A dose-dependent requirement for the proline motif of CD28 in cellular and humoral immunity revealed by a targeted knockin mutant

Humanizing a CD28 signaling domain affects CD8 activation, exhaustion and stem-like precursors

CD28 ligation provides critical signals that modulate activated T cell fate. In a human to mouse reverse-engineering approach, a single amino acid substitution adjacent to the C-terminal proline-rich domain created CD28 A210P mice with enhanced signaling. CD28 A210P mice experienced pro-inflammatory responses to CD28 superagonist antibody, analogous to severe cytokine storm induced in a human clinical trial, with a striking increase of activated CD8 T cells. In acute and chronic viral infections, early activation and expansion of CD28 A210P CD8 effector T cells increased, with accelerated exhaustion in chronic infection. Mechanistically, CD28 A210P enhanced JunB, IL-2, and inhibitory receptors driven by MEK1/2. Generation of CD28 A210P stem-like progenitor (Tpex) cells was enhanced in acute and chronic infections, and further expanded by PD-L1 blockade in chronically-infected mice. Thus, 'humanized' PYAP mice reveal key roles for CD28 signaling strength in CD8 activation, accelerating exhaustion during antigen persistence, while promoting and sustaining Tpex during acute and chronic viral infection.

One sentence Summary

A single amino acid substitution adjacent to PYAP to 'humanize' CD28 signaling enhances superagonist response, early CD8 activation and Tpex generation during viral infection while accelerating exhaustion and sustaining Tpex during chronic infection.

CD28 co-stimulation: novel insights and applications in cancer immunotherapy

Substantial progress in understanding T cell signalling, particularly with respect to T cell co-receptors such as the co-stimulatory receptor CD28, has been made in recent years. This knowledge has been instrumental in the development of innovative immunotherapies for patients with cancer, including immune checkpoint blockade antibodies, adoptive cell therapies, tumour-targeted immunostimulatory antibodies, and immunostimulatory small-molecule drugs that regulate T cell activation. Following the failed clinical trial of a CD28 superagonist antibody in 2006, targeted CD28 agonism has re-emerged as a technologically viable and clinically promising strategy for cancer immunotherapy. In this Review, we explore recent insights into the molecular functions and regulation of CD28. We describe how CD28 is central to the success of current cancer immunotherapies and examine how new questions arising from studies of CD28 as a clinical target have enhanced our understanding of its biological role and may guide the development of future therapeutic strategies in oncology.

Molecular mechanism of co-stimulatory domains in promoting CAR-T cell anti-tumor efficacy

Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR)-engineered T cells have been defined as 'living drug'. Adding a co-stimulatory domain (CSD) has enhanced the anti-hematological effects of CAR-T cells, thereby elevating their viability for medicinal applications. Various CSDs have helped prepare CAR-T cells to study anti-tumor efficacy. Previous studies have described and summarized the anti-tumor efficacy of CAR-T cells obtained from different CSDs. However, the underlying molecular mechanisms by which different CSDs affect CAR-T function have been rarely reported. The role of CSDs in T cells has been significantly studied, but whether they can play a unique role as a part of the CAR structure remains undetermined. Here, we summarized the effects of CSDs on CAR-T signaling pathways based on the limited references and speculated the possible mechanism depending on the specific characteristics of CAR-T cells. This review will help understand the molecular mechanism of CSDs in CAR-T cells that exert different anti-tumor effects while providing potential guidance for further interventions to enhance anti-tumor efficacy in immunotherapy.

Silencing CD28 attenuated chest blast exposure-induced traumatic brain injury through the PI3K/AKT/NF-κB signaling pathway in male mice

In modern war or daily life, blast-induced traumatic brain injury (bTBI) is a growing health concern. Our previous studies demonstrated that inflammation was one of the main features of bTBI, and CD28-activated T cells play a central role in inflammation. However, the mechanism of CD28 in bTBI remains to be elucidated. In this study, traumatic brain injury model induced by chest blast exposure in male mice was established, and the mechanism of CD28 in bTBI was studied by elisa, immunofluorescence staining, flow cytometry analysis and western blot. After exposure to chest shock wave, the inflammatory factors IL-4, IL-6 and HMGB1 in serum were increased, and CD3+ T cells, CD4+ and CD8+ T cell subsets in the lung were activated. In addition, chest blast exposure resulted in impaired spatial learning and memory ability, disruption of the blood-brain barrier (BBB), and the expression of Tau, p-tau, S100β and choline acetyltransferase were increased. The results indicated that genetic knockdown of CD28 could inhibit inflammatory cell infiltration, as well as the activation of CD3+ T cells, CD4+ and CD8+ T cell subsets in the lung, improve spatial learning and memory ability, and ameliorate BBB disruption and hippocampal neuron damage. Moreover, genetic knockdown of CD28 could reduce the expression of p-PI3K, p-AKT and NF-κB. In conclusion, chest blast exposure could lead to bTBI, and attenuate bTBI via the PI3K/AKT/NF-κB signaling pathway in male mice. This study provides new targets for the prevention and treatment of veterans with bTBI.

Transcriptional reprogramming via signaling domains of CD2, CD28, and 4-1BB

Costimulatory signals provided to T cells during antigen encounter have a decisive role in the outcome of immune responses. Here, we used chimeric receptors harboring the extracellular domain of mouse inducible T cell costimulator (mICOS) to study transcriptional activation mediated by cytoplasmic sequences of the major T cell costimulatory receptors CD28, 4-1BB, and CD2. The chimeric receptors were introduced in a T cell reporter platform that allows to simultaneously evaluate nuclear factor κB (NF-κB), NFAT, and AP-1 activation. Engagement of the chimeric receptors induced distinct transcriptional profiles. CD28 signaling activated all three transcription factors, whereas 4-1BB strongly promoted NF-κB and AP-1 but downregulated NFAT activity. CD2 signals resulted in the strongest upregulation of NFAT. Transcriptome analysis revealed pronounced and distinct gene expression signatures upon CD2 and 4-1BB signaling. Using the intracellular sequence of CD28, we exemplify that distinct signaling motifs endow chimeric receptors with different costimulatory capacities.

CD8+ T cell metabolic flexibility elicited by CD28-ARS2 axis-driven alternative splicing of PKM supports antitumor immunity

Metabolic flexibility has emerged as a critical determinant of CD8+ T-cell antitumor activity, yet the mechanisms driving the metabolic flexibility of T cells have not been determined. In this study, we investigated the influence of the nuclear cap-binding complex (CBC) adaptor protein ARS2 on mature T cells. In doing so, we discovered a novel signaling axis that endows activated CD8+ T cells with flexibility of glucose catabolism. ARS2 upregulation driven by CD28 signaling reinforced splicing factor recruitment to pre-mRNAs and affected approximately one-third of T-cell activation-induced alternative splicing events. Among these effects, the CD28-ARS2 axis suppressed the expression of the M1 isoform of pyruvate kinase in favor of PKM2, a key determinant of CD8+ T-cell glucose utilization, interferon gamma production, and antitumor effector function. Importantly, PKM alternative splicing occurred independently of CD28-driven PI3K pathway activation, revealing a novel means by which costimulation reprograms glucose metabolism in CD8+ T cells.

Co-Stimulatory Receptor Signaling in CAR-T Cells

T cell engineering strategies have emerged as successful immunotherapeutic approaches for the treatment of human cancer. Chimeric Antigen Receptor T (CAR-T) cell therapy represents a prominent synthetic biology approach to re-direct the specificity of a patient's autologous T cells toward a desired tumor antigen. CAR-T therapy is currently FDA approved for the treatment of hematological malignancies, including subsets of B cell lymphoma, acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) and multiple myeloma. Mechanistically, CAR-mediated recognition of a tumor antigen results in propagation of T cell activation signals, including a co-stimulatory signal, resulting in CAR-T cell activation, proliferation, evasion of apoptosis, and acquisition of effector functions. The importance of including a co-stimulatory domain in CARs was recognized following limited success of early iteration CAR-T cell designs lacking co-stimulation. Today, all CAR-T cells in clinical use contain either a CD28 or 4-1BB co-stimulatory domain. Preclinical investigations are exploring utility of including additional co-stimulatory molecules such as ICOS, OX40 and CD27 or various combinations of multiple co-stimulatory domains. Clinical and preclinical evidence implicates the co-stimulatory signal in several aspects of CAR-T cell therapy including response kinetics, persistence and durability, and toxicity profiles each of which impact the safety and anti-tumor efficacy of this immunotherapy. Herein we provide an overview of CAR-T cell co-stimulation by the prototypical receptors and discuss current and emerging strategies to modulate co-stimulatory signals to enhance CAR-T cell function.

PDZ Proteins SCRIB and DLG1 Regulate Myeloma Cell Surface CD86 Expression, Growth, and Survival

Despite advances in the treatment of multiple myeloma in the past decades, the disease remains incurable, and understanding signals and molecules that can control myeloma growth and survival are important for the development of novel therapeutic strategies. One such molecule, CD86, regulates multiple myeloma cell survival via its interaction with CD28 and signaling through its cytoplasmic tail. Although the CD86 cytoplasmic tail has been shown to be involved in drug resistance and can induce molecular changes in multiple myeloma cells, its function has been largely unexplored. Here, we show that CD86 cytoplasmic tail has a role in trafficking CD86 to the cell surface. This is due in part to a PDZ-binding motif at its C-terminus which is important for proper trafficking from the Golgi apparatus. BioID analysis revealed 10 PDZ domain-containing proteins proximal to CD86 cytoplasmic tail in myeloma cells. Among them, we found the planar cell polarity proteins, SCRIB and DLG1, are important for proper CD86 surface expression and the growth and survival of myeloma cells. These findings indicate a mechanism by which myeloma cells confer cellular survival and drug resistance and indicate a possible motif to target for therapeutic gain.

IMPLICATIONS

These findings demonstrate the importance of proper trafficking of CD86 to the cell surface in myeloma cell survival and may provide a new therapeutic target in this disease.

Involvement of MicroRNA-27a-3p in the Licorice-Induced Alteration of Cd28 Expression in Mice

Licorice has previously been shown to affect gene expression in cells; however, the underlying mechanisms remain to be clarified. We analyzed the microRNA expression profile of serum from mice treated by gavage with licorice decoction, and obtained 11 differentially expressed microRNAs (DEmiRNAs). We also screened differentially expressed genes (DEgenes) based on RNA-Seq data, and 271 common genes were identified by intersection analysis of the predicted target genes of 11 DEmiRNAs and the DEgenes. The miRNA–gene network showed that most of the hub genes were immune-related. KEGG enrichment analysis of the 271 genes identified three significant pathways, and the 21 genes involved in these three pathways, and the 11 DEmiRNAs, were constructed into a miRNA pathway–target gene network, in which mmu-miR-27a-3p stood out. Compared to ImmPort, there were 13 immune genes within the above group of 21 genes, and three intersected with the mmu-miR-27a-3p predicted target genes, Cd28, Grap2 and Cxcl12, of which the expression of Cd28 changed most significantly. We confirmed the regulation of Cd28 by mmu-miR-27a-3p using a dual-luciferase assay, and further confirmed that overexpression of mmu-miR-27a-3p could significantly downregulate the expression of Cd28 in lymphocytes. These results indicate that mmu-miR-27a-3p could be involved in the licorice-mediated regulation of the expression of Cd28 in mice.

TRAF3 in T Cells Restrains Negative Regulators of LAT to Promote TCR/CD28 Signaling

The adaptor protein TNFR-associated factor 3 (TRAF3) is required for in vivo T cell effector functions and for normal TCR/CD28 signaling. TRAF3-mediated enhancement of TCR function requires engagement of both CD3 and CD28, but the molecular mechanisms underlying how TRAF3 interacts with and impacts TCR/CD28-mediated complexes to enhance their signaling remains an important knowledge gap. We investigated how TRAF3 is recruited to, and regulates, CD28 as a TCR costimulator. Direct association with known signaling motifs in CD28 was dispensable for TRAF3 recruitment; rather, TRAF3 associated with the CD28-interacting protein linker of activated T cells (LAT) in human and mouse T cells. TRAF3-LAT association required the TRAF3 TRAF-C domain and a newly identified TRAF2/3 binding motif in LAT. TRAF3 inhibited function of the LAT-associated negative regulatory protein Dok1, which is phosphorylated at an inhibitory tyrosine residue by the tyrosine kinase breast tumor kinase (Brk/PTK6). TRAF3 regulated Brk activation in T cells, limiting the association of protein tyrosine phosphatase 1B (PTP1B) with the LAT complex. In TRAF3-deficient cells, LAT complex-associated PTP1B was associated with dephosphorylation of Brk at an activating tyrosine residue, potentially reducing its ability to inhibit Dok1. Consistent with these findings, inhibiting PTP1B activity in TRAF3-deficient T cells rescued basal and TCR/CD28-mediated activation of Src family kinases. These results reveal a new mechanism for promotion of TCR/CD28-mediated signaling through restraint of negative regulation of LAT by TRAF3, enhancing the understanding of regulation of the TCR complex.

CD28 Costimulatory Domain-Targeted Mutations Enhance Chimeric Antigen Receptor T-cell Function

An obstacle to the development of chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cells is the limited understanding of CAR T-cell biology and the mechanisms behind their antitumor activity. We and others have shown that CARs with a CD28 costimulatory domain drive high T-cell activation, which leads to exhaustion and shortened persistence. This work led us to hypothesize that by incorporating null mutations of CD28 subdomains (YMNM, PRRP, or PYAP), we could optimize CAR T-cell costimulation and enhance function. In vivo, we found that mice given CAR T cells with only a PYAP CD28 endodomain had a significant survival advantage, with 100% of mice alive after 62 days compared with 50% for mice with an unmutated endodomain. We observed that mutant CAR T cells remained more sensitive to antigen after ex vivo antigen and PD-L1 stimulation, as demonstrated by increased cytokine production. The mutant CAR T cells also had a reduction of exhaustion-related transcription factors and genes such as Nfatc1, Nr42a, and Pdcd1 Our results demonstrated that CAR T cells with a mutant CD28 endodomain have better survival and function. This work allows for the development of enhanced CAR T-cell therapies by optimizing CAR T-cell costimulation.

Targeting Multiple Myeloma through the Biology of Long-Lived Plasma Cells

Multiple myeloma (MM) is a hematological malignancy of terminally differentiated bone marrow (BM) resident B lymphocytes known as plasma cells (PC). PC that reside in the bone marrow include a distinct population of long-lived plasma cells (LLPC) that have the capacity to live for very long periods of time (decades in the human population). LLPC biology is critical for understanding MM disease induction and progression because MM shares many of the same extrinsic and intrinsic survival programs as LLPC. Extrinsic survival signals required for LLPC survival include soluble factors and cellular partners in the bone marrow microenvironment. Intrinsic programs that enhance cellular fidelity are also required for LLPC survival including increased autophagy, metabolic fitness, the unfolded protein response (UPR), and enhanced responsiveness to endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress. Targeting LLPC cell survival mechanisms have led to standard of care treatments for MM including proteasome inhibition (Bortezomib), steroids (Dexamethasone), and immunomodulatory drugs (Lenalidomide). MM patients that relapse often do so by circumventing LLPC survival pathways targeted by treatment. Understanding the mechanisms by which LLPC are able to survive can allow us insight into the treatment of MM, which allows for the enhancement of therapeutic strategies in MM both at diagnosis and upon patient relapse.

CD28: A New Drug Target for Immune Disease

BACKGROUND

CD28, a cell surface glycoprotein receptor, predominantly expressed on activated T cells, belongs to the Ig superfamily and provides a critical co-stimulatory signal. CTLA-4 has sequence homology to CD28, and is expressed on T cells after activation. It provides an inhibition signal coordinated with CD28 to regulate T cell activation. Both of them regulate T cell proliferation and differentiation and play an important role in the immune response pathway in vivo.

OBJECTIVE

We studied the special role of different structural sites of CD28 in producing costimulatory signals.

METHODS

We reviewed the relevant literature, mainly regarding the structure of CD28 to clarify its biological function, and its role in the immune response.

RESULTS

In recent years, increasingly attention has been paid to CD28, which is considered as a key therapeutic target for many modern diseases, especially some immune diseases.

CONCLUSION

In this paper, we mainly introduce the structure of CD28 and its related biological functions, as well as the application of costimulatory pathways targeting CD28 in disease treatment.

CD28 Deficiency Ameliorates Blast Exposure-Induced Lung Inflammation, Oxidative Stress, Apoptosis, and T Cell Accumulation in the Lungs via the PI3K/Akt/FoxO1 Signaling Pathway

Although CD28 is associated with the expression of inflammatory mediators, apoptosis-related protein, immunosuppression, and tumorigenesis, the effects of CD28 deficiency on blast exposure-induced lung injury have not been investigated. In this study, we have explored the effects of CD28 on blast exposure-induced lung injury and studied its potential molecular mechanisms. A mouse model of blast exposure-induced acute lung injury was established. Sixty C57BL/6 wild-type (WT) and CD28 knockout (CD28^−/−) mice were randomly divided into control or model groups. Lung tissue samples were collected 24 h and 48 h after blast injury. Histopathological changes and the expressions of inflammatory-related proteins were detected by hematoxylin-eosin, immunohistochemistry, and immunofluorescence staining. Apoptosis and oxidative stress were evaluated by terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labeling (TUNEL) staining and reactive oxygen species (ROS). Inflammation, apoptosis, oxidative stress, and related pathway protein expression were studied by western blotting. In addition, the levels of CD3 and CD28 proteins were measured by flow cytometry. In the current study, we found that CD28 deficiency significantly inhibited blast exposure-induced increases in the lung weight/body weight ratio and wet weight/dry weight ratio; decreased the infiltration of CD44⁺ leukocytes, CD163⁺ macrophages, and CD3⁺ T cells into the lungs; reduced the expressions of proinflammatory cytokines including IL-1β, TNF-α, and IL-6; and markedly increased IL-10 expression. CD28 deficiency also significantly attenuated blast exposure-induced ROS, MDA5, and IREα expressions; increased SOD-1 expression; lowered the number of apoptotic cells and Bax, Caspase-3, and active Caspase-8 expressions; and increased Bcl-2 expression. Additionally, CD28 deficiency significantly ameliorated blast exposure-induced increases of p-PI3K and p-Akt and ameliorated the decrease in the p-FoxO1 expression. Our results suggest that CD28 deficiency has a protective effect on blast exposure-induced lung injury, which might be associated with the PI3K/Akt/FoxO1 signaling pathway.

Survival of Long-Lived Plasma Cells (LLPC): Piecing Together the Puzzle

Durable humoral immunity is dependent upon the generation of antigen-specific antibody titers, produced by non-proliferating bone marrow resident long-lived plasma cells (LLPC). Longevity is the hallmark of LLPC, but why and how they survive and function for years after antigen exposure is only beginning to be understood. LLPC are not intrinsically long-lived; they require continuous signals from the LLPC niche to survive. Signals unique to LLPC survival (vs. PC survival in general) most notably include those that upregulate the anti-apoptotic factor Mcl-1 and activation of the CD28 receptor expressed on LLPC. Other potential factors include expression of BCMA, upregulation of the transcription factor ZBTB20, and upregulation of the enzyme ENPP1. Metabolic fitness is another key component of LLPC longevity, facilitating the diversion of glucose to generate pyruvate during times of stress to facilitate long term survival. A third major component of LLPC survival is the microenvironment/LLPC niche itself. Cellular partners such as stromal cells, dendritic cells, and T regulatory cells establish a niche for LLPC and drive survival signaling by expressing ligands such as CD80/CD86 for CD28 and producing soluble and stromal factors that contribute to LLPC longevity. These findings have led to the current paradigm wherein both intrinsic and extrinsic mechanisms are required for the survival of LLPC. Here we outline this diverse network of signals and highlight the mechanisms thought to regulate and promote the survival of LLPC. Understanding this network of signals has direct implications in increasing our basic understanding of plasma cell biology, but also in vaccine and therapeutic drug development to address the pathologies that can arise from this subset.

Signal Transduction Via Co-stimulatory and Co-inhibitory Receptors

T-cell receptor (TCR)-mediated antigen-specific stimulation is essential for initiating T-cell activation. However, signaling through the TCR alone is not sufficient for inducing an effective response. In addition to TCR-mediated signaling, signaling through antigen-independent co-stimulatory or co-inhibitory receptors is critically important not only for the full activation and functional differentiation of T cells but also for the termination and suppression of T-cell responses. Many studies have investigated the signaling pathways underlying the function of each molecular component. Co-stimulatory and co-inhibitory receptors have no kinase activity, but their cytoplasmic region contains unique functional motifs and potential phosphorylation sites. Engagement of co-stimulatory receptors leads to recruitment of specific binding partners, such as adaptor molecules, kinases, and phosphatases, via recognition of a specific motif. Consequently, each co-stimulatory receptor transduces a unique pattern of signaling pathways. This review focuses on our current understanding of the intracellular signaling pathways provided by co-stimulatory and co-inhibitory molecules, including B7:CD28 family members, immunoglobulin, and members of the tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily.

Preventing Lck Activation in CAR T Cells Confers Treg Resistance but Requires 4-1BB Signaling for Them to Persist and Treat Solid Tumors in Nonlymphodepleted Hosts

PURPOSE

Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cells have shown promise against solid tumors, but their efficacy has been limited, due in part, to immunosuppression by CD4+FoxP3+ regulatory T cells (Tregs). Although lymphodepletion is commonly used to deplete Tregs, these regimens are nonspecific, toxic, and provide only a narrow window before Tregs repopulate hosts. Importantly, CARs have also been shown to inadvertently potentiate Tregs by providing a source of IL2 for Treg consumption. We explored whether disruption of the IL2 axis would confer efficacy against solid tumors without the need for lymphodepletion.

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

We developed second- (CD28z) and third- (CD28-4-1BBz) generation CARs targeting EGFRvIII. To eliminate secretion of IL2, 2 amino acid substitutions were introduced in the PYAP Lck-binding motif of the CD28 domain (ΔCD28). We evaluated CARs against B16 melanomas expressing EGFRvIII.

RESULTS

CD28z CARs failed to engraft in vivo. Although 4-1BB addition improved expansion, CD28-4-1BBz CARs required lymphodepletion to treat solid tumors. CARs deficient in Lck signaling, however, significantly retarded tumor growth without a need for lymphodepletion and this was dependent on inclusion of 4-1BB. To evaluate CAR vulnerability to Tregs, we lymphodepleted mice and transferred CARs alone or with purified Tregs. Cotransfer with Tregs abrogated the efficacy of CD28-4-1BBz CARs, whereas the efficacy of ΔCD28-4-1BBz CARs remained unperturbed.

CONCLUSIONS

In the absence of lymphodepletion, CARs targeting solid tumors are hindered by Treg immunosuppression and poor persistence. Here, CARs were modified to circumvent Treg suppression and to simultaneously improve in vivo engraftment. Modified CARs treated solid tumors without a need for lymphodepletion.

Homo- and Heterodimerization of Proteins in Cell Signaling: Inhibition and Drug Design

Protein dimerization controls many physiological processes in the body. Proteins form homo-, hetero-, or oligomerization in the cellular environment to regulate the cellular processes. Any deregulation of these processes may result in a disease state. Protein-protein interactions (PPIs) can be inhibited by antibodies, small molecules, or peptides, and inhibition of PPI has therapeutic value. PPI drug discovery research has steadily increased in the last decade, and a few PPI inhibitors have already reached the pharmaceutical market. Several PPI inhibitors are in clinical trials. With advancements in structural and molecular biology methods, several methods are now available to study protein homo- and heterodimerization and their inhibition by drug-like molecules. Recently developed methods to study PPI such as proximity ligation assay and enzyme-fragment complementation assay that detect the PPI in the cellular environment are described with examples. At present, the methods used to design PPI inhibitors can be classified into three major groups: (1) structure-based drug design, (2) high-throughput screening, and (3) fragment-based drug design. In this chapter, we have described some of the experimental methods to study PPIs and their inhibition. Examples of homo- and heterodimers of proteins, their structural and functional aspects, and some of the inhibitors that have clinical importance are discussed. The design of PPI inhibitors of epidermal growth factor receptor heterodimers and CD2-CD58 is discussed in detail.

Conservation of structural and interactional features of CD28 and CD80/86 molecules from Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus)

Interaction of CD28 with CD80 or CD86 molecules provides a costimulatory signals required in T cell activation. In this study, we cloned and analyzed a CD28 gene (On-CD28) and a CD80/86 gene (On-CD80/86) from Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). Sequence analysis revealed the typical characteristics of On-CD28 protein; for instance, the proline-based motif (¹¹⁷TYPPPL¹²²) is essential in binding of CD28 to CD80/86 ligands. Moreover, an extracellular Ig domain was found in On-CD80/86; this domain is responsible in binding of CD28 to CD80/86 receptors. Subcellular localization analysis showed that both On-CD28 and On-CD80/86 were distributed predominantly in the cytomembrane. Yeast two-hybrid assay showed that On-CD28 directly interacted with On-CD80/86. On-CD28 and On-CD80/86 transcripts were detected in all the examined tissues of healthy Nile tilapia, and the highest expression levels of On-CD28 and On-CD80/86 were detected in the brain and heart, respectively. Following a bacterial challenge using Streptococcus agalactiae in vivo, On-CD28 and On-CD80/86 were upregulated in head kidney, spleen, intestines, and brain. However, they showed different expression profiles in response to stimulation with inactivated S. agalactiae in vitro. These findings indicated that the interaction of On-CD28 with On-CD80/86 provides a costimulatory signals that possibly play an important role in T cell activation during S. agalactiae infection.

Burrowing through the Heterogeneity: Review of Mouse Models of PTCL-NOS

Currently, there are 19 different peripheral T-cell lymphoma (PTCL) entities recognized by the World Health Organization; however, ~70% of PTCL diagnoses fall within one of three subtypes [i.e., peripheral T-cell lymphoma not otherwise specified (PTCL-NOS), anaplastic large-cell lymphoma, and angioimmunoblastic T-cell lymphoma]. PTCL-NOS is a grouping of extra-thymic neoplasms that represent a challenging and heterogeneous subset of non-Hodgkin’s lymphomas. Research into peripheral T-cell lymphomas has been cumbersome as the lack of defining cytogenetic, histological, and molecular features has stymied diagnosis and treatment of these diseases. Similarly, the lacks of genetically manipulated murine models that faithfully recapitulate disease characteristics were absent prior to the turn of the century. Herein, we review the literature concerning existing mouse models for PTLC-NOS, while paying particular attention to the etiology of this heterogeneous disease.

Binding of the cytoplasmic domain of CD28 to the plasma membrane inhibits Lck recruitment and signaling

The T cell costimulatory receptor CD28 is required for the full activation of naïve T cells and for the development and maintenance of Foxp3(+) regulatory T (Treg) cells. We showed that the cytoplasmic domain of CD28 was bound to the plasma membrane in resting cells and that ligand binding to CD28 resulted in its release. Membrane binding by the CD28 cytoplasmic domain required two clusters of basic amino acid residues, which interacted with the negatively charged inner leaflet of the plasma membrane. These same clusters of basic residues also served as interaction sites for Lck, a Src family kinase critical for CD28 function. This signaling complex was further stabilized by the Lck-mediated phosphorylation of CD28 Tyr(207) and the subsequent binding of the Src homology 2 (SH2) domain of Lck to this phosphorylated tyrosine. Mutation of the basic clusters in the CD28 cytoplasmic domain reduced the recruitment to the CD28-Lck complex of protein kinase Cθ (PKCθ), which serves as a key effector kinase in the CD28 signaling pathway. Consequently, mutation of either a basic cluster or Tyr(207) impaired CD28 function in mice as shown by the reduced thymic differentiation of FoxP3(+) Treg cells. On the basis of these results, we propose a previously undescribed model for the initiation of CD28 signaling.

CD28 Costimulation: From Mechanism to Therapy

Ligation of the CD28 receptor on T cells provides a critical second signal alongside T cell receptor (TCR) ligation for naive T cell activation. Here, we discuss the expression, structure, and biochemistry of CD28 and its ligands. CD28 signals play a key role in many T cell processes, including cytoskeletal remodeling, production of cytokines, survival, and differentiation. CD28 ligation leads to unique epigenetic, transcriptional, and post-translational changes in T cells that cannot be recapitulated by TCR ligation alone. We discuss the function of CD28 and its ligands in both effector and regulatory T cells. CD28 is critical for regulatory T cell survival and the maintenance of immune homeostasis. We outline the roles that CD28 and its family members play in human disease and we review the clinical efficacy of drugs that block CD28 ligands. Despite the centrality of CD28 and its family members and ligands to immune function, many aspects of CD28 biology remain unclear. Translation of a basic understanding of CD28 function into immunomodulatory therapeutics has been uneven, with both successes and failures. Such real-world results might stem from multiple factors, including complex receptor-ligand interactions among CD28 family members, differences between the mouse and human CD28 families, and cell-type specific roles of CD28 family members.

CD28 Promotes Plasma Cell Survival, Sustained Antibody Responses, and BLIMP-1 Upregulation through Its Distal PYAP Proline Motif

In health, long-lived plasma cells (LLPC) are essential for durable protective humoral immunity, and, conversely, in disease are a major source of pathogenic Abs in autoimmunity, graft rejection, and allergy. However, the molecular basis for their longevity is largely unknown. We have recently found that CD28 signaling in plasma cells (PC) is essential for sustaining Ab titers, by supporting the survival of LLPC, but not short-lived PC (SLPC). We now find that, unlike SLPC, CD28 activation in LLPC induces prosurvival downstream Vav signaling. Knockin mice with CD28 cytoplasmic tail mutations that abrogate Vav signaling (CD28-AYAA) had significantly fewer LLPC but unaffected SLPC numbers, whereas mice with mutations that abrogate PI3K signaling (CD28-Y170F) were indistinguishable from wild-type controls. This was consistent with the loss of CD28's prosurvival effect in LLPC from CD28-AYAA, but not CD28-Y170F, mice. Furthermore, the CD28 Vav motif in the B lineage was essential for the long-term maintenance of Ag-specific LLPC populations and Ab titers in vivo. Signaling downstream of the CD28 Vav motif induced previously undescribed transcriptional regulation of B lymphocyte-induced maturation protein-1, a key mediator of PC differentiation and maintenance. These findings suggest CD28 signaling in LLPC modulates the central B lymphocyte-induced maturation protein-1 transcriptional nexus involved in long-term survival and function.

4-1BB costimulation ameliorates T cell exhaustion induced by tonic signaling of chimeric antigen receptors

Chimeric antigen receptors (CARs) targeting CD19 have mediated dramatic antitumor responses in hematologic malignancies, but tumor regression has rarely occurred using CARs targeting other antigens. It remains unknown whether the impressive effects of CD19 CARs relate to greater susceptibility of hematologic malignancies to CAR therapies, or superior functionality of the CD19 CAR itself. We show that tonic CAR CD3-ζ phosphorylation, triggered by antigen-independent clustering of CAR single-chain variable fragments, can induce early exhaustion of CAR T cells that limits antitumor efficacy. Such activation is present to varying degrees in all CARs studied, except the highly effective CD19 CAR. We further determine that CD28 costimulation augments, whereas 4-1BB costimulation reduces, exhaustion induced by persistent CAR signaling. Our results provide biological explanations for the antitumor effects of CD19 CARs and for the observations that CD19 CAR T cells incorporating the 4-1BB costimulatory domain are more persistent than those incorporating CD28 in clinical trials.

In the absence of its cytosolic domain, the CD28 molecule still contributes to T cell activation

The CD28 costimulatory receptor has a pivotal role in T cell biology as this molecule amplifies T cell receptor (TCR) signals to provide an efficient immune T cell response. There is a large debate about how CD28 mediates these signals. Here, we designed a CD28 gene-targeted knock-in mouse strain lacking the cytoplasmic tail of CD28. As is the case in CD28-deficient (CD28 knock-out) mice, regulatory T cell homeostasis and T cell activation are altered in these CD28 knock-in mice. Unexpectedly, the presence of a CD28 molecule deprived of its cytoplasmic tail could partially induce some early activation events in T cells such as signaling events or expression of early activation markers. These results unravel a new mechanism of T cell costimulation by CD28, independent of its cytoplasmic tail.

Factors regulating immunoglobulin production by normal and disease-associated plasma cells

Immunoglobulins are molecules produced by activated B cells and plasma cells in response to exposure to antigens. Upon antigen exposure, these molecules are secreted allowing the immune system to recognize and effectively respond to a myriad of pathogens. Immunoglobulin or antibody secreting cells are the mature form of B lymphocytes, which during their development undergo gene rearrangements and selection in the bone marrow ultimately leading to the generation of B cells, each expressing a single antigen-specific receptor/immunoglobulin molecule. Each individual immunoglobulin molecule has an affinity for a unique motif, or epitope, found on a given antigen. When presented with an antigen, activated B cells differentiate into either plasma cells (which secrete large amounts of antibody that is specific for the inducing antigen), or memory B cells (which are long-lived and elicit a stronger and faster response if the host is re-exposed to the same antigen). The secreted form of immunoglobulin, when bound to an antigen, serves as an effector molecule that directs other cells of the immune system to facilitate the neutralization of soluble antigen or the eradication of the antigen-expressing pathogen. This review will focus on the regulation of secreted immunoglobulin by long-lived normal or disease-associated plasma cells. Specifically, the focus will be on signaling and transcriptional events that regulate the development and homeostasis of long-lived immunoglobulin secreting plasma cells.

CD28-mediated pro-survival signaling induces chemotherapeutic resistance in multiple myeloma

Chemotherapeutic resistance remains a significant hurdle in the treatment of multiple myeloma (MM) and is significantly mediated by interactions between MM cells and stromal cells of the bone marrow microenvironment. Despite the importance of these interactions, the specific molecules and downstream signaling components involved remain incompletely understood. We have previously shown that the prototypic T-cell costimulatory receptor CD28, which is also expressed on MM cells, is a key mediator of MM survival and apoptotic resistance. Crosslinking CD28 by agonistic antibodies or myeloid dendritic cells (DC; these express the CD28 ligands CD80/CD86) prevents apoptosis caused by chemotherapy or serum withdrawal. We now report that CD28 pro-survival signaling is dependent upon downstream activation of phosphatidyl-inositol 3-kinase/Akt, inactivation of the transcription factor FoxO3a, and decreased expression of the pro-apoptotic molecule Bim. Conversely, blocking the CD28-CD80/CD86 interaction between MM cells and DC in vitro abrogates the DC's ability to protect MM cells against chemotherapy-induced death. Consistent with these observations, in vivo blockade of CD28-CD80/CD86 in the Vk*MYC murine myeloma model sensitizes MM cells to chemotherapy and significantly reduces tumor burden. Taken together, our findings suggest that CD28 is an important mediator of MM survival during stress and can be targeted to overcome chemotherapy resistance.

Cutting edge: A double-mutant knockin of the CD28 YMNM and PYAP motifs reveals a critical role for the YMNM motif in regulation of T cell proliferation and Bcl-xL expression

CD28 is a critical regulator of T cell function, augmenting proliferation, cytokine secretion, and cell survival. Our previous work using knockin mice expressing point mutations in CD28 demonstrated that the distal proline motif was primarily responsible for much of CD28 function, whereas in marked contrast to prior studies, mutation of the PI3K-binding motif had little discernible effect. In this study, we examined the phenotype of mice in which both motifs are simultaneously mutated. We found that mutation of the PYAP motif unmasks a critical role for the proximal tyrosine motif in regulating T cell proliferation and expression of Bcl-xL but not cytokine secretion. In addition, we demonstrated that, although function is more severely impaired in the double mutant than in either single mutant, there remained residual CD28-dependent responses, definitively establishing that additional motifs can partially mediate CD28 function.

CD28 promotes CD4+ T cell clonal expansion during infection independently of its YMNM and PYAP motifs

CD28 is required for maximal proliferation of CD4+ T cells stimulated through their TCRs. Two sites within the cytoplasmic tail of CD28, a YMNM sequence that recruits PI3K and activates NF-κB and a PYAP sequence that recruits Lck, are candidates as transducers of the signals responsible for these biological effects. We tested this proposition by tracking polyclonal peptide:MHCII-specific CD4+ T cells in vivo in mice with mutations in these sites. Mice lacking CD28 or its cytoplasmic tail had the same number of naive T cells specific for a peptide:MHCII ligand as wild-type mice. However, the mutant cells produced one tenth as many effector and memory cells as wild-type T cells after infection with bacteria expressing the antigenic peptide. Remarkably, T cells with a mutated PI3K binding site, a mutated PYAP site, or both mutations proliferated to the same extent as wild-type T cells. The only observed defect was that T cells with a mutated PYAP or Y170F site proliferated even more weakly in response to peptide without adjuvant than wild-type T cells. These results show that CD28 enhances T cell proliferation during bacterial infection by signals emanating from undiscovered sites in the cytoplasmic tail.

Airway epithelial cells suppress T cell proliferation by an IFNγ/STAT1/TGFβ-dependent mechanism

Organ-specific regulation of immune responses relies on the exchange of information between nonimmune and immune cells. In a primary culture model of the lung airway, we demonstrate that T cell proliferation is potently inhibited by airway epithelial cells (ECs). This is mediated by activation of the IFNγ/STAT1 pathway in the EC and transforming growth factor-β (TGFβ)-dependent suppression of T cell proliferation. In this way, the EC can restrict the expansion of T cells. Given the constant exposure of the airway to inhaled antigen, this may be important in setting a threshold for the initiation of T cell-dependent immune responses and preventing unwanted, chronic inflammation.

Sustained antibody responses depend on CD28 function in bone marrow-resident plasma cells

CD28 signaling is essential for maintenance of long-term antigen-specific antibody production and for persistence of plasma cells in the bone marrow of mice.

Sustained long-term antibody levels are the cornerstone of protective immunity, yet it remains unclear how they are durably maintained. A predominant theory implicates antigen-independent antibody production by a subset of long-lived plasma cells (LLPCs) that survive within bone marrow (BM). Central tenets of this model—that BM LLPCs constitute a subset defined by intrinsic biology distinct from PCs in other tissues and contribute to long-term antibody titers—have not been definitively demonstrated. We now report that long-term humoral immunity depends on the PC-intrinsic function of CD28, which selectively supports the survival of BM LLPC but not splenic short-lived PC (SLPC). LLPC and SLPC both express CD28, but CD28-driven enhanced survival occurred only in the LLPC. In vivo, even in the presence of sufficient T cell help, loss of CD28 or its ligands CD80 and CD86 caused significant loss of the LLPC population, reduction of LLPC half-life from 426 to 63 d, and inability to maintain long-term antibody titers, but there was no effect on SLPC populations. These findings establish the existence of the distinct BM LLPC subset necessary to sustain antibody titers and uncover a central role for CD28 function in the longevity of PCs and humoral immunity.

Strong CD28 costimulation suppresses induction of regulatory T cells from naive precursors through Lck signaling

CD28 costimulation is required for the generation of naturally derived regulatory T cells (nTregs) in the thymus through lymphocyte-specific protein tyrosine kinase (Lck) signaling. However, it is not clear how CD28 costimulation regulates the generation of induced Tregs (iTregs) from naive CD4 T-cell precursors in the periphery. To address this question, we induced iTregs (CD25(+)Foxp3(+)) from naive CD4 T cells (CD25(-)Foxp3(-)) by T-cell receptor stimulation with additional transforming growth factorβ (TGFβ) in vitro, and found that the generation of iTregs was inversely related to the level of CD28 costimulation independently of IL-2. Using a series of transgenic mice on a CD28-deficient background that bears wild-type or mutated CD28 in its cytosolic tail that is incapable of binding to Lck, phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K), or IL-2-inducible T-cell kinase (Itk), we found that CD28-mediated Lck signaling plays an essential role in the suppression of iTreg generation under strong CD28 costimulation. Furthermore, we demonstrate that T cells with the CD28 receptor incapable of activating Lck were prone to iTreg induction in vivo, which contributed to their reduced ability to cause graft-versus-host disease. These findings reveal a novel mechanistic insight into how CD28 costimulation negatively regulates the generation of iTregs, and provide a rationale for promoting T-cell immunity or tolerance by regulating Tregs through targeting CD28 signaling.

Knock-in approaches

Molecular genetic strategies to study gene function in mice or to generate a mouse model for a human disease are continuously under development. The application and importance of knock-in approaches are increasing. This chapter elaborates on novel developments for the generation of knock-in mice. Special emphasis is given to recombinase-mediated cassette exchange, a new emerging knock-in strategy that enables easy generation of a series of different knock-in mutations within one gene.

Lipid raft assembly and Lck recruitment in TRAIL costimulation mediates NF-κB activation and T cell proliferation

The TNF-related apoptosis-inducing ligand was shown to provide a costimulatory signal that cooperates with the TCR/CD3 complex to induce T cell proliferation and cytokine production. Although a number of signaling pathways were linked to the TCR/CD3 complex, it is not known how these two receptors cooperate to induce T cell activation. In this study, we show that TRAIL-induced costimulation of T cells depends on activation of the NF-κB pathway. TRAIL induced the NF-κB pathway by phosphorylation of inhibitor of κB factor kinase and protein kinase C in conjunction with anti-CD3. Furthermore, we demonstrated that TRAIL costimulation induced phosphorylation of the upstream TCR-proximal tyrosine kinases, Lck and ZAP70. Ligation of the TRAIL by its soluble receptor, DR4-Fc, alone was able to induce the phosphorylation of Lck and ZAP70 and to activate the NF-κB pathway; however, it was insufficient to fully activate T cells to support T cell proliferation. In contrast, TRAIL engagement in conjunction with anti-CD3, but not TRAIL ligation alone, induced lipid raft assembly and recruitment of Lck and PKC. These results demonstrate that TRAIL costimulation mediates NF-κB activation and T cell proliferation by lipid raft assembly and recruitment of Lck. Our results suggest that in TRAIL costimulation, lipid raft recruitment of Lck integrates mitogenic NF-κB-dependent signals from the TCR and TRAIL in T lymphocytes.

Th2-specific immunity and function of peripheral T cells is regulated by the p56Lck Src homology 3 domain

T cell activation and effector function is essential for robust immunity. Ag TCR signals are known to regulate T lymphocyte differentiation, but the mechanisms involved in this regulation remain unclear. Recent work has demonstrated that the Src family protein tyrosine kinase p56Lck specifically links TCR signaling to activation of the MAPK pathway through the function of its Src homology 3 (SH3) domain. The MAPK pathway is involved in T cell activation and has previously been implicated in Th2 immunity. We have used Lck SH3 mutant knockin mice (LckW97A) to investigate the potential role of this regulatory mechanism in T lymphocyte activation and effector function. Our results demonstrate that Lck SH3 domain function regulates activation of T lymphocytes as indicated by reduced IL-2 production, CD69 induction, and proliferation of LckW97A T cells following TCR stimulation. Biochemical studies confirm that activation of the MAPK pathway is selectively altered following TCR ligation in LckW97A T lymphocytes. Phospho-ERK induction is reduced, but phospho-phospholipase Cgamma1 induction and calcium mobilization are largely unaffected. Immunization with DNP-keyhole limpet hemocyanin, heat-killed Brucella abortus, or infection with Nippostrongylus brasiliensis demonstrates selectively impaired Th2 immunity with reduced serum levels of IgG1, IgE, and IL-4. In vitro studies show that LckW97A T cells can differentiate into Th2-type cells, but they form IFN-gamma-producing cells under conditions that normally favor Th2 development. These data indicate that the Lck SH3 domain controls T lymphocyte activation by regulating MAPK pathway induction and demonstrate a novel role for Lck in the regulation of Th2-type immunity.

An enigmatic tail of CD28 signaling

CD28 costimulation regulates a wide range of cellular processes, from proliferation and survival to promoting the differentiation of specialized T-cell subsets. Since first being identified over 20 years ago, CD28 has remained a subject of intense study because of its profound consequences on T cell function and its potential for therapeutic manipulation. In this review we highlight the signaling cascades initiated by the major signaling motifs in CD28, focusing on PI-3 kinase-dependent and -independent pathways and how these are linked to specific cellular outcomes. Recent studies using gene targeted knockin mice have clarified the relative importance of these motifs on in vivo immune responses; however, much remains to be elucidated. Understanding the mechanism behind costimulation holds great potential for development of new clinically relevant reagents, a fact beginning to be realized with the advent of drugs that prevent CD28 ligation and signaling.

CD28 facilitates the generation of Foxp3(-) cytokine responsive regulatory T cell precursors

The T cell costimulatory molecule CD28 plays an important role in the thymic generation of Foxp3(+) regulatory T cells (Tregs) essential for the maintenance of self-tolerance. In this study, we show that a cell-intrinsic signal from CD28 is involved in the generation of cytokine-responsive Foxp3(-) precursors using studies of mixed bone marrow chimeras as well as TCR-specific generation of Foxp3(+) cells using intrathymic transfer of TCR-transgenic thymocytes expressing a natural Treg TCR. Contrary to a previous report, the analysis of CD28 mutant knockin mice revealed that this cell-intrinsic signal is only partially dependent on the Lck-binding PYAP motif. Surprisingly, even though the absence of CD28 resulted in a 6-fold decrease in thymic Tregs, the TCR repertoires of CD28-deficient and sufficient cells were largely overlapping. Thus, these data suggest that CD28 does not operate by markedly enlarging the repertoire of TCRs available for Treg development, but rather by improving the efficiency of Treg development of thymocytes expressing natural Treg TCRs.

Cutting edge: CD28 and c-Rel-dependent pathways initiate regulatory T cell development

Regulatory T cell (Treg) development proceeds via a two-step process in which naive CD4(+) thymocytes are first converted into CD4(+)CD25(+)CD122(+)GITR(+)Foxp3(-) Treg progenitors, followed by a second step in which IL-2 converts these Treg progenitors into CD4(+)Foxp3(+) Tregs. The costimulatory molecule CD28 is required for efficient Treg development. However, the stage at which CD28 affects Treg development remains undefined. In this article, we demonstrate that Cd28(-/-) mice lack Treg progenitors. Furthermore, the P(187)YAP motif in the cytoplasmic tail of CD28, which links CD28 to Lck activation, is required for this process. In contrast, the Y(170)MNM motif, which links CD28 to PI3K activation, is not required for Treg progenitor development. Finally, the CD28/Lck pathway was shown to activate the NF-kappaB family of transcription factors. We demonstrate that c-Rel, but not NF-kappaB1, promotes the development of Treg progenitors. Thus, a CD28/c-Rel-dependent pathway is involved in initiating Treg development.

Targeted knock-in mice expressing mutations of CD28 reveal an essential pathway for costimulation

Despite extensive study, the role of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3-kinase) activation in CD28 function has been highly contentious. To definitively address this question, we generated knock-in mice expressing mutations in two critical domains of the cytoplasmic tail of CD28. Mutation of the proximal tyrosine motif interrupted PI3-kinase binding and prevented CD28-dependent phosphorylation of protein kinase B (PKB)/Akt; however, there was no detectable effect on interleukin-2 (IL-2) secretion, expression of Bcl-X(L), or on T-cell function in vivo. Furthermore, we demonstrate that signaling initiated by the C-terminal proline motif is directly responsible for tyrosine phosphorylation of phosphoinosotide-dependent kinase 1, protein kinase C theta, and glycogen synthase kinase 3beta, as well as contributing to threonine phosphorylation of PKB. T cells mutated in this domain were profoundly impaired in IL-2 secretion, and the mice had marked impairment of humoral responses as well as less severe disease manifestations in experimental allergic encephalomyelitis. These data demonstrate that the distal proline motif initiates a critical nonredundant signaling pathway, whereas direct activation of PI3-kinase by the proximal tyrosine motif of CD28 is not required for normal T-cell function.

Two pathways of costimulation through CD28

CD28 is recognized as the primary costimulatory molecule involved in the activation of naïve T cells. However, the biochemical signaling pathways that are activated by CD28 and how these pathways are integrated with TCR signaling are still not understood. We have recently shown that there are at least two independent activation pathways induced by CD28 costimulation. One is integrated with TCR signaling in the context of the immunological synapse and is mediated through transcriptional enhancement and the second is mediated through the induction of mRNA stability. Here, we review the immunological consequences and biochemical mechanisms associated with CD28 costimulation and discuss the major questions that need to be resolved to understand the molecular mechanisms that transduce CD28 costimulation.

Signals and sequences that control CD28 localization to the central region of the immunological synapse

During T cell interaction with APC, CD28 is recruited to the central region (cSMAC) of the immunological synapse. CD28-mediated signaling through PI3K results in the recruitment of protein kinase C-theta (PKCtheta) to the cSMAC, activation of NF-kappaB, and up-regulation of IL-2 transcription. However, the mechanism that mediates CD28 localization to the cSMAC and the functional consequences of CD28 localization to the cSMAC are not understood. In this report, we show that CD28 recruitment and persistence at the immunological synapse requires TCR signals and CD80 engagement. Addition of mAb to either MHC class II or CD80 results in the rapid displacement of CD28 from the immunological synapse. Ligand binding is not sufficient for CD28 localization to the immunological synapse, as truncation of the cytosolic tail of CD28 disrupts synapse localization without effecting the ability of CD28 to bind CD80. Furthermore, a single point mutation in the CD28 cytosolic tail (tyrosine 188) interferes with the ability of CD28 to preferentially accumulate at the cSMAC. PKCtheta distribution at the immunological synapse mirrors the distribution of tyrosine 188-mutated CD28, indicating that CD28 drives the localization of PKCtheta even when CD28 is not localized to the cSMAC. Mutation of tyrosine 188 also results in diminished activation of NF-kappaB, suggesting that CD28-mediated localization of PKCtheta to the cSMAC is important for efficient signal transduction. These data reinforce the importance of the interplay of signals between TCR and CD28 and suggest that CD28 signaling through PCKtheta may be mediated through localization to the cSMAC region of the immunological synapse.

CD28 and inducible costimulator (ICOS) signalling can sustain CD154 expression on activated T cells

The biological outcome of receptor-mediated signalling often depends on the duration of engagement. Because CD40 signalling is controlled by the regulated expression of its ligand, CD154, the mechanisms that regulate CD154 expression probably determine the strength and duration of CD40 signalling. Here, we demonstrate that CD154 expression on the surface of mouse CD4 T cells can be separated into an early phase, occurring between 0 and 24 hr after T-cell activation, and a later extended phase, occurring after 24 hr. The early phase of CD154 expression did not require costimulation and was probably influenced by the strength of T-cell receptor (TCR) signalling alone. However, later CD154 expression was highly dependent on costimulation through either CD28 or inducible costimulator (ICOS). Although CD28 signalling interleukin (IL)-2 secretion, ICOS not, suggesting that costimulation enhance CD154 expression independently of IL-2 production. In fact, anti-CD28 treatment could still induce late-phase CD154 on anti-CD3-stimulated CD4 T cells expressing a mutated form of CD28 that not lead to the induction of IL-2. However, this CD154 induction was somewhat weaker than that of wild-type CD28-expressing cells, suggesting that direct signalling and IL-2-mediated signalling co-operatively responsible for the levels of CD154 induced by CD28. Finally, we show that the second phase of CD154 expression negatively regulated B-cell terminal differentiation and antibody secretion. These results demonstrate that TCR signalling and costimulation each regulate different phases of CD154 expression and control the biological outcome of CD40 signalling on B cells.

Proliferative signals mediated by CD28 superagonists require the exchange factor Vav1 but not phosphoinositide 3-kinase in primary peripheral T cells

Almost all responses of naive T cells require co-stimulation, i.e. engagement of the clonotypic TCR with relevant antigen/MHC and the co-stimulatory molecule CD28. How CD28 contributes to T-cell proliferation remains poorly understood, with widely conflicting reports existing which may reflect different methods of co-ligating receptors. Some CD28 mAb, however, can stimulate T-cell proliferation without the need for TCR co-ligation, and thus provide unique tools to dissect proliferative signals mediated through CD28 alone. Using primary peripheral T cells from CD28-transgenic mice, we show that both the YMNM and Lck-binding motifs, but not the Itk-binding motif, in CD28 are required for proliferation. Given that the YMNM motif recruits both phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) and the exchange factor Vav1, we investigated the role of these two molecules in CD28-mediated proliferation. In p110delta(D910A/D910A) transgenic T cells, which are defective in PI3K activation following CD28 ligation, proliferation was comparable to that in wild-type cells. By contrast, T-cell proliferation was abolished in Vav1(-/-) cells. Although we did not address the role of Grb2 in CD28 signalling, these results indicate that CD28 can mediate Lck- and Vav1-dependent proliferative signals independently of PI3K.

CD28 provides T-cell costimulation and enhances PI3K activity at the immune synapse independently of its capacity to interact with the p85/p110 heterodimer

Activation of PI3K is among the earliest signaling events observed in T cells after conjugate formation with antigen-presenting cells (APCs). The relevant PI3K catalytic isoform and relative contribution of the TcR and CD28 to PI3K activity at the immune synapse have not been determined unequivocally. Using a quantitative imaging-based assay, we show that the PI3K activity at the T cell–APC contact area is dependent on the p110δ, but not the p110γ, isoform of PI3K. CD28 enhanced PIP3 production at the T-cell synapse independently of its YMNM PI3K-recruitment motif that instead was required for efficient PKCθ recruitment. CD28 could partially compensate for the lack of p110δ activity during T-cell activation, which indicates that CD28 and p110δ act in parallel and complementary pathways to activate T cells. Consistent with this, CD28 and p110δ double-deficient mice were severely immune compromised. We therefore suggest that combined pharmaceutic targeting of p110δ activity and CD28 costimulation has potent therapeutic potential.

Induction of autoimmune disease in CTLA-4-/- mice depends on a specific CD28 motif that is required for in vivo costimulation

CTLA-4-deficient mice develop a lethal autoimmune lymphoproliferative disorder that is strictly dependent on in vivo CD28 costimulation. Nevertheless, it is not known whether there is a specific site on the CD28 molecule that is required for induction of autoimmunity. Using CTLA-4-deficient mice expressing CD28 molecules with various point mutations in the CD28 cytosolic tail, the present study documents that in vivo costimulation for induction of autoimmune disease strictly requires an intact C-terminal proline motif that promotes lymphocyte-specific protein tyrosine kinase Lck binding to the CD28 cytosolic tail, because point mutations in C-terminal proline residues (Pro-187 and Pro-190) completely prevented disease induction. In contrast, in vivo costimulation for disease induction did not require either an intact YMNM motif or an intact N-terminal proline motif, which, respectively, promote phosphoinositide 3-kinase and IL2-inducible T cell kinase binding to the CD28 cytosolic tail. Thus, in vivo CD28 costimulation for induction of autoimmune disease is strictly and specifically dependent on an intact C-terminal proline motif that serves as a lymphocyte-specific protein tyrosine Lck kinase binding site in the CD28 cytosolic tail.

mTOR at the crossroads of T cell proliferation and tolerance

Several events control the activation, proliferation, and the continued Ag responsiveness of naïve and memory T lymphocytes. Here we review the individual contributions of TCR, CD28, and IL-2-driven signaling to T cell proliferation and anergy avoidance. The role of mTOR as a rheostat capable of integrating extracellular, plasma membrane-associated, and intracellular signals with relevance to T cell priming and tolerance is discussed.