Electrogenic Na/HCO3 cotransporter (NBCe1) variants expressed in Xenopus oocytes: functional comparison and roles of the amino and carboxy termini

pH regulating mechanisms of astrocytes: A critical component in physiology and disease of the brain

Strict homeostatic control of pH in both intra- and extracellular compartments of the brain is fundamentally important, primarily due to the profound impact of free protons ([H+]) on neuronal activity and overall brain function. Astrocytes, crucial players in the homeostasis of various ions in the brain, actively regulate their intracellular [H+] (pHi) through multiple membrane transporters and carbonic anhydrases. The activation of astroglial pHi regulating mechanisms also leads to corresponding alterations in the acid-base status of the extracellular fluid. Notably, astrocyte pH regulators are modulated by various neuronal signals, suggesting their pivotal role in regulating brain acid-base balance in both health and disease. This review presents the mechanisms involved in pH regulation in astrocytes and discusses their potential impact on extracellular pH under physiological conditions and in brain disorders. Targeting astrocytic pH regulatory mechanisms represents a promising therapeutic approach for modulating brain acid-base balance in diseases, offering a potential critical contribution to neuroprotection.

NBCe1-B/C-knockout mice exhibit an impaired respiratory response and an enhanced renal response to metabolic acidosis

The sodium-bicarbonate cotransporter (NBCe1) has three primary variants: NBCe1-A, -B and -C. NBCe1-A is expressed in renal proximal tubules in the cortical labyrinth, where it is essential for reclaiming filtered bicarbonate, such that NBCe1-A knockout mice are congenitally acidemic. NBCe1-B and -C variants are expressed in chemosensitive regions of the brainstem, while NBCe1-B is also expressed in renal proximal tubules located in the outer medulla. Although mice lacking NBCe1-B/C (KOb/c) exhibit a normal plasma pH at baseline, the distribution of NBCe1-B/C indicates that these variants could play a role in both the rapid respiratory and slower renal responses to metabolic acidosis (MAc). Therefore, in this study we used an integrative physiologic approach to investigate the response of KOb/c mice to MAc. By means of unanesthetized whole-body plethysmography and blood-gas analysis, we demonstrate that the respiratory response to MAc (increase in minute volume, decrease in pCO2) is impaired in KOb/c mice leading to a greater severity of acidemia after 1 day of MAc. Despite this respiratory impairment, the recovery of plasma pH after 3-days of MAc remained intact in KOb/c mice. Using data gathered from mice housed in metabolic cages we demonstrate a greater elevation of renal ammonium excretion and greater downregulation of the ammonia recycling enzyme glutamine synthetase in KOb/c mice on day 2 of MAc, consistent with greater renal acid-excretion. We conclude that KOb/c mice are ultimately able to defend plasma pH during MAc, but that the integrated response is disturbed such that the burden of work shifts from the respiratory system to the kidneys, delaying the recovery of pH.

Dietary sodium enhances the expression of SLC4 family transporters, IRBIT, L-IRBIT, and PP1 in rat kidney: Insights into the molecular mechanism for renal sodium handling

The kidney plays a central role in maintaining the fluid and electrolyte homeostasis in the body. Bicarbonate transporters NBCn1, NBCn2, and AE2 are expressed at the basolateral membrane of the medullary thick ascending limb (mTAL). In a previous study, NBCn1, NBCn2, and AE2 are proposed to play as a regulatory pathway to decrease NaCl reabsorption in the mTAL under high salt condition. When heterologously expressed, the activity of these transporters could be stimulated by the InsP3R binding protein released with inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IRBIT), L-IRBIT (collectively the IRBITs), or protein phosphatase PP1. In the present study, we characterized by immunofluorescence the expression and localization of the IRBITs, and PP1 in rat kidney. Our data showed that the IRBITs were predominantly expressed from the mTAL through the distal renal tubules. PP1 was predominantly expressed in the TAL, but is also present in high abundance from the distal convoluted tubule through the medullary collecting duct. Western blotting analyses showed that the abundances of NBCn1, NBCn2, and AE2 as well as the IRBITs and PP1 were greatly upregulated in rat kidney by dietary sodium. Co-immunoprecipitation study provided the evidence for protein interaction between NBCn1 and L-IRBIT in rat kidney. Taken together, our data suggest that the IRBITs and PP1 play an important role in sodium handling in the kidney. We propose that the IRBITs and PP1 stimulates NBCn1, NBCn2, and AE2 in the basolateral mTAL to inhibit sodium reabsorption under high sodium condition. Our study provides important insights into understanding the molecular mechanism for the regulation of sodium homeostasis in the body.

Corneal dystrophy mutations R125H and R804H disable SLC4A11 by altering the extracellular pH dependence of the intracellular pK that governs H+(OH-) transport

Mutations in the H+(OH-) conductor SLC4A11 result in corneal endothelial dystrophy. In previous studies using mouse Slc4a11, we showed that the pK value that governs the intracellular pH dependence of SLC4A11 (pKi) is influenced by extracellular pH (pHe). We also showed that some mutations result in acidic or alkaline shifts in pKi, indicating that the pH dependence of SLC4A11 is important for physiological function. An R125H mutant, located in the cytosolic amino terminus of SLC4A11, apparently causes a complete loss of function, yet the anion transport inhibitor 4,4'-diisothiocyano-2,2'-stilbenedisulfonic acid (DIDS) can partially rescue SLC4A11/R125H activity. In the present study we set out to determine whether the effect of R125H is explained by an extreme shift in pKi. In Xenopus oocytes, we measured SLC4A11-mediated H+(OH-) conductance while monitoring pHi. We find that 1) the human corneal variant SLC4A11-B has a more acidic pKi than mouse Slc4a11, likely due to the presence of an NH2-terminal appendage; 2) pKi for human SLC4A11 is acid-shifted by raising pHe to 10.00; and 3) R125H and R804H mutants mediate substantial H+(OH-) conductances at pHe = 10.00, with pKi shifted into the wild-type range. These data suggest that the defect in each is a shift in pKi at physiological pHe, brought about by a disconnection in the mechanisms by which pHe influences pKi. Using de novo modeling, we show that R125 is located at the cytosolic dimer interface and suggest that this interface is critical for relaying the influence of pHe on the external face of the transmembrane domain to the intracellular, pKi-determining regions.

Acid-base effects of combined renal deletion of NBCe1-A and NBCe1-B

The molecular mechanisms regulating ammonia metabolism are fundamental to acid-base homeostasis. Deletion of the A splice variant of Na+-bicarbonate cotransporter, electrogenic, isoform 1 (NBCe1-A) partially blocks the effect of acidosis to increase urinary ammonia excretion, and this appears to involve the dysregulated expression of ammoniagenic enzymes in the proximal tubule (PT) in the cortex but not in the outer medulla (OM). A second NBCe1 splice variant, NBCe1-B, is present throughout the PT, including the OM, where NBCe1-A is not present. The purpose of the present study was to determine the effect of combined renal deletion of NBCe1-A and NBCe1-B on systemic and PT ammonia metabolism. We generated NBCe1-A/B deletion using Cre-loxP techniques and used Cre-negative mice as controls. As renal NBCe1-A and NBCe1-B expression is limited to the PT, Cre-positive mice had PT NBCe1-A/B deletion [PT-NBCe1-A/B knockout (KO)]. Although on a basal diet, PT-NBCe1-A/B KO mice had severe metabolic acidosis, yet urinary ammonia excretion was not changed significantly. PT-NBCe1-A/B KO decreased the expression of phosphate-dependent glutaminase and phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase and increased the expression of glutamine synthetase, an ammonia-recycling enzyme, in PTs in both the cortex and OM. Exogenous acid loading increased ammonia excretion in control mice, but PT-NBCe1-A/B KO prevented any increase. PT-NBCe1-A/B KO significantly blunted acid loading-induced changes in phosphate-dependent glutaminase, phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase, and glutamine synthetase expression in PTs in both the cortex and OM. We conclude that NBCe1-B, at least in the presence of NBCe1-A deletion, contributes to PT ammonia metabolism in the OM and thereby to systemic acid-base regulation.NEW & NOTEWORTHY The results of the present study show that combined deletion of both A and B splice variants of electrogenic Na+-bicarbonate cotransporter 1 from the proximal tubule impairs acid-base homeostasis and completely blocks changes in ammonia excretion in response to acidosis, indicating that both proteins are critical to acid-base homeostasis.

Revisiting the Role of Ser982 Phosphorylation in Stoichiometry Shift of the Electrogenic Na+/qHCO3- Cotransporter NBCe1

In most cell types and heterologous expression systems, the electrogenic sodium-bicarbonate cotransporter NBCe1 operates with a 1Na⁺-2HCO₃^- stoichiometry that, given typical transmembrane electrochemical gradients, promotes Na+ and HCO₃^- influx. However, NBCe1 in the kidney mediates HCO₃^- efflux (HCO₃^- reabsorption), a direction that has been predicted to be favored only if NBCe1 operates with a 1:3 stoichiometry. The phosphorylation state of Ser982 in the cytosolic carboxy-terminal domain of NBCe1 has been reported to be a key determinant of the transporter stoichiometry, with non-phosphorylated Ser982 favoring a 1:3 stoichiometry. Conversely, phosphoproteomic data from renal cortical preparations have revealed the presence of NBCe1 peptides including phosphoserine982 (pSer982) and/or pSer985 although it was not known what proportion of NBCe1 molecules were phosphorylated. In the present study, we report the generation, characterization, and application of a novel phosphospecific antibody raised against NBCe1/pSer982 and show that, contrary to expectations, Ser982 is more prevalently phosphorylated in murine kidneys (in which NBCe1 mediates HCO₃^- efflux) than in murine colons (in which NBCe1 mediates HCO₃^- influx). Using phosphomimetic mutants of murine NBCe1 expressed in Xenopus oocytes, we found no evidence that the phosphorylation state of Ser982 or Ser985 alone influences the transport stoichiometry or conductance. Furthermore, we found that the phosphorylation of NBCe1/Ser982 is enhanced in murine kidneys following a 24 h induction of metabolic acidosis. We conclude that the phosphorylation status of Ser982 is not a key determinant of NBCe1 stoichiometry but correlates with presumed NBCe1 activity.

Understanding the Functional Expression of Na+-Coupled SLC4 Transporters in the Renal and Nervous Systems: A Review

Acid-base homeostasis is crucial for numerous physiological processes. Na+/HCO3- cotransporters (NBCs) belong to the solute carrier 4 (SLC4) family, which regulates intracellular pH as well as HCO3- absorption and secretion. However, knowledge of the structural functions of these proteins remains limited. Electrogenic NBC (NBCe-1) is thought to be the primary factor promoting the precise acid-base equilibrium in distinct cell types for filtration and reabsorption, as well as the function of neurons and glia. NBC dysregulation is strongly linked to several diseases. As such, the need for special drugs that interfere with the transmission function of NBC is becoming increasingly urgent. In this review, we focus on the structural and functional characteristics of NBCe1, and discuss the roles of NBCe1 in the kidney, central nervous system (CNS), and related disorders, we also summarize the research on NBC inhibitors. NBCe1 and the related pathways should be further investigated, so that new medications may be developed to address the related conditions.

An Overview of Cell-Based Assay Platforms for the Solute Carrier Family of Transporters

The solute carrier (SLC) superfamily represents the biggest family of transporters with important roles in health and disease. Despite being attractive and druggable targets, the majority of SLCs remains understudied. One major hurdle in research on SLCs is the lack of tools, such as cell-based assays to investigate their biological role and for drug discovery. Another challenge is the disperse and anecdotal information on assay strategies that are suitable for SLCs. This review provides a comprehensive overview of state-of-the-art cellular assay technologies for SLC research and discusses relevant SLC characteristics enabling the choice of an optimal assay technology. The Innovative Medicines Initiative consortium RESOLUTE intends to accelerate research on SLCs by providing the scientific community with high-quality reagents, assay technologies and data sets, and to ultimately unlock SLCs for drug discovery.

The electrogenic sodium bicarbonate cotransporter and its roles in the myocardial ischemia-reperfusion induced cardiac diseases

Cardiac tissue ischemia/hypoxia increases glycolysis and lactic acid accumulation in cardiomyocytes, leading to intracellular metabolic acidosis. Sodium bicarbonate cotransporters (NBCs) play a vital role in modulating intracellular pH and maintaining sodium ion concentrations in cardiomyocytes. Cardiomyocytes mainly express electrogenic sodium bicarbonate cotransporter (NBCe1), which has been demonstrated to participate in myocardial ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury. This review outlines the structural and functional properties of NBCe1, summarizes the signaling pathways and factors that may regulate the activity of NBCe1, and reviews the roles of NBCe1 in the pathogenesis of I/R-induced cardiac diseases. Further studies revealing the regulatory mechanisms of NBCe1 activity should provide novel therapeutic targets for preventing I/R-induced cardiac diseases.

Expression of the regulated isoform of the electrogenic Na+/HCO3- cotransporter, NBCe1, is enriched in pacemaker interstitial cells of Cajal

Interstitial cells of Cajal (ICCs) generate electrical slow waves, which are required for normal gastrointestinal motility. The mechanisms for generation of normal pacemaking are not fully understood. Normal gastrointestinal contractility^- and electrical slow-wave activity depend on the presence of extracellular HCO₃^-. Previous transcriptional analysis identified enrichment of mRNA encoding the electrogenic Na⁺/HCO₃^- cotransporter (NBCe1) gene (Slc4a4) in pacemaker myenteric ICCs in mouse small intestine. We aimed to determine the distribution of NBCe1 protein in ICCs of the mouse gastrointestinal tract and to identify the transcripts of the Slc4a4 gene in mouse and human small intestinal tunica muscularis. We determined the distribution of NBCe1 immunoreactivity (NBCe1-IR) by immunofluorescent labeling in mouse and human tissues. In mice, NBCe1-IR was restricted to Kit-positive myenteric ICCs of the stomach and small intestine and submuscular ICCs of the large intestine, that is, the slow wave generating subset of ICCs. Other subtypes of ICCs were NBCe1-negative. Quantitative real-time PCR identified >500-fold enrichment of Slc4a4-207 and Slc4a4-208 transcripts ["IP3-receptor-binding protein released by IP3" (IRBIT)-regulated isoforms] in Kit-expressing cells isolated from Kit^creERT2/+, Rpl22^tm1.1Psam/Sj mice and from single GFP-positive ICCs from Kit^tm1Rosay mice. Human jejunal tunica muscularis ICCs were also NBCe1-positive, and SLC4A4-201 and SLC4A4-204 RNAs were >300-fold enriched relative to SLC4A4-202. In summary, NBCe1 protein expressed in ICCs with electrical pacemaker function is encoded by Slc4a4 gene transcripts that generate IRBIT-regulated isoforms of NBCe1. In conclusion, Na⁺/HCO₃^- cotransport through NBCe1 contributes to the generation of pacemaker activity in subsets of ICCs.NEW & NOTEWORTHY In this study, we show that the electrogenic Na+/HCO₃^- cotransporter, NBCe1/Slc4a4, is expressed in subtypes of interstitial cells of Cajal (ICCs) responsible for electrical slow wave generation throughout the mouse gastrointestinal tract and is absent in other types of ICCs. The transcripts of Slc4a4 expressed in mouse ICCs and human gastrointestinal smooth muscle are the regulated isoforms. This indicates a key role for HCO₃^- transport in generation of gastrointestinal motility patterns.

Carbonic anhydrases enhance activity of endogenous Na-H exchangers and not the electrogenic Na/HCO3 cotransporter NBCe1-A, expressed in Xenopus oocytes

KEY POINTS

According to the HCO 3 - metabolon hypothesis, direct association of cytosolic carbonic anhydrases (CAs) with the electrogenic Na/HCO3 cotransporter NBCe1-A speeds transport by regenerating/consuming HCO 3 - . The present work addresses published discrepancies as to whether cytosolic CAs stimulate NBCe1-A, heterologously expressed in Xenopus oocytes. We confirm the essential elements of the previous experimental observations, taken as support for the HCO 3 - metabolon hypothesis. However, using our own experimental protocols or those of others, we find that NBCe1-A function is unaffected by cytosolic CAs. Previous conclusions that cytosolic CAs do stimulate NBCe1-A can be explained by an unanticipated stimulatory effect of the CAs on an endogenous Na-H exchanger. Theoretical analyses show that, although CAs could stimulate non- HCO 3 - transporters (e.g. Na-H exchangers) by accelerating CO2 / HCO 3 - -mediated buffering of acid-base equivalents, they could not appreciably affect transport rates of NBCe1 or other transporters carrying HCO 3 - , CO 3 = , or NaCO 3 - ion pairs.

ABSTRACT

The HCO 3 - metabolon hypothesis predicts that cytosolic carbonic anhydrase (CA) binds to NBCe1-A, promotes HCO 3 - replenishment/consumption, and enhances transport. Using a short step-duration current-voltage (I-V) protocol with Xenopus oocytes expressing eGFP-tagged NBCe1-A, our group reported that neither injecting human CA II (hCA II) nor fusing hCA II to the NBCe1-A carboxy terminus affects background-subtracted NBCe1 slope conductance (GNBC ), which is a direct measure of NBCe1-A activity. Others - using bovine CA (bCA), untagged NBCe1-A, and protocols keeping holding potential (Vh ) far from NBCe1-A's reversal potential (Erev ) for prolonged periods - found that bCA increases total membrane current (ΔIm ), which apparently supports the metabolon hypothesis. We systematically investigated differences in the two protocols. In oocytes expressing untagged NBCe1-A, injected with bCA and clamped to -40 mV, CO2 / HCO 3 - exposures markedly decrease Erev , producing large transient outward currents persisting for >10 min and rapid increases in [Na+ ]i . Although the CA inhibitor ethoxzolamide (EZA) reduces both ΔIm and d[Na+ ]i /dt, it does not reduce GNBC . In oocytes not expressing NBCe1-A, CO2 / HCO 3 - triggers rapid increases in [Na+ ]i that both hCA II and bCA enhance in concentration-dependent manners. These d[Na+ ]i /dt increases are inhibited by EZA and blocked by EIPA, a Na-H exchanger (NHE) inhibitor. In oocytes expressing untagged NBCe1-A and injected with bCA, EIPA abolishes the EZA-dependent decreases in ΔIm and d[Na+ ]i /dt. Thus, CAs/EZA produce their ΔIm and d[Na+ ]i /dt effects not through NBCe1-A, but endogenous NHEs. Theoretical considerations argue against a CA stimulation of HCO 3 - transport, supporting the conclusion that an NBCe1-A- HCO 3 - metabolon does not exist in oocytes.

IRBIT activates NBCe1-B by releasing the auto-inhibition module from the transmembrane domain

Key points

The electrogenic Na⁺/HCO₃⁻cotransporter NBCe1‐B is widely expressed in many tissues, including pancreas, submandibular gland, brain, heart, etc. NBCe1‐B has very low activity under basal condition due to auto‐inhibition, but can be fully activated by protein interaction with the IP3R‐binding protein released with inositol 1,4,5‐trisphosphate (IRBIT).

The structural components of the auto‐inhibition domain and the IRBIT‐binding domain of NBCe1‐B are finely characterized based on systematic mutations in the present study and data from previous studies.

Reducing negative charges on the cytosol side of the transmembrane domain greatly decreases the magnitude of the auto‐inhibition of NBCe1‐B.

We propose that the auto‐inhibition domain functions as a brake module that inactivates NBCe1‐B by binding to, via electrostatic attraction, the transmembrane domain; IRBIT activates NBCe1‐B by releasing the brake from the transmembrane domain via competitive binding to the auto‐inhibition domain.

Abstract

The electrogenic Na⁺/HCO₃⁻ cotransporter NBCe1‐B is widely expressed in many tissues in the body. NBCe1‐B exhibits only basal activity due to the action of the auto‐inhibition domain (AID) in its unique amino‐terminus. However, NBCe1‐B can be activated by interaction with the IP3R‐binding protein released with inositol 1,4,5‐trisphosphate (IRBIT). Here, we investigate the molecular mechanism underlying the auto‐inhibition of NBCe1‐B and its activation by IRBIT. The IRBIT‐binding domain (IBD) of NBCe1‐B spans residues 1−52, essentially consisting of two arms, one negatively charged (residues 1−24) and the other positively charged (residues 40−52). The AID mainly spans residues 40−85, overlapping with the IBD in the positively charged arm. The magnitude of auto‐inhibition of NBCe1‐B is greatly decreased by manipulating the positively charged residues in the AID or by replacing a set of negatively charged residues with neutral ones in the transmembrane domain. The interaction between IRBIT and NBCe1‐B is abolished by mutating a set of negatively charged Asp/Glu residues (to Asn/Gln) plus a set of Ser/Thr residues (to Ala) in the PEST domain of IRBIT. However, this interaction is not affected by replacing the same set of Ser/Thr residues in the PEST domain with Asp. We propose that: (1) the AID, acting as a brake, binds to the transmembrane domain via electrostatic interaction to slow down NBCe1‐B; (2) IRBIT activates NBCe1‐B by releasing the brake from the transmembrane domain.

The electrogenic Na⁺/HCO₃⁻cotransporter NBCe1‐B is widely expressed in many tissues, including pancreas, submandibular gland, brain, heart, etc. NBCe1‐B has very low activity under basal condition due to auto‐inhibition, but can be fully activated by protein interaction with the IP3R‐binding protein released with inositol 1,4,5‐trisphosphate (IRBIT).

The structural components of the auto‐inhibition domain and the IRBIT‐binding domain of NBCe1‐B are finely characterized based on systematic mutations in the present study and data from previous studies.

Reducing negative charges on the cytosol side of the transmembrane domain greatly decreases the magnitude of the auto‐inhibition of NBCe1‐B.

We propose that the auto‐inhibition domain functions as a brake module that inactivates NBCe1‐B by binding to, via electrostatic attraction, the transmembrane domain; IRBIT activates NBCe1‐B by releasing the brake from the transmembrane domain via competitive binding to the auto‐inhibition domain.

Activation of mouse NBCe1-B by Xenopus laevis and mouse IRBITs: Role of the variable Nt appendage of IRBITs

The IP3 receptor binding protein released with inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IRBIT) plays important roles in the regulation of intracellular Ca²⁺ signaling and intracellular pH. The mammals express two IRBIT paralogs, i.e., IRBIT1 (encoded by AHCYL1) and IRBIT2 (encoded by AHCYL2). The clawed frog Xenopus laevis oocyte is widely used for biophysical studies on ion channels and transporters. It remains unknown whether endogenous IRBIT is expressed in Xenopus oocytes. Here, we cloned from frog oocyte irbit2.L and irbit2.S, orthologs of mammalian IRBIT2. When over-expressed, the frog IRBITs powerfully stimulate the electrogenic Na⁺/HCO₃^- cotransporter NBCe1-B as mouse IRBIT2-V2 does. Expression of an isolated Nt fragment of NBCe1-B containing the IRBIT-binding domain greatly decreases NBCe1-B activity in oocytes, suggesting that the basal activity of NBCe1-B contains a large component derived from the stimulation by endogenous frog IRBIT. The frog IRBITs are highly homologous to the mammalian ones in the carboxyl-terminal region, but varies greatly in the amino-terminal (Nt) appendage. Interestingly, truncation study showed that the Nt appendage of IRBIT1 and the long Nt appendage of IRBIT2-V2 modestly enhance, whereas the short Nt appendage of IRBIT2-V4 greatly inhibits the functional interaction between IRBIT and NBCe1-B. Finally, Ala-substitution of Ser68, a key phosphorylation site in the PEST domain of IRBIT, causes distinct functional consequences depending on the structural context of the Nt appendage in different IRBIT isoforms. We conclude that the Nt appendage of IRBITs is not necessary for, but plays an important regulatory role in the functional interaction between IRBIT and NBCe1-B.

Extrarenal Signs of Proximal Renal Tubular Acidosis Persist in Nonacidemic Nbce1b/c-Null Mice

BACKGROUND

The SLC4A4 gene encodes electrogenic sodium bicarbonate cotransporter 1 (NBCe1). Inheritance of recessive mutations in SLC4A4 causes proximal renal tubular acidosis (pRTA), a disease characterized by metabolic acidosis, growth retardation, ocular abnormalities, and often dental abnormalities. Mouse models of pRTA exhibit acidemia, corneal edema, weak dental enamel, impacted colons, nutritional defects, and a general failure to thrive, rarely surviving beyond weaning. Alkali therapy remains the preferred treatment for pRTA, but it is unclear which nonrenal signs are secondary to acidemia and which are a direct consequence of NBCe1 loss from nonrenal sites (such as the eye and enamel organ) and therefore require separate therapy. SLC4A4 encodes three major NBCe1 variants: NBCe1-A, NBCe1-B, and NBCe1-C. NBCe1-A is expressed in proximal tubule epithelia; its dysfunction causes the plasma bicarbonate insufficiency that underlies acidemia. NBCe1-B and NBCe1-C exhibit a broad extra-proximal-tubular distribution.

METHODS

To explore the consequences of Nbce1b/c loss in the absence of acidemia, we engineered a novel strain of Nbce1b/c-null mice and assessed them for signs of pRTA.

RESULTS

Nbce1b/c-null mice have normal blood pH, but exhibit increased mortality, growth retardation, corneal edema, and tooth enamel defects.

CONCLUSIONS

The correction of pRTA-related acidemia should not be considered a panacea for all signs of pRTA. The phenotype of Nbce1b/c-null mice highlights the physiologic importance of NBCe1 variants expressed beyond the proximal tubular epithelia and potential limitations of pH correction by alkali therapy in pRTA. It also suggests a novel genetic locus for corneal dystrophy and enamel hypomineralization without acidemia.

Carriers, exchangers, and cotransporters in the first 100 years of the Journal of General Physiology

Jennings reviews the many contributions of JGP articles to our current understanding of solute transporter mechanisms.

Transporters, pumps, and channels are proteins that catalyze the movement of solutes across membranes. The single-solute carriers, coupled exchangers, and coupled cotransporters that are collectively known as transporters are distinct from conductive ion channels, water channels, and ATP-hydrolyzing pumps. The main conceptual framework for studying transporter mechanisms is the alternating access model, which comprises substrate binding and release events on each side of the permeability barrier and translocation events involving conformational changes between inward-facing and outward-facing conformational states. In 1948, the Journal of General Physiology began to publish work that focused on the erythrocyte glucose transporter—the first transporter to be characterized kinetically—followed by articles on the rates, stoichiometries, asymmetries, voltage dependences, and regulation of coupled exchangers and cotransporters beginning in the 1960s. After the dawn of cDNA cloning and sequencing in the 1980s, heterologous expression systems and site-directed mutagenesis allowed identification of the functional roles of specific amino acid residues. In the past two decades, structures of transport proteins have made it possible to propose specific models for transporter function at the molecular level. Here, we review the contribution of JGP articles to our current understanding of solute transporter mechanisms. Whether the topic has been kinetics, energetics, regulation, mutagenesis, or structure-based modeling, a common feature of these articles has been a quantitative, mechanistic approach, leading to lasting insights into the functions of transporters.

Exploring the autoinhibitory domain of the electrogenic Na+ /HCO3- transporter NBCe1-B, from residues 28 to 62

KEY POINTS

Slc4a4 (mouse) encodes at least five variants of the electrogenic sodium/bicarbonate transporter NBCe1. The initial 41 cytosolic amino acids of NBCe1-A and -D are unique; NBCe1-A has high activity. The initial 85 amino acids of NBCe1-B, -C and -E are unique; NBCe1-B and -C have low activity. Previous work showed that deleting residues 1-85 or 40-62 of NBCe1-B, or 1-87 of NBCe1-C, eliminates autoinhibition. These regions also include binding determinants for IRBIT (inositol trisphosphate (IP₃ )-receptor binding protein released with IP₃ ), which relieves autoinhibition. Here, systematically replacing/deleting residues 28-62, we find that only the nine amino acid cationic cluster (residues 40-48) of NBCe1-B is essential for autoinhibition. IRBIT stimulates all but one low-activity construct. We suggest that electrostatic interactions - which IRBIT presumably interrupts - between the cationic cluster and the membrane or other domains of NBCe1 play a central role in tempering the activity of NBCe1-B in the pancreas, brain and other organs.

ABSTRACT

Variant B of the electrogenic Na⁺ /HCO₃^- cotransporter (NBCe1-B) contributes to the vectorial transport of HCO₃^- in epithelia (e.g. pancreatic ducts) and to the maintenance of intracellular pH in the central nervous systems (e.g. astrocytes). NBCe1-B has very low basal activity due to an autoinhibitory domain (AID) located, at least in part, in the unique portion (residues 1-85) of the cytosolic NH₂ -terminus. Previous work has shown that removing 23 amino acids (residues 40-62) stimulates NBCe1-B. Here, we test the hypothesis that a cationic cluster of nine consecutive positively charged amino acids (residues 40-48) is a necessary part of the AID. Using two-electrode voltage clamping of Xenopus oocytes, we assess the activity of human NBCe1-B constructs in which we systematically replace or delete residues 28-62, which includes the cationic cluster. We find that replacing or deleting all residues within the cationic cluster markedly increases NBCe1-B activity (i.e. eliminates autoinhibition). On the background of a cationic clusterless construct, systematically restoring Arg residues restores autoinhibition in two distinct quanta, with one to three Arg residues restoring ∼50%, and four or more Arg residues restoring virtually all autoinhibition. Systematically deleting residues before the cluster reduces autoinhibition by, at most, a small amount. Replacing or deleting residues after the cluster has no effect. For constructs with low NBCe1 activity (but good surface expression, as assessed by biotinylation), co-expression with super-IRBIT (lacking PP1-binding site) restores full activity (i.e. relieves autoinhibition). In summary, the cationic cluster is a necessary component of the AID of NBCe1-B.

Mouse models of SLC4-linked disorders of HCO3--transporter dysfunction

The SLC4 family Cl^-/[Formula: see text] cotransporters (NBCe1, NBCe2, NBCn1, and NBCn2) contribute to a variety of vital physiological processes including pH regulation and epithelial fluid secretion. Accordingly, their dysfunction can have devastating effects. Disorders such as epilepsy, hemolytic anemia, glaucoma, hearing loss, osteopetrosis, and renal tubular acidosis are all genetically linked to SLC4-family gene loci. This review summarizes how studies of Slc4-modified mice have enhanced our understanding of the etiology of SLC4-linked pathologies and the interpretation of genetic linkage studies. The review also surveys the novel disease signs exhibited by Slc4-modified mice which could either be considered to presage their description in humans, or to highlight interspecific differences. Finally, novel Slc4-modified mouse models are proposed, the study of which may further our understanding of the basis and treatment of SLC4-linked disorders of [Formula: see text]-transporter dysfunction.

Activity-dependent astrocyte swelling is mediated by pH-regulating mechanisms

During neuronal activity in the mammalian brain, the K⁺ released into the synaptic space is initially buffered by the astrocytic compartment. In parallel, the extracellular space (ECS) shrinks, presumably due to astrocytic cell swelling. With the Na⁺ /K⁺ /2Cl^- cotransporter and the Kir4.1/AQP4 complex not required for the astrocytic cell swelling in the hippocampus, the molecular mechanisms underlying the activity-dependent ECS shrinkage have remained unresolved. To identify these molecular mechanisms, we employed ion-sensitive microelectrodes to measure changes in ECS, [K⁺ ]_o and [H⁺ ]_o /pH_o during electrical stimulation of rat hippocampal slices. Transporters and receptors responding directly to the K⁺ and glutamate released into the extracellular space (the K⁺ /Cl^- cotransporter, KCC, glutamate transporters and G protein-coupled receptors) did not modulate the extracellular space dynamics. The HCO3--transporting mechanism, which in astrocytes mainly constitutes the electrogenic Na⁺ / HCO3- cotransporter 1 (NBCe1), is activated by the K⁺ -mediated depolarization of the astrocytic membrane. Inhibition of this transporter reduced the ECS shrinkage by ∼25% without affecting the K⁺ transients, pointing to NBCe1 as a key contributor to the stimulus-induced astrocytic cell swelling. Inhibition of the monocarboxylate cotransporters (MCT), like-wise, reduced the ECS shrinkage by ∼25% without compromising the K⁺ transients. Isosmotic reduction of extracellular Cl^- revealed a requirement for this ion in parts of the ECS shrinkage. Taken together, the stimulus-evoked astrocytic cell swelling does not appear to occur as a direct effect of the K⁺ clearance, as earlier proposed, but partly via the pH-regulating transport mechanisms activated by the K⁺ -induced astrocytic depolarization and the activity-dependent metabolism.

The novel class of seven transmembrane segment inverted repeat carriers

Solute carriers from the SLC4, SLC23, and SLC26 families are involved in pH regulation, vitamin C transport and ion homeostasis. While these families do not share any obvious sequence relationship, they are united by their unique and novel architecture. Each member of this structural class is organized into two structurally related halves of seven transmembrane segments each. These halves span the membrane with opposite orientations and form an intricately intertwined structure of two inverted repeats. This review highlights the general design principles of this fold and reveals the diversity between the different families. We discuss their domain architecture, structural framework and transport mode and detail an initial transport mechanism for this fold inferred from the recently solved structures of different members.

Mouse Slc4a11 expressed in Xenopus oocytes is an ideally selective H+/OH- conductance pathway that is stimulated by rises in intracellular and extracellular pH

The SLC4A11 gene encodes the bicarbonate-transporter-related protein BTR1, which is mutated in syndromes characterized by vision and hearing loss. Signs of these diseases [congenital hereditary endothelial dystrophy (CHED) and Harboyan syndrome] are evident in mouse models of Slc4a11 disruption. However, the intrinsic activity of Slc4a11 remains controversial, complicating assignment of its (patho)physiological role. Most studies concur that Slc4a11 transports H+ (or the thermodynamically equivalent species OH-) rather than HCO3-, but disparities have arisen as to whether the transport is coupled to another species such as Na+ or NH3/NH4+ Here for the first time, we examine the action of mouse Slc4a11 in Xenopus oocytes. We simultaneously monitor changes in intracellular pH, membrane potential, and conductance as we alter extracellular pH, revealing the electrical and chemical driving forces that underlie the observed ion fluxes. We find that mSlc4a11 is an ideally selective H+/OH- conductive pathway, the action of which is uncoupled from the cotransport of any other ion. We also find that the activity of mSlc4a11 is independently enhanced by both extracellular and intracellular alkalinization, suggesting OH- as the most likely substrate and providing a novel explanation for the apparent NH3-dependence of Slc4a11-mediated currents reported by others. We suggest that the unique properties of Slc4a11 action underlie its value as a pH regulator in corneal endothelial cells.

Multifunctional ion transport properties of human SLC4A11: comparison of the SLC4A11-B and SLC4A11-C variants

Congenital hereditary endothelial dystrophy (CHED), Harboyan syndrome (CHED with progressive sensorineural deafness), and potentially a subset of individuals with late-onset Fuchs' endothelial corneal dystrophy are caused by mutations in the SLC4A11 gene that results in corneal endothelial cell abnormalities. Originally classified as a borate transporter, the function of SLC4A11 as a transport protein remains poorly understood. Elucidating the transport function(s) of SLC4A11 is needed to better understand how its loss results in the aforementioned posterior corneal dystrophic disease processes. Quantitative PCR experiments demonstrated that, of the three known human NH₂-terminal variants, SLC4A11-C is the major transcript expressed in human corneal endothelium. We studied the expression pattern of the three variants in mammalian HEK-293 cells and demonstrated that the SLC4A11-B and SLC4A11-C variants are plasma membrane proteins, whereas SLC4A11-A is localized intracellularly. SLC4A11-B and SLC4A11-C were shown to be multifunctional ion transporters capable of transporting H⁺ equivalents in both a Na⁺-independent and Na⁺-coupled mode. In both transport modes, SLC4A11-C H⁺ flux was significantly greater than SLC4A11-B. In the presence of ammonia, SLC4A11-B and SLC4A11-C generated inward currents that were comparable in magnitude. Chimera SLC4A11-C-NH₂-terminus-SLC4A11-B experiments demonstrated that the SLC4A11-C NH₂-terminus functions as an autoactivating domain, enhancing Na⁺-independent and Na⁺-coupled H⁺ flux without significantly affecting the electrogenic NH₃-H_(n)⁺ cotransport mode. All three modes of transport were significantly impaired in the presence of the CHED causing p.R109H (SLC4A11-C numbering) mutation. These complex ion transport properties need to be addressed in the context of corneal endothelial disease processes caused by mutations in SLC4A11.

Phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate degradation inhibits the Na+/bicarbonate cotransporter NBCe1-B and -C variants expressed in Xenopus oocytes

KEY POINTS

We previously reported that the phospholipid phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2 ) directly stimulates heterologously expressed electrogenic Na(+)/bicarbonate cotransporter NBCe1-A in an excised macropatch from the Xenopus oocyte, and indirectly stimulates NBCe1-B and -C in the intact oocyte primarily through inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate/Ca(2+). In the current study, we expand on a previous observation that PIP2 may also directly stimulate NBCe1 in the intact oocyte. In this study on oocytes, we co-expressed either NBCe1-B or -C and a voltage-sensitive phosphatase (VSP), which depletes PIP2 without changing inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate, and monitored NBCe1-mediated currents with the two-electrode voltage-clamp technique or pHi changes using Vm/pH-sensitive microelectrodes. Activating VSP inhibited NBCe1-B and -C outward currents and NBCe1-mediated pHi increases, and changes in NBCe1 activity paralleled changes in surface PIP2. This study is a quantitative assessment of PIP2 itself as a regulator of NBCe1-B and -C in the intact cell, and represents the first use of VSP to characterize the PIP2 sensitivity of a transporter. These data combined with our previous work demonstrate that NBCe1-B and -C are regulated by two PIP2-mediated signalling pathways. Specifically, a decrease in PIP2 per se can inhibit NBCe1, whereas hydrolysis of PIP2 to inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate/Ca(2+) can stimulate the transporter.

ABSTRACT

The electrogenic Na(+)/bicarbonate cotransporter (NBCe1) of the Slc4 gene family is a powerful regulator of intracellular pH (pHi) and extracellular pH (pHo), and contributes to solute reabsorption and secretion in many epithelia. Using Xenopus laevis oocytes expressing NBCe1 variants, we have previously reported that the phospholipid phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2) directly stimulates NBCe1-A in an excised macropatch, and indirectly stimulates NBCe1-B and -C in the intact oocyte primarily through inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (InsP3)/Ca(2+). In the current study, we used the two-electrode voltage-clamp technique alone or in combination with pH/voltage-sensitive microelectrodes or confocal fluorescence imaging of plasma membrane PIP2 to characterize the PIP2 sensitivity of NBCe1-B and -C in whole oocytes by co-expressing a voltage-sensitive phosphatase (VSP) that decreases PIP2 and bypasses the InsP3/Ca(2+) pathway. An oocyte depolarization that activated VSP only transiently stimulated the NBCe1-B/C current, consistent with an initial rapid depolarization-induced NBCe1 activation, and then a subsequent slower VSP-mediated NBCe1 inhibition. Upon repolarization, the NBCe1 current decreased, and then slowly recovered with an exponential time course that paralleled PIP2 resynthesis as measured with a PIP2-sensitive fluorophore and confocal imaging. A subthreshold depolarization that minimally activated VSP caused a more sustained increase in NBCe1 current, and did not lead to an exponential current recovery following repolarization. Similar results were obtained with oocytes expressing a catalytically dead VSP mutant at all depolarized potentials. Depleting endoplasmic reticulum Ca(2+) did not inhibit the NBCe1 current recovery following repolarization from VSP activation, demonstrating that changes in InsP3/Ca(2+) were not responsible. This study demonstrates for the first time that depleting PIP2 per se inhibits NBCe1 activity. The data in conjunction with previous findings implicate a dual PIP2 regulatory pathway for NBCe1 involving both PIP2 itself and generated InsP3/Ca(2+).

Structure and Function of SLC4 Family [Formula: see text] Transporters

The solute carrier SLC4 family consists of 10 members, nine of which are [Formula: see text] transporters, including three Na(+)-independent Cl(-)/[Formula: see text] exchangers AE1, AE2, and AE3, five Na(+)-coupled [Formula: see text] transporters NBCe1, NBCe2, NBCn1, NBCn2, and NDCBE, as well as "AE4" whose Na(+)-dependence remains controversial. The SLC4 [Formula: see text] transporters play critical roles in pH regulation and transepithelial movement of electrolytes with a broad range of demonstrated physiological relevances. Dysfunctions of these transporters are associated with a series of human diseases. During the past decades, tremendous amount of effort has been undertaken to investigate the topological organization of the SLC4 transporters in the plasma membrane. Based upon the proposed topology models, mutational and functional studies have identified important structural elements likely involved in the ion translocation by the SLC4 transporters. In the present article, we review the advances during the past decades in understanding the structure and function of the SLC4 transporters.

Molecular mechanisms and regulation of urinary acidification

The H(+) concentration in human blood is kept within very narrow limits, ~40 nmol/L, despite the fact that dietary metabolism generates acid and base loads that are added to the systemic circulation throughout the life of mammals. One of the primary functions of the kidney is to maintain the constancy of systemic acid-base chemistry. The kidney has evolved the capacity to regulate blood acidity by performing three key functions: (i) reabsorb HCO3(-) that is filtered through the glomeruli to prevent its excretion in the urine; (ii) generate a sufficient quantity of new HCO3(-) to compensate for the loss of HCO3(-) resulting from dietary metabolic H(+) loads and loss of HCO3(-) in the urea cycle; and (iii) excrete HCO3(-) (or metabolizable organic anions) following a systemic base load. The ability of the kidney to perform these functions requires that various cell types throughout the nephron respond to changes in acid-base chemistry by modulating specific ion transport and/or metabolic processes in a coordinated fashion such that the urine and renal vein chemistry is altered appropriately. The purpose of the article is to provide the interested reader with a broad review of a field that began historically ~60 years ago with whole animal studies, and has evolved to where we are currently addressing questions related to kidney acid-base regulation at the single protein structure/function level.

Cation-coupled bicarbonate transporters

Cation-coupled HCO3(-) transport was initially identified in the mid-1970s when pioneering studies showed that acid extrusion from cells is stimulated by CO2/HCO3(-) and associated with Na(+) and Cl(-) movement. The first Na(+)-coupled bicarbonate transporter (NCBT) was expression-cloned in the late 1990s. There are currently five mammalian NCBTs in the SLC4-family: the electrogenic Na,HCO3-cotransporters NBCe1 and NBCe2 (SLC4A4 and SLC4A5 gene products); the electroneutral Na,HCO3-cotransporter NBCn1 (SLC4A7 gene product); the Na(+)-driven Cl,HCO3-exchanger NDCBE (SLC4A8 gene product); and NBCn2/NCBE (SLC4A10 gene product), which has been characterized as an electroneutral Na,HCO3-cotransporter or a Na(+)-driven Cl,HCO3-exchanger. Despite the similarity in amino acid sequence and predicted structure among the NCBTs of the SLC4-family, they exhibit distinct differences in ion dependency, transport function, pharmacological properties, and interactions with other proteins. In epithelia, NCBTs are involved in transcellular movement of acid-base equivalents and intracellular pH control. In nonepithelial tissues, NCBTs contribute to intracellular pH regulation; and hence, they are crucial for diverse tissue functions including neuronal discharge, sensory neuron development, performance of the heart, and vascular tone regulation. The function and expression levels of the NCBTs are generally sensitive to intracellular and systemic pH. Animal models have revealed pathophysiological roles of the transporters in disease states including metabolic acidosis, hypertension, visual defects, and epileptic seizures. Studies are being conducted to understand the physiological consequences of genetic polymorphisms in the SLC4-members, which are associated with cancer, hypertension, and drug addiction. Here, we describe the current knowledge regarding the function, structure, and regulation of the mammalian cation-coupled HCO3(-) transporters of the SLC4-family.

Effects of Nt-truncation and coexpression of isolated Nt domains on the membrane trafficking of electroneutral Na+/HCO3- cotransporters

The SLC4 genes are all capable of producing multiple variants by alternative splicing or using alternative promoters. The physiological consequences of such diversity are of great interest to investigators. Here, we identified two novel variants of the electroneutral Na⁺/ cotransporter NBCn1, one full-length starting with “MIPL” and the other Nt-truncated starting with “MDEL”. Moreover, we identified a new promoter of Slc4a10 encoding NBCn2 and a novel type of Nt-truncated NBCn2 starting with “MHAN”. When heterologously expressed, the new NBCn1 variants were well localized to the plasma membrane and exhibited characteristic NBCn1 activity. However, MHAN-NBCn2 was poorly localized on the plasma membrane. By deletion mutations, we identified the Nt regions important for the surface localization of NBCn2. Interestingly, coexpressing the full-length NBCn2 greatly enhances the surface abundance of the Nt-truncated NBCn2. Co-immunoprecipitation and bimolecular fluorescence complementation studies showed that the full-length and Nt-truncated NBCn2 interact with each other to form heterodimers in neuro-2A cells. Finally, we showed that the isolated Nt domain interacts with and enhances the surface abundance of the Nt-truncated NBCn2. The present study expands our knowledge of the NBCn1 and NBCn2 transcriptome, and provides insights into how the Nt domain could affect transporter function by regulating its membrane trafficking.

Regulators of Slc4 bicarbonate transporter activity

The Slc4 family of transporters is comprised of anion exchangers (AE1-4), Na⁺-coupled bicarbonate transporters (NCBTs) including electrogenic Na/bicarbonate cotransporters (NBCe1 and NBCe2), electroneutral Na/bicarbonate cotransporters (NBCn1 and NBCn2), and the electroneutral Na-driven Cl-bicarbonate exchanger (NDCBE), as well as a borate transporter (BTR1). These transporters regulate intracellular pH (pH_i) and contribute to steady-state pH_i, but are also involved in other physiological processes including CO₂ carriage by red blood cells and solute secretion/reabsorption across epithelia. Acid-base transporters function as either acid extruders or acid loaders, with the Slc4 proteins moving HCO⁻₃ either into or out of cells. According to results from both molecular and functional studies, multiple Slc4 proteins and/or associated splice variants with similar expected effects on pH_i are often found in the same tissue or cell. Such apparent redundancy is likely to be physiologically important. In addition to regulating pH_i, a HCO⁻₃ transporter contributes to a cell's ability to fine tune the intracellular regulation of the cotransported/exchanged ion(s) (e.g., Na⁺ or Cl⁻). In addition, functionally similar transporters or splice variants with different regulatory profiles will optimize pH physiology and solute transport under various conditions or within subcellular domains. Such optimization will depend on activated signaling pathways and transporter expression profiles. In this review, we will summarize and discuss both well-known and more recently identified regulators of the Slc4 proteins. Some of these regulators include traditional second messengers, lipids, binding proteins, autoregulatory domains, and less conventional regulators. The material presented will provide insight into the diversity and physiological significance of multiple members within the Slc4 gene family.

Interplay between disulfide bonding and N-glycosylation defines SLC4 Na+-coupled transporter extracellular topography

The extracellular loop 3 (EL-3) of SLC4 Na(+)-coupled transporters contains 4 highly conserved cysteines and multiple N-glycosylation consensus sites. In the electrogenic Na(+)-HCO3(-) cotransporter NBCe1-A, EL-3 is the largest extracellular loop and is predicted to consist of 82 amino acids. To determine the structural-functional importance of the conserved cysteines and the N-glycosylation sites in NBCe1-A EL-3, we analyzed the potential interplay between EL-3 disulfide bonding and N-glycosylation and their roles in EL-3 topological folding. Our results demonstrate that the 4 highly conserved cysteines form two intramolecular disulfide bonds, Cys(583)-Cys(585) and Cys(617)-Cys(642), respectively, that constrain EL-3 in a folded conformation. The formation of the second disulfide bond is spontaneous and unaffected by the N-glycosylation state of EL-3 or the first disulfide bond, whereas formation of the first disulfide bond relies on the presence of the second disulfide bond and is affected by N-glycosylation. Importantly, EL-3 from each monomer is adjacently located at the NBCe1-A dimeric interface. When the two disulfide bonds are missing, EL-3 adopts an extended conformation highly accessible to protease digestion. This unique adjacent parallel location of two symmetrically folded EL-3 loops from each monomer resembles a domain-like structure that is potentially important for NBCe1-A function in vivo. Moreover, the formation of this unique structure is critically dependent on the finely tuned interplay between disulfide bonding and N-glycosylation in the membrane processed NBCe1-A dimer.

Intracellular Cl- as a signaling ion that potently regulates Na+/HCO3- transporters

Cl(-) is a major anion in mammalian cells involved in transport processes that determines the intracellular activity of many ions and plasma membrane potential. Surprisingly, a role of intracellular Cl(-) (Cl(-) in) as a signaling ion has not been previously evaluated. Here we report that Cl(-) in functions as a regulator of cellular Na(+) and HCO3 (-) concentrations and transepithelial transport through modulating the activity of several electrogenic Na(+)-HCO3 (-) transporters. We describe the molecular mechanism(s) of this regulation by physiological Cl(-) in concentrations highlighting the role of GXXXP motifs in Cl(-) sensing. Regulation of the ubiquitous Na(+)-HCO3(-) co-transport (NBC)e1-B is mediated by two GXXXP-containing sites; regulation of NBCe2-C is dependent on a single GXXXP motif; and regulation of NBCe1-A depends on a cryptic GXXXP motif. In the basal state NBCe1-B is inhibited by high Cl(-) in interacting at a low affinity GXXXP-containing site. IP3 receptor binding protein released with IP3 (IRBIT) activation of NBCe1-B unmasks a second high affinity Cl(-) in interacting GXXXP-dependent site. By contrast, NBCe2-C, which does not interact with IRBIT, has a single high affinity N-terminal GXXP-containing Cl(-) in interacting site. NBCe1-A is unaffected by Cl(-) in between 5 and 140 mM. However, deletion of NBCe1-A residues 29-41 unmasks a cryptic GXXXP-containing site homologous with the NBCe1-B low affinity site that is involved in inhibition of NBCe1-A by Cl(-) in. These findings reveal a cellular Cl(-) in sensing mechanism that plays an important role in the regulation of Na(+) and HCO3 (-) transport, with critical implications for the role of Cl(-) in cellular ion homeostasis and epithelial fluid and electrolyte secretion.

Evidence from simultaneous intracellular- and surface-pH transients that carbonic anhydrase II enhances CO2 fluxes across Xenopus oocyte plasma membranes

The α-carbonic anhydrases (CAs) are zinc-containing enzymes that catalyze the interconversion of CO2 and HCO3 (-). Here, we focus on human CA II (CA II), a ubiquitous cytoplasmic enzyme. In the second paper in this series, we examine CA IV at the extracellular surface. After microinjecting recombinant CA II in a Tris solution (or just Tris) into oocytes, we expose oocytes to 1.5% CO2/10 mM HCO3 (-)/pH 7.50 while using microelectrodes to monitor intracellular pH (pHi) and surface pH (pHS). CO2 influx causes the familiar sustained pHi fall as well as a transient pHS rise; CO2 efflux does the opposite. Both during CO2 addition and removal, CA II increases the magnitudes of the maximal rate of pHi change, (dpHi/dt)max, and the maximal change in pHS, ΔpHS. Preincubating oocytes with the inhibitor ethoxzolamide eliminates the effects of CA II. Compared with pHS, pHi begins to change only after a delay of ~9 s and its relaxation has a larger (i.e., slower) time constant (τpHi > τpHS ). Simultaneous measurements with two pHi electrodes, one superficial and one deep, suggest that impalement depth contributes to pHi delay and higher τpHi . Using higher CO2/HCO3 (-) levels, i.e., 5%/33 mM HCO3 (-) or 10%/66 mM HCO3 (-), increases (dpHi/dt)max and ΔpHS, though not in proportion to the increase in [CO2]. A reaction-diffusion mathematical model (described in the third paper in this series) accounts for the above general features and supports the conclusion that cytosolic CA-consuming entering CO2 or replenishing exiting CO2-increases CO2 fluxes across the cell membrane.

Prevention of the disrupted enamel phenotype in Slc4a4-null mice using explant organ culture maintained in a living host kidney capsule

Slc4a4-null mice are a model of proximal renal tubular acidosis (pRTA). Slc4a4 encodes the electrogenic sodium base transporter NBCe1 that is involved in transcellular base transport and pH regulation during amelogenesis. Patients with mutations in the SLC4A4 gene and Slc4a4-null mice present with dysplastic enamel, amongst other pathologies. Loss of NBCe1 function leads to local abnormalities in enamel matrix pH regulation. Loss of NBCe1 function also results in systemic acidemic blood pH. Whether local changes in enamel pH and/or a decrease in systemic pH are the cause of the abnormal enamel phenotype is currently unknown. In the present study we addressed this question by explanting fetal wild-type and Slc4a4-null mandibles into healthy host kidney capsules to study enamel formation in the absence of systemic acidemia. Mandibular E11.5 explants from NBCe1^−/− mice, maintained in host kidney capsules for 70 days, resulted in teeth with enamel and dentin with morphological and mineralization properties similar to cultured NBCe1^+/+ mandibles grown under identical conditions. Ameloblasts express a number of proteins involved in dynamic changes in H⁺/base transport during amelogenesis. Despite the capacity of ameloblasts to dynamically modulate the local pH of the enamel matrix, at least in the NBCe1^−/− mice, the systemic pH also appears to contribute to the enamel phenotype. Extrapolating these data to humans, our findings suggest that in patients with NBCe1 mutations, correction of the systemic metabolic acidosis at a sufficiently early time point may lead to amelioration of enamel abnormalities.

Structure, function, and regulation of the SLC4 NBCe1 transporter and its role in causing proximal renal tubular acidosis

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

There has been significant progress in our understanding of the structural and functional properties and regulation of the electrogenic sodium bicarbonate cotansporter NBCe1, a membrane transporter that plays a key role in renal acid-base physiology. The NBCe1 variant NBCe1-A mediates basolateral electrogenic sodium-base transport in the proximal tubule and is critically required for transepithelial bicarbonate absorption. Mutations in NBCe1 cause autosomal recessive proximal renal tubular acidosis (pRTA). The review summarizes recent advances in this area.

RECENT FINDINGS

A topological model of NBCe1 has been established that provides a foundation for future structure-functional studies of the transporter. Critical residues and regions have been identified in NBCe1 that play key roles in its structure, function (substrate transport, electrogenicity) and regulation. The mechanisms of how NBCe1 mutations cause pRTA have also recently been elucidated.

SUMMARY

Given the important role of proximal tubule transepithelial bicarbonate absorption in systemic acid-base balance, a clear understanding of the structure-functional properties of NBCe1 is a prerequisite for elucidating the mechanisms of defective transepithelial bicarbonate transport in pRTA.

NBCe1 as a model carrier for understanding the structure-function properties of Na⁺ -coupled SLC4 transporters in health and disease

SLC4 transporters are membrane proteins that in general mediate the coupled transport of bicarbonate (carbonate) and share amino acid sequence homology. These proteins differ as to whether they also transport Na(+) and/or Cl(-), in addition to their charge transport stoichiometry, membrane targeting, substrate affinities, developmental expression, regulatory motifs, and protein-protein interactions. These differences account in part for the fact that functionally, SLC4 transporters have various physiological roles in mammals including transepithelial bicarbonate transport, intracellular pH regulation, transport of Na(+) and/or Cl(-), and possibly water. Bicarbonate transport is not unique to the SLC4 family since the structurally unrelated SLC26 family has at least three proteins that mediate anion exchange. The present review focuses on the first of the sodium-dependent SLC4 transporters that was identified whose structure has been most extensively studied: the electrogenic Na(+)-base cotransporter NBCe1. Mutations in NBCe1 cause proximal renal tubular acidosis (pRTA) with neurologic and ophthalmologic extrarenal manifestations. Recent studies have characterized the important structure-function properties of the transporter and how they are perturbed as a result of mutations that cause pRTA. It has become increasingly apparent that the structure of NBCe1 differs in several key features from the SLC4 Cl(-)-HCO3 (-) exchanger AE1 whose structural properties have been well-studied. In this review, the structure-function properties and regulation of NBCe1 will be highlighted, and its role in health and disease will be reviewed in detail.

IRBIT: a regulator of ion channels and ion transporters

IRBIT (also called AHCYL1) was originally identified as a binding protein of the intracellular Ca(2+) channel inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP3) receptor and functions as an inhibitory regulator of this receptor. Unexpectedly, many functions have subsequently been identified for IRBIT including the activation of multiple ion channels and ion transporters, such as the Na(+)/HCO3(-) co-transporter NBCe1-B, the Na(+)/H(+) exchanger NHE3, the Cl(-) channel cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR), and the Cl(-)/HCO3(-) exchanger Slc26a6. The characteristic serine-rich region in IRBIT plays a critical role in the functions of this protein. In this review, we describe the evolution, domain structure, expression pattern, and physiological roles of IRBIT and discuss the potential molecular mechanisms underlying the coordinated regulation of these diverse ion channels/transporters through IRBIT. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Calcium signaling in health and disease. Guest Editors: Geert Bultynck, Jacques Haiech, Claus W. Heizmann, Joachim Krebs, and Marc Moreau.

AHCYL2 (long-IRBIT) as a potential regulator of the electrogenic Na(+)-HCO3(-) cotransporter NBCe1-B

Although AHCYL2 (long-IRBIT) is highly homologous to IRBIT, which regulates ion-transporting proteins including the electrogenic Na(+)-HCO3(-) cotransporter NBCe1-B, its functions are poorly understood. Here, we found that AHCYL2 interacts with NBCe1-B in bovine parotid acinar cells using yeast two-hybrid, immunofluorescence confocal microscopy and co-immunoprecipitation analyses. Whole-cell patch-clamp experiments revealed that co-expression of AHCYL2 reduces the apparent affinity for intracellular Mg(2+) in inhibition of NBCe1-B currents specifically in a HCO3(-)-deficient cellular condition. Our data unveil AHCYL2 as a potential regulator of NBCe1-B in mammalian cells. We propose that cytosolic ionic condition appropriate for AHCYL2 to function might be different from IRBIT.

Carbonic anhydrases and their interplay with acid/base-coupled membrane transporters

Carbonic anhydrases (CAs) have not only been identified as ubiquitous enzymes catalyzing the fast reversible hydration of carbon dioxide to generate or consume protons and bicarbonate, but also as intra- and extracellular proteins, which facilitate transport function of many acid/base transporting membrane proteins, coined 'transport metabolon'. Functional interaction between CAs and acid/base transporters, such as chloride/bicarbonate exchanger (AE), sodium-bicarbonate cotransporter (NBC) and sodium/hydrogen exchanger (NHE) has been shown to require both catalytic CA activity as well as direct binding of the enzyme to specific sites on the transporter. In contrast, functional interaction between different CA isoforms and lactate-proton-cotransporting monocarboxylate transporters (MCT) has been found to be isoform-specific and independent of CA catalytic activity, but seems to require an intramolecular proton shuttle within the enzyme. In this chapter, we review the various types of interactions between acid/base-coupled membrane carriers and different CA isoforms, as studied in vitro, in intact Xenopus oocytes, and in various mammalian cell types. Furthermore, we discuss recent findings that indicate the significance of these 'transport metabolons' for normal cell functions.

Proximal renal tubular acidosis mediated by mutations in NBCe1-A: unraveling the transporter's structure-functional properties

NBCe1 belongs to the SLC4 family of base transporting membrane proteins that plays a significant role in renal, extrarenal, and systemic acid-base homeostasis. Recent progress has been made in characterizing the structure-function properties of NBCe1 (encoded by the SLC4A4 gene), and those factors that regulate its function. In the kidney, the NBCe1-A variant that is expressed on the basolateral membrane of proximal tubule is the key transporter responsible for overall transepithelial bicarbonate absorption in this nephron segment. NBCe1 mutations impair transepithelial bicarbonate absorption causing the syndrome of proximal renal tubular acidosis (pRTA). Studies of naturally occurring NBCe1 mutant proteins in heterologous expression systems have been very helpful in elucidation the structure-functional properties of the transporter. NBCe1 mutations are now known to cause pRTA by various mechanisms including the alteration of the transporter function (substrate ion interaction, electrogenicity), abnormal processing to the plasma membrane, and a perturbation in its structural properties. The elucidation of how NBCe1 mutations cause pRTA in addition to the recent studies which have provided further insight into the topology of the transporter have played an important role in uncovering its critically important structural-function properties.

The N-terminal cytoplasmic region of NCBE displays features of an intrinsic disordered structure and represents a novel target for specific drug screening

The sodium dependent bicarbonate transporter NCBE/NBCn2 is predominantly expressed in the central nervous system (CNS). The highest protein concentrations are found in the choroid plexus. The primary function of this integral plasma membrane transport protein is to regulate intracellular neuronal pH and also probably to maintain the pH homeostasis across the blood-cerebrospinal fluid barrier. NCBE is predicted to contain at least 10 transmembrane helices. The N- and C- termini are both cytoplasmic, with a large N-terminal domain (Nt-NCBE) and a relatively small C-terminal domain (Ct-NCBE). The Nt-NCBE is likely to be involved in bicarbonate recognition and transport and contains key areas of regulation involving pH sensing and protein-protein interactions. Intrinsic disordered protein regions (IDPRs) are defined as protein regions having no rigid three-dimensional structure under physiological conditions. They are believed to be involved in signaling networks in which specific, low affinity, protein-protein interactions play an important role. We predict that NCBE and other SoLute Carrier 4 (SLC4) family members have a high level of intrinsic disorder in their cytoplasmic regions. To provide biophysical evidence for the IDPRs predicted in Nt-NCBE, we produced pure (>99%), recombinant Nt-NCBE using E. coli as the expression host. The protein was used to perform differential scanning fluorescence spectroscopy (DSF), in order to search for small molecules that would induce secondary or tertiary structure in the IDPRs. We expect this to assist the development of selective pharmaceutical compounds against individual SLC4 family members. We have also determined a low resolution (4 Å) X-ray crystal structure of the N-terminal core domain. The N-terminal cytoplasmic domain (cdb3) of anion exchanger 1 (AE1) shares a similar fold with the N-terminal core domain of NCBE. Crystallization conditions for the full-length N-terminal domain have been sought, but only the core domain yields diffracting crystals.

Molecular mechanisms of renal and extrarenal manifestations caused by inactivation of the electrogenic Na(+)-HCO3 (-) cotransporter NBCe1

The electrogenic Na(+)-HCO3 (-) cotransporter NBCe1 plays an essential role in bicarbonate absorption from renal proximal tubules, but also mediates the other biological processes in extrarenal tissues such as bicarbonate secretion from pancreatic ducts, maintenance of tissue homeostasis in eye, enamel maturation in teeth, or local pH regulation in synapses. Homozygous mutation in NBCe1 cause proximal renal tubular acidosis (pRTA) associated with extrarenal manifestations such as short stature, ocular abnormalities, enamel abnormalities, and migraine. Functional analyses of NBCe1 mutants using different expression systems suggest that at least a 50% reduction of the transport activity may be required to induce severe pRTA. In addition to functional impairments, some NBCe1 mutants show trafficking defects. Some of the pRTA-related NBCe1 mutants showing the cytoplasmic retention have been shown to exert a dominant negative effect through hetero-oligomer complexes with wild-type NBCe1 that may explain the occurrence of extrarenal manifestations in the heterozygous carries of NBCe1 mutations. Both NBCe1 knockout (KO) and W516X knockin (KI) mice showed very severe pRTA and reproduced most of the clinical manifestations observed in human pRTA patients. Functional analysis on isolated renal proximal tubules from W516X KI mice directly confirmed the indispensable role of NBCe1 in bicarbonate absorption from this nephron segment. In this review, we will focus on the molecular mechanisms underling the renal and extrarenal manifestations caused by NBCe1 inactivation.

The SLC4 family of bicarbonate (HCO₃⁻) transporters

The SLC4 family consists of 10 genes (SLC4A1-5; SLC4A7-11). All encode integral membrane proteins with very similar hydropathy plots-consistent with 10-14 transmembrane segments. Nine SLC4 members encode proteins that transport HCO3(-) (or a related species, such as CO3(2-)) across the plasma membrane. Functionally, eight of these proteins fall into two major groups: three Cl-HCO3 exchangers (AE1-3) and five Na(+)-coupled HCO3(-) transporters (NBCe1, NBCe2, NBCn1, NBCn2, NDCBE). Two of the Na(+)-coupled transporters (NBCe1, NBCe2) are electrogenic; the other three Na(+)-coupled HCO3(-) transporters and all three AEs are electroneutral. In addition, two other SLC4 members (AE4, SLC4A9 and BTR1, SLC4A11) do not yet have a firmly established function. Most, though not all, SLC4 members are functionally inhibited by 4,4'-diisothiocyanatostilbene-2,2'-disulfonate (DIDS). SLC4 proteins play important roles many modes of acid-base homeostasis: the carriage of CO2 by erythrocytes, the transport of H(+) or HCO3(-) by several epithelia, as well as the regulation of cell volume and intracellular pH.

Effects of optional structural elements, including two alternative amino termini and a new splicing cassette IV, on the function of the sodium-bicarbonate cotransporter NBCn1 (SLC4A7)

The SLC4A7 gene encodes the electroneutral sodium/HCO3 cotransporter NBCn1, which plays important physiological and pathophysiological roles in many cell types. Previous work identified six NBCn1 variants differing in the sequence of the extreme N terminus--MEAD in rat only, MERF in human only--as well as in the optional inclusion of cassettes I, II, and III. Earlier work also left open the question of whether optional structural elements (OSEs) affect surface abundance or intrinsic (per-molecule) transport activity. Here, we demonstrate for the first time that SLC4A7 from one species can express both MEAD- and MERF-NBCn1. We also identify a novel cassette IV of 20 aa, and extend by 10 the number of full-length NBCn1 variants. The alternative N termini and four cassettes could theoretically produce 32 major variants. Moreover, we identify a group of cDNAs predicted to encode just the cytosolic N-terminal domain (Nt) of NBCn1. A combination of electrophysiology and biotinylation shows that the OSEs can affect surface abundance and intrinsic HCO3(-) transport activity of NBCn1, as expressed in Xenopus oocytes. Specifically, MEAD tends to increase whereas novel cassette IV reduces surface abundance. Cassettes II, III and novel cassette IV all appear to increase the intrinsic activity of NBCn1.

Missense mutation T485S alters NBCe1-A electrogenicity causing proximal renal tubular acidosis

Mutations in SLC4A4, the gene encoding the electrogenic Na(+)-HCO3(-) cotransporter NBCe1, cause severe proximal renal tubular acidosis (pRTA), growth retardation, decreased IQ, and eye and teeth abnormalities. Among the known NBCe1 mutations, the disease-causing mechanism of the T485S (NBCe1-A numbering) mutation is intriguing because the substituted amino acid, serine, is structurally and chemically similar to threonine. In this study, we performed intracellular pH and whole cell patch-clamp measurements to investigate the base transport and electrogenic properties of NBCe1-A-T485S in mammalian HEK 293 cells. Our results demonstrated that Ser substitution of Thr485 decreased base transport by ~50%, and importantly, converted NBCe1-A from an electrogenic to an electroneutral transporter. Aqueous accessibility analysis using sulfhydryl reactive reagents indicated that Thr485 likely resides in an NBCe1-A ion interaction site. This critical location is also supported by the finding that G486R (a pRTA causing mutation) alters the position of Thr485 in NBCe1-A thereby impairing its transport function. By using NO3(-) as a surrogate ion for CO3(2-), our result indicated that NBCe1-A mediates electrogenic Na(+)-CO3(2-) cotransport when functioning with a 1:2 charge transport stoichiometry. In contrast, electroneutral NBCe1-T485S is unable to transport NO3(-), compatible with the hypothesis that it mediates Na(+)-HCO3(-) cotransport. In patients, NBCe1-A-T485S is predicted to transport Na(+)-HCO3(-) in the reverse direction from blood into proximal tubule cells thereby impairing transepithelial HCO3(-) absorption, possibly representing a new pathogenic mechanism for generating human pRTA.

Substrate specificity of the electrogenic sodium/bicarbonate cotransporter NBCe1-A (SLC4A4, variant A) from humans and rabbits

In the basolateral membrane of proximal-tubule cells, NBCe1-A (SLC4A4, variant A), operating with an apparent Na(+):HCO(3)(-) stoichiometry of 1:3, contributes to the reclamation of HCO(3)(-) from the glomerular filtrate, thereby preventing whole body acidosis. Others have reported that NBCe1-like activity in human, rabbit, and rat renal preparations is substantially influenced by lithium, sulfite, oxalate, and harmaline. These data were taken as evidence for the presence of distinct Na(+) and CO(3)(2-) binding sites in NBCe1-A, favoring a model of 1 Na(+):1 HCO(3)(-):1 CO(3)(2-). Here, we reexamine these findings by expressing human or rabbit NBCe1-A clones in Xenopus oocytes. In oocytes, NBCe1-A exhibits a 1:2 stoichiometry and could operate in one of five thermodynamically equivalent transport modes: 1) cotransport of Na(+) + 2 HCO(3)(-), 2) cotransport of Na(+) + CO(3)(2-), 3) transport of NaCO(3)(-), 4) exchange of Na(+) + HCO(3)(-) for H(+), or 5) HCO(3)(-)-activated exchange of Na(+) for 2 H(+). In contrast to the behavior of NBCe1-like activity in renal preparations, we find that cloned NBCe1-A is only slightly stimulated by Li(+), not at all influenced by sulfite or oxalate, and only weakly inhibited by harmaline. These negative data do not uniquely support any of the five models above. In addition, we find that NBCe1-A mediates a small amount of Na(+)-independent NO(3)(-) transport and that NBCe1-A is somewhat inhibited by extracellular benzamil. We suggest that the features of NBCe1-like activity in renal preparations are influenced by yet-to-be-identified renal factors. Thus the actual ionic substrates of NBCe1 remain to be identified.

The divergence, actions, roles, and relatives of sodium-coupled bicarbonate transporters

The mammalian Slc4 (Solute carrier 4) family of transporters is a functionally diverse group of 10 multi-spanning membrane proteins that includes three Cl-HCO3 exchangers (AE1-3), five Na(+)-coupled HCO3(-) transporters (NCBTs), and two other unusual members (AE4, BTR1). In this review, we mainly focus on the five mammalian NCBTs-NBCe1, NBCe2, NBCn1, NDCBE, and NBCn2. Each plays a specialized role in maintaining intracellular pH and, by contributing to the movement of HCO3(-) across epithelia, in maintaining whole-body pH and otherwise contributing to epithelial transport. Disruptions involving NCBT genes are linked to blindness, deafness, proximal renal tubular acidosis, mental retardation, and epilepsy. We also review AE1-3, AE4, and BTR1, addressing their relevance to the study of NCBTs. This review draws together recent advances in our understanding of the phylogenetic origins and physiological relevance of NCBTs and their progenitors. Underlying these advances is progress in such diverse disciplines as physiology, molecular biology, genetics, immunocytochemistry, proteomics, and structural biology. This review highlights the key similarities and differences between individual NCBTs and the genes that encode them and also clarifies the sometimes confusing NCBT nomenclature.

pH-sensitive self-associations of the N-terminal domain of NBCe1-A suggest a compact conformation under acidic intracellular conditions

NBCe1-A is an integral membrane protein that cotransports Na⁺ and HCO₃^- ions across the basolateral membrane of the proximal tubule. It is essential for maintaining a homeostatic balance of cellular and blood pH. In X-ray diffraction studies, we reported that the cytoplasmic, N-terminal domain of NBCe1-A (NtNBCe1-A) is a dimer. Here, biophysical measurements show that the dimer is in a concentration-dependent dynamic equilibrium among three additional states in solution that are characterized by its hydrodynamic properties, molar masses, emission spectra, binding properties, and stabilities as a function of pH. Under physiological conditions, dimers are in equilibrium with monomers that are pronounced at low concentration and clusters of molecular masses up to 3-5 times that of a dimer that are pronounced at high concentration. The equilibrium can be influenced so that individual dimers predominate in a taut conformation by lowering the pH. Conversely, dimers begin to relax and disassociate into an increasing population of monomers by elevating the pH. A mechanistic diagram for the inter-conversion of these states is given. The self-associations are further supported by surface plasmon resonance (SPR-Biacore) techniques that illustrate NtNBCe1-A molecules transiently bind with one another. Bicarbonate and bicarbonate-analog bisulfite appear to enhance dimerization and induce a small amount of tetramers. A model is proposed, where the Nt responds to pH or bicarbonate fluctuations inside the cell and plays a role in self-association of entire NBCe1-A molecules in the membrane.

The WNK/SPAK and IRBIT/PP1 pathways in epithelial fluid and electrolyte transport

Fluid and electrolyte homeostasis is a fundamental physiological function required for survival and is associated with a plethora of diseases when aberrant. Systemic fluid and electrolyte composition is regulated by the kidney, and all secretory epithelia generate biological fluids with defined electrolyte composition by vectorial transport of ions and the obligatory water. A major regulatory pathway that immerged in the last several years is regulation of ion transporters by the WNK/SPAK kinases and IRBIT/PP1 pathways. The IRBIT/PP1 pathway functions to reverse the effects of the WNK/SPAK kinases pathway, as was demonstrated for NBCe1-B and CFTR. Since many transporters involved in fluid and electrolyte homeostasis are affected by PP1 and/or calcineurin, it is possible that WNK/SPAK and IRBIT/PP1 form a common regulatory pathway to tune the activity of fluid and electrolyte transport in response to physiological demands.

Convergence of IRBIT, phosphatidylinositol (4,5) bisphosphate, and WNK/SPAK kinases in regulation of the Na+-HCO3- cotransporters family

Fluid and HCO3(-) secretion is a vital function of secretory epithelia, involving basolateral HCO3(-) entry through the Na(+)-HCO3(-) cotransporter (NBC) NBCe1-B, and luminal HCO3(-) exit mediated by cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) and solute carrier family 26 (SLC26) Cl(-)/HCO3(-) exchangers. HCO3(-) secretion is highly regulated, with the WNK/SPAK kinase pathway setting the resting state and the IRBIT/PP1 pathway setting the stimulated state. However, we know little about the relationships between the WNK/SPAK and IRBIT/PP1 sites in the regulation of the transporters. The first 85 N-terminal amino acids of NBCe1-B function as an autoinhibitory domain. Here we have identified a positively charged module within NBCe1-B(37-65) that is conserved in NBCn1-A and all 20 members of the NBC superfamily except NBCe1-A. This module is required for the interaction and activation of NBCe1-B and NBCn1-A by IRBIT and their regulation by phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2). Activation of the transporters by IRBIT and PIP2 is nonadditive but complementary. Phosphorylation of Ser65 mediates regulation of NBCe1-B by SPAK, and phosphorylation of Thr49 is required for regulation by IRBIT and SPAK. Sequence searches using the NBCe1-B regulatory module as a template identified a homologous sequence in the CFTR R domain and Slc26a6 sulfat transporter and antisigma factor antagonist (STAS) domain. Accordingly, the R and STAS domains bind IRBIT, and the R domain is required for activation of CFTR by IRBIT. These findings reveal convergence of regulatory modalities in a conserved domain of the NBC that may be present in other HCO3(-) transporters and thus in the regulation of epithelial fluid and HCO3(-) secretion.

Cloning and functional characterization of novel variants and tissue-specific expression of alternative amino and carboxyl termini of products of slc4a10

Previous studies have shown that the electroneutral Na⁺/HCO₃⁻ cotransporter NBCn2 (SLC4A10) is predominantly expressed in the central nervous system (CNS). The physiological and pathological significances of NBCn2 have been well recognized. However, little is known about the tissue specificity of expression of different NBCn2 variants. Moreover, little is known about the expression of NBCn2 proteins in systems other than CNS. Here, we identified a set of novel Slc4a10 variants differing from the originally described ones by containing a distinct 5′ untranslated region encoding a new extreme amino-terminus (Nt). Electrophysiology measurements showed that both NBCn2 variants with alternative Nt contain typical electroneutral Na⁺-coupled HCO₃⁻ transport activity in Xenopus oocytes. Luciferase reporter assay showed that Slc4a10 contains two alternative promoters responsible for expression of the two types of NBCn2 with distinct extreme Nt. Western blotting showed that NBCn2 proteins with the original Nt are primarily expressed in CNS, whereas those with the novel Nt are predominantly expressed in the kidney and to a lesser extent in the small intestine. Due to alternative splicing, the known NBCn2 variants contain two types of carboxyl-termini (CT) differing in the optional inclusion of a PDZ-binding motif. cDNA cloning showed that virtually all NBCn2 variants expressed in epithelial tissues contain, but the vast majority of those from the neural tissues lack the PDZ-binding motif. We conclude that alternative transcription and splicing of Slc4a10 products are regulated in a tissue-specific manner. Our findings provide critical insights that will greatly influence the study of the physiology of NBCn2.