartate residues at H50, which together increased the likelihood of an antibody being chromatin-reactive by approximately 4-fold.

Kallikrein genes are associated with lupus and glomerular basement membrane-specific antibody-induced nephritis in mice and humans

Immune-mediated nephritis contributes to disease in systemic lupus erythematosus, Goodpasture syndrome (caused by antibodies specific for glomerular basement membrane [anti-GBM antibodies]), and spontaneous lupus nephritis. Inbred mouse strains differ in susceptibility to anti-GBM antibody-induced and spontaneous lupus nephritis. This study sought to clarify the genetic and molecular factors that maybe responsible for enhanced immune-mediated renal disease in these models. When the kidneys of 3 mouse strains sensitive to anti-GBM antibody-induced nephritis were compared with those of 2 control strains using microarray analysis, one-fifth of the underexpressed genes belonged to the kallikrein gene family,which encodes serine esterases. Mouse strains that upregulated renal and urinary kallikreins exhibited less evidence of disease. Antagonizing the kallikrein pathway augmented disease, while agonists dampened the severity of anti-GBM antibody-induced nephritis. In addition, nephritis-sensitive mouse strains had kallikrein haplotypes that were distinct from those of control strains, including several regulatory polymorphisms,some of which were associated with functional consequences. Indeed, increased susceptibility to anti-GBM antibody-induced nephritis and spontaneous lupus nephritis was achieved by breeding mice with a genetic interval harboring the kallikrein genes onto a disease-resistant background. Finally, both human SLE and spontaneous lupus nephritis were found to be associated with kallikrein genes, particularly KLK1 and the KLK3 promoter, when DNA SNPs from independent cohorts of SLE patients and controls were compared. Collectively, these studies suggest that kallikreins are protective disease-associated genes in anti-GBM antibody-induced nephritis and lupus.

CXCR4/CXCL12 hyperexpression plays a pivotal role in the pathogenesis of lupus

Among various surface molecules screened, CXCR4 was significantly up-regulated on monocytes, neutrophils, B cell subsets, and plasma cells in multiple murine models of lupus with active nephritis, including B6.Sle1Yaa, BXSB, and MRL.lpr. TLR-mediated signaling and inflammatory cytokines accounted in part for this increase. Increased CXCR4 expression was associated with functional consequences, including increased migration and enhanced B cell survival. Simultaneously, the ligand for CXCR4, CXCL12, was significantly up-regulated in the nephritic kidneys. Treatment with a peptide antagonist of CXCR4 prolonged survival and reduced serum autoantibodies, splenomegaly, intrarenal leukocyte trafficking, and end organ disease in a murine model of lupus. These findings underscore the pathogenic role of CXCR4/CXCL12 in lymphoproliferative lupus and lupus nephritis and highlight this axis as a promising therapeutic target in this disease.

Defective B-cell response to T-dependent immunization in lupus-prone mice

Lupus anti-nuclear Ab show the characteristics of Ag-driven T-cell-dependent (TD) humoral responses. If autoAg elicit the same response as exogenous Ag, lupus should enhance humoral responses to immunization. Blunted responses to various immunizations have, however, been reported in a significant portion of lupus patients. In this study, we show that lupus-prone C57BL/6.Sle1.Sle2.Sle3 (B6.TC) mice produce significantly less Ab in response to TD immunization than congenic controls, while producing significantly more total Ig. This blunted Ab response to TD Ag could be reconstituted with B6.TC B and CD4+ T cells. Multiple defects were found in the B6.TC response to 4-hydroxy-3-nitrophenylacetyl-keyhole limpet hemocyanin (NP-KLH) compared with total Ig, including a smaller percentage of B cells participating in the NP-response, a reduced entry into germinal centers, and highly defective production of NP-specific long-lived plasma cells (PC) in the bone marrow. B6.TC PC expressed reduced levels of FcgammaRIIb, which suggests that reduced apoptosis in resident PC prevents the establishment of newly formed NP-specific PC in bone marrow niches. Overall, these results show that lupus-prone mice responded differently to auto- and exogenous Ag and suggest that low FcgammaRIIb, hypergammaglobulinemia, and high autoAb production would be predictive of a poor response to immunization in lupus patients.

Pathogenic anti-DNA antibodies modulate gene expression in mesangial cells: involvement of HMGB1 in anti-DNA antibody-induced renal injury

Although anti-DNA antibodies have been decisively linked to the pathogenesis of lupus nephritis, the mechanisms have not been conclusively determined. Recently, we reported that anti-DNA antibodies may contribute to kidney damage by upregulation of proinflammatory genes in mesangial cells (MC), a process involving both Fc receptor-dependent and independent pathways. In investigating the mechanism by which pathogenic anti-DNA antibodies modulate gene expression in MC, we found that the pathogenic anti-DNA antibody 1A3F bound to high mobility group binding protein 1 (HMGB1), an endogenous ligand for TLR2/4 and RAGE (receptor for advanced glycation end products). Interestingly, HMGB1 treatment of MC induced a similar pattern of genes as stimulation with 1A3F. Furthermore, HMGB1 and 1A3F exhibited a synergistic proinflammatory effect in the kidney, where increased expression of HMGB1 was found in lupus patients but not in patients with other types of renal disease. TLR2/Fc and RAGE/Fc inhibited the proinflammatory effects of 1A3F on MC. Finally, we found enhanced susceptibility of lupus prone MRL-lpr/lpr (MRL/lpr) as compared to normal BALB/c derived MC to pathogenic anti-DNA antibody and LPS stimulation (in particular enhanced chemokine synthesis), in addition to significantly increased expression of TLR4. Our results suggest that gene upregulation in MC induced by nephritogenic anti-DNA antibodies is TLR2/4 and RAGE-dependent. Finally, HMGB1 may act as a proinflammatory mediator in antibody-induced kidney damage in systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE).

The role of rearrangement at the second Ig heavy chain locus in maintaining B cell tolerance to DNA

In recently generated B6.56R anti-DNA autoantibody-transgenic mice, it was noted that a substantial fraction of the B cells that had avoided DNA reactivity had done so through the rearrangement and usage of the endogenous, nontargeted H chain (HC) allele. This suggested that rearrangement at the second HC locus might be an important mechanism through which self-reactive B cells might successfully revise their initial Ag specificity. To test the importance of this mechanism in B cell tolerance, we generated B6.56R/56R mice that possessed the 56R anti-DNA H chain transgene inserted into both HC loci. These transgenic homozygotes developed higher titers of anti-DNA Abs, with an expanded population of B220(low)MHC class II(low) B cells, enriched for CD21(low)CD23(low) preplasmablasts. The analysis of hybridomas from these mice revealed that the only avenue by which these B cells could avoid DNA reactivity was through the use of the editor L chains, V(k)20 or V(k)21. Hence, in addition to LC editing, rearrangement and usage of the second HC locus/allele constitutes an important safety valve for B cells the primary BCR of which confers DNA reactivity. In contrast to these tolerance mechanisms, editing the first rearranged HC locus (through HC replacement) and somatic mutations appear to be less frequently used to edit/revise self-reactive B cells.

Lupus nephritis: the central role of nucleosomes revealed

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is an autoimmune syndrome characterized by autoantibodies to nuclear constituents. Some of these antibodies are diagnostically important, whereas others act as disease-modifying factors. One clinically important factor is autoantibodies against dsDNA and nucleosomes, which have overlapping diagnostic and nephritogenic impact in SLE. Although a scientific focus for 5 decades, the molecular and cellular origin of these antibodies, and why they are associated with lupus nephritis, is still not fully understood. A consensus has, however, evolved that antibodies to dsDNA and nucleosomes are central pathogenic factors in the development of lupus nephritis. In contrast, no agreement has been reached as to which glomerular structures are bound by nephritogenic anti-nucleosome antibodies in vivo. Mutually contradictory paradigms and models have evolved simply because we still lack precise and conclusive data to provide definitive insight into how autoantibodies induce lupus nephritis and which specificity is critical in the nephritic process(es). In this review, data demonstrating the central role of nucleosomes in inducing and binding potentially nephritogenic antibodies to DNA and nucleosomes are presented and discussed. These autoimmune-inducing processes are discussed in the context of Matzinger's danger model (Matzinger P: Friendly and dangerous signals: is the tissue in control? Nat Immunol 2007, 8:11-13; Matzinger P: The danger model: a renewed sense of self. Science 2002, 296:301-305; Matzinger P: Tolerance, danger, and the extended family. Annu Rev Immunol 1994, 12:991-1045) and Medzhitov's and Janeway's (Medzhitov R, Janeway CA Jr: Decoding the patterns of self and nonself by the innate immune system. Science 2002, 296:298-300; Medzhitov R, Janeway CA Jr: How does the immune system distinguish self from nonself? Semin Immunol 2000, 12:185-188; Janeway CA Jr, Medzhitov R: Innate immune recognition. Annu Rev Immunol 2002, 20:197-216) distinction of noninfectious self (NIS) and infectious nonself (INS). The mechanisms leading to production of potentially nephritogenic anti-nucleosome antibodies and to overt lupus nephritis are interpreted in the context of these paradigms.

α-Actinin Immunization Elicits Anti-Chromatin Autoimmunity in Nonautoimmune Mice

Anti-dsDNA Abs are characteristic of lupus and can be found deposited in the kidneys of lupus mice. Previously, we have shown that pathogenic anti-dsDNA Abs as well as Ig eluted from the kidneys of nephritic lupus mice cross-react with alpha-actinin. Moreover, cross-reactivity with alpha-actinin characterizes nephritogenic anti-dsDNA Abs in humans with lupus as well. To determine whether Abs generated against alpha-actinin in vivo cross-react with nuclear Ags, we s.c. immunized 10-wk-old female BALB/c mice (and several other nonautoimmune mice strains) with alpha-actinin in adjuvant. Immunized but not control mice displayed high titers of anti-nuclear Abs and IgG anti-chromatin autoantibodies, hypergammaglobulinemia, renal Ig deposition, and proteinuria. The specificity of the anti-chromatin response was determined by Western blotting of purified chromatin with serum from alpha-actinin immunized mice. By proteomic analysis, a 25-kDa doublet band was conclusively identified as high mobility group box (HMGB) proteins 1 and 3, and a 70-kDa band was identified as heat shock protein 70 (hsp70), both of which are known antigenic targets in murine lupus. Binding to purified HMGB1 and hsp70 by immunized mice sera was confirmed by ELISA and Western blot. Immunized mice sera binding to both 25- and 70-kDa bands were significantly inhibited by alpha-actinin and chromatin. Importantly, a panel of nephritogenic mAbs had significantly higher affinity for alpha-actinin, chromatin, HMGB, and hsp70 as compared with nonpathogenic Abs, suggesting a common motif in these Ags that is targeted by pathogenic autoantibodies.

Tertiary lymphoid structures in the pancreas promote selection of B lymphocytes in autoimmune diabetes

Autoimmune diabetes occurs when invading lymphocytes destroy insulin-producing beta cells in pancreatic islets. The role of lymphocytic aggregates at this inflammatory site is not understood. We find that B and T lymphocytes attacking islets in NOD mice organize into lymphoid structures with germinal centers. Analysis of BCR L chain genes was used to investigate selection of B lymphocytes in these tertiary lymphoid structures and in draining pancreatic lymph nodes. The pancreatic repertoire as a whole was found to be highly diverse, with the profile of L chain genes isolated from whole pancreas differing from that observed in regional lymph nodes. A Vkappa14 L chain predominated within the complex pancreatic repertoire of NOD mice. Skewing toward Vkappa4 genes was observed in the pancreas when the repertoire of NOD mice was restricted using a fixed Ig H chain transgene. Nucleotide sequencing of expressed Vkappas identified shared mutations in some sequences consistent with Ag-driven selection and clonal expansion at the site of inflammation. Isolated islets contained oligoclonal B lymphocytes enriched for the germinal center marker GL7 and for sequences containing multiple mutations within CDRs, suggesting local T-B interactions. Together, these findings identify a process that selects B lymphocyte specificities within the pancreas, with further evolution of the selected repertoire at the inflamed site. This interpretation is reinforced by Ag-binding studies showing a large population of insulin-binding B lymphocytes in the pancreas compared with draining lymph nodes.

Glomerular apoptotic nucleosomes are central target structures for nephritogenic antibodies in human SLE nephritis

Antibodies to double-stranded (dsDNA) are associated with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) and directly involved in human lupus nephritis. Information about their glomerular target antigens is inconsistent, and whether availability of target antigens, antibody specificity or avidity are nephritogenic parameters, is not determined. In this study, we analyzed renal tissue from anti-dsDNA antibody-positive lupus patients with nephritis by morphological and immunological assays, including immune electron microscopy (IEM) and colocalization IEM, an EM-based confocal microscopy assay. IEM demonstrated that antibody deposits were confined to electron dense structures (EDS) in glomerular membranes. These autoantibodies colocalized with nucleosome-binding anti-dsDNA/-histone/-transcription factor antibodies. To confirm the colocalization IEM-data, we developed a colocalization terminal deoxynucleotidyl-transferase (TdT) biotin-dUTP nicked end-labeled (TUNEL) IEM assay where extracellular DNA was traced by TdT-mediated introduction of biotinylated nucleotides and autoantibodies by IEM. Results consistently demonstrated that DNA colocalized with autoantibodies in glomerular membrane-associated EDS. The colocalization IEM and colocalization TUNEL IEM assays thus demonstrate that intra-glomerular membrane-associated nucleosomes are targeted by anti-dsDNA autoantibodies in human lupus nephritis. The data provide a new approach to understand basic molecular and immunological processes accounting for antibody-mediated nephritis in human SLE.

Proteomics on the Diagnostic Horizon: Lessons from Rheumatology

Rheumatology abounds in diseases that are relatively poorly understood or diseases that are not easily managed clinically. Recently DNA microarray and proteomic-based approaches have made steady inroads into the study of various rheumatic diseases. Herein we review recent proteomic approaches that have been applied to the study of rheumatic diseases. These methods include two-dimensional gel electrophoresis/mass spectrometry (MS), multidimensional high-pressure liquid chromatography-MS/MS, capillary electrophoresis-MS/MS, surface-enhanced laser desorption/ionization-time of flight-MS/MS, and a variety of targeted antibody-based protein arrays. Although each of these different methods has its own advantages and disadvantages, the application of these proteomic tools to rheumatology has given birth to a steadily increasing panel of molecules that may have the potential to serve as early biomarkers in various rheumatic diseases.

Peripheral B cell receptor editing may promote the production of high-affinity autoantibodies in CD22-deficient mice

CD22-deficient mice are characterized by B cell hyperactivity and autoimmunity. We have constructed knock-in CD22-/- mice, expressing an anti-DNA heavy (H) chain (D42), alone or combined with Vkappa1-Jkappa1 or Vkappa8-Jkappa5 light (L) chains. The Ig-targeted mice produced a lupus-like serology that was age- and sex-dependent. High-affinity IgG autoantibodies were largely dependent on the selection of B cells with a particular H/L combination, in which a non-transgenic, endogenous L chain was assembled by secondary rearrangements through the mechanism of receptor editing. Moreover, we present evidence that these secondary rearrangements are very prominent in splenic peripheral B cells. Since CD22 is primarily expressed on the surface of peripheral B cells, we propose a model for the development of a lupus-like autoimmune disease by a combination of peripheral receptor editing and abnormal B cell activation.

Nephritogenic anti-DNA antibodies regulate gene expression in MRL/lpr mouse glomerular mesangial cells

OBJECTIVE

Lupus-associated IgG anti-double-stranded DNA antibodies are thought to be pathogenic in the kidney due to cross-reaction with glomerular antigens, leading subsequently to immune complex formation in situ and complement activation. We undertook this study to determine if pathogenic anti-DNA antibodies may also contribute to renal damage by directly influencing mesangial gene expression.

METHODS

Complementary DNA microarray gene profiling was performed in primary mesangial cells (derived from lupus-prone MRL/lpr mice) treated with pathogenic, noncomplexed anti-DNA antibodies. Significant gene up-regulation induced by anti-DNA antibodies as determined by microarray analysis was further investigated by real-time polymerase chain reaction and methods to detect the relevant proteins. Induction of proinflammatory genes by pathogenic antibodies was confirmed by comparing gene expression in glomeruli of old versus young MRL/lpr mice, and by antibody injection in vivo.

RESULTS

Pathogenic, but not nonpathogenic, antibodies significantly induced a number of transcripts, including CXCL1/KC, LCN2, iNOS, CX3CL1/fractalkine, SERPINA3G, and IkappaBalpha ("marker genes"). Blocking of Fcgamma receptors or using Fcgamma chain-knockout mesangial cells had no effect on the gene regulation effect of the pathogenic antibody R4A, indicating a non-Fc-dependent mechanism. The glomerular expression of these marker genes increased over time with the development of glomerular antibody deposition and active nephritis in MRL/lpr mice. Moreover, injection of R4A into SCID mice in vivo significantly up-regulated glomerular marker gene expression.

CONCLUSION

These findings indicate that the renal pathogenicity of anti-DNA antibodies may be attributed in part to their ability to directly modulate gene expression in kidney mesangial cells through both Fc-dependent and non-Fc-dependent mechanisms.

Lupus Nephritis

Lupus nephritis is one of the more serious manifestations of the systemic autoimmune disease, systemic lupus erythematosus, and is associated with considerable morbidity and even mortality. Treatment remains problematic, particularly in terms of controlling the underlying disease process while at the same time preventing unacceptable side effects of therapy. In recent years, clinical trials have started to define optimum regimens of the immunosuppressive agents presently in use. The etiology and pathogenesis of systemic lupus erythematosus and lupus nephritis still are understood incompletely. Nevertheless, insights gained from basic science research in both animals and human beings now are being translated into newer therapies that have the potential to be safer and more specific than those currently available.

TLR9/MyD88 signaling is required for class switching to pathogenic IgG2a and 2b autoantibodies in SLE

Loss of tolerance in systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) leads to the generation of autoantibodies, which accumulate in end-organs where they induce disease. Here we show that immunoglobulin (Ig)G2a and 2b autoantibodies are the pathogenic isotypes by recruiting FcgammaRIV expressing macrophages. Class switching, but not development, of IgM anti-self B cells to these pathogenic subclasses requires the innate immune receptor Toll-like receptor (TLR)9 and MyD88 signaling. In their absence, switching of autoreactive B cells to the IgG2a and 2b subclasses is blocked, resulting in reduced pathology and mortality. In contrast, switching of anti-self B cells to IgG1 is not perturbed and generation of nonautoreactive IgG2a and 2b antibodies is not impaired in TLR9-deficient mice. Thus, the TLR9 pathway is a potential target for therapeutic intervention in SLE.

Identification of autoantibody clusters that best predict lupus disease activity using glomerular proteome arrays

Nephrophilic autoantibodies dominate the seroprofile in lupus, but their fine specificities remain ill defined. We constructed a multiplexed proteome microarray bearing about 30 antigens known to be expressed in the glomerular milieu and used it to study serum autoantibodies in lupus. Compared with normal serum, serum from B6.Sle1.lpr lupus mice (C57BL/6 mice homozygous for the NZM2410/NZW allele of Sle1 as well as the FAS defect) exhibited high levels of IgG and IgM antiglomerular as well as anti-double-stranded DNA/chromatin Abs and variable levels of Abs to alpha-actinin, aggrecan, collagen, entactin, fibrinogen, hemocyanin, heparan sulphate, laminin, myosin, proteoglycans, and histones. The use of these glomerular proteome arrays also revealed 5 distinct clusters of IgG autoreactivity in the sera of lupus patients. Whereas 2 of these IgG reactivity clusters (DNA/chromatin/glomeruli and laminin/myosin/Matrigel/vimentin/heparan sulphate) showed association with disease activity, the other 3 reactivity clusters (histones, vitronectin/collagen/chondroitin sulphate, and entactin/fibrinogen/hyaluronic acid) did not. Human lupus sera also displayed 2 distinct IgM autoantibody clusters, one reactive to DNA and the other apparently polyreactive. Interestingly, the presence of IgM polyreactivity in patient sera was associated with reduced disease severity. Hence, the glomerular proteome array promises to be a powerful analytical tool for uncovering novel autoantibody disease associations and for distinguishing patients at high risk for end-organ disease.

Treatment with a laminin-derived peptide suppresses lupus nephritis

The role of DNA as the target for pathogenic lupus autoantibodies in systemic lupus erythematosus is equivocal and renal damage may be due to cross-reactivity of lupus Abs with glomerular components. We have previously shown that lupus autoantibodies bind to the laminin component of the extracellular matrix. In the present work, we have analyzed the fine specificity of the interaction of pathogenic murine lupus autoantibodies with this molecule and the effect of inhibiting their binding to laminin during the course of the disease. We have found that pathogenic murine lupus autoantibodies react with a 21-mer peptide located in the globular part of the alpha-chain of laminin. Immunization of young lupus-prone mice with this peptide accelerated renal disease. Analysis of transgenic, congenic, and RAG-1(-/-) mice confirmed the importance of this epitope in the pathogenesis of lupus renal disease. We have synthesized a panel of peptides that cross-react with the anti-laminin Abs and have found that the binding of lupus autoantibodies to the extracellular matrix could be inhibited in vitro by some of these competitive peptides. Treatment of MRL/lpr/lpr mice with these peptides prevented Ab deposition in the kidneys, ameliorated renal disease, and prolonged survival of the peptide-treated mice. We suggest that laminin components can serve as the target for lupus Abs. The interaction with these Ags can explain both the tissue distribution and the immunopathological findings in lupus. Moreover, inhibition of autoantibody binding to the extracellular matrix can lead to suppression of disease.

Role of anti-DNA antibodies in the pathogenesis of lupus nephritis

Despite a good association between anti-DNA autoantibodies and lupus nephritis, it is difficult to determine the pathogenic potential of an anti-DNA autoantibody response. It is proposed that anti-DNA antibodies can exert their pathogenic effects through deposition as immune complexes in the kidney or through the recognition of cross-reactive antigens in the kidneys. Several studies in literature demonstrate that cross-reactivity of anti-DNA antibodies with kidney antigens is critical for their pathogenic potential. This raises the question whether DNA is responsible for the activation and selection of B cells generating cross-reactive anti-DNA antibodies. Recent studies suggest that antigens other than DNA can initiate an antibody response that is cross-reactive with dsDNA. Moreover, we and other have demonstrated that lupus nephritis can occur in the absence of anti-DNA antibodies. Thus, reactivity to dsDNA should be considered as one of the characteristic of polyreactive autoantibodies and not a primary requisite for the pathogenesis of lupus nephritis.

New insights from murine lupus: disassociation of autoimmunity and end organ damage and the role of T cells

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

This review summarizes current literature on genetic regulation of different phenotypes in systemic lupus erythematosus in context of end-organ disease. Recent findings conflicting with the current paradigm that loss of tolerance to chromatin is the critical step for end-organ injury are discussed.

RECENT FINDINGS

Systemic lupus erythematosus is a prototype immune complex disease with circulating autoantibodies to chromatin, histone proteins, Sm/La, and other nuclear and cytoplasmic proteins. Extensive studies have been carried out on the regulation of B-cell and autoantibody production in lupus mice. However, the hypothesis that autoantibodies are primary mediators of organ damage fails to explain the heterogenous presentation in patients. Studies in murine models of systemic lupus erythematosus clearly dissociate genetic control of autoantibody responses to classic lupus antigens and kidney disease. There is increasing evidence to support the role of autoreactive T cells and genetic control of end organ susceptibility. These studies suggest complex interactions between innate and adaptive immunity resulting in end-organ damage. This review focuses on autoimmune responses and renal involvement in spontaneous systemic lupus erythematosus using murine models of lupus nephritis.

SUMMARY

Studies in murine models demonstrate complex genetic interactions regulating spontaneous systemic lupus erythematosus. Although detection of serum autoantibodies is considered a hallmark for clinical diagnosis of systemic lupus erythematosus, recent evidence shows that autoantibodies to classic lupus antigens are neither required nor sufficient for end-organ damage. Thus, murine models provide new insights into the pathogenesis of systemic lupus erythematosus.

T cell tolerance to germline-encoded antibody sequences in a lupus-prone mouse

The BCR V region has been implicated as a potential avenue of T cell help for autoreactive B cells in systemic lupus erythematosus. In principle, either germline-encoded or somatically generated sequences could function as targets of such help. Preceding studies have indicated that class II MHC-restricted T cells in normal mice attain a state tolerance to germline-encoded Ab diversity. In this study, we tested whether this tolerance is intact in systemic lupus erythematosus-prone (New Zealand Black x SWR)F1 mice (SNF1). Using a hybridoma sampling approach, we found that SNF1 T cells were tolerant to germline-encoded Ab sequences. Specifically, they were tolerant to germline-encoded sequences derived from a lupus anti-chromatin Ab that arose spontaneously in this strain. This was true both for diseased and prediseased mice. Thus, there does not appear to be a global defect in T cell tolerance to Ab V regions in this autoimmune-prone strain either before or during autoimmune disease.

Epistatic suppression of systemic lupus erythematosus: fine mapping of Sles1 to less than 1 mb

Sle is a susceptibility locus for systemic autoimmunity derived from the lupus-prone NZM2410 mouse. The New Zealand White-derived suppressive modifier Sles1 was identified as a specific modifier of Sle1 and prevents the development of IgG anti-chromatin autoantibodies mediated by Sle1 on the C57BL/6 (B6) background. Fine mapping of Sles1 with truncated congenic intervals localizes it to a approximately 956-kb segment of mouse chromosome 17. Sles1 completely abrogates the development of activated T and B cell populations in B6.Sle1. Despite this suppression of the Sle1-mediated cell surface activation phenotypes, B6.Sle1 Sles1 splenic B cells still exhibit intrinsic ERK phosphorylation. Classic genetic complementation tests using the nonautoimmmune 129/SvJ mouse suggests that this strain possesses a Sles1 allele complementary to that of New Zealand White, as evidenced by the lack of glomerulonephritis, splenomegaly, and antinuclear autoantibody production seen in (129 x B6.Sle1 Sles1)F(1)s. These findings localize and characterize the suppressive properties of Sles1 and implicate 129 as a useful strain for aiding in the identification of this elusive epistatic modifier gene.