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Alikin D, Safina V, Abramov A, Slautin B, Shur V, Pavlenko A, Kholkin A. Defining ferroelectric characteristics with reversible piezoresponse: PUND switching spectroscopy PFM characterization. NANOTECHNOLOGY 2024; 35:175702. [PMID: 38181439 DOI: 10.1088/1361-6528/ad1b97] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2023] [Accepted: 01/05/2024] [Indexed: 01/07/2024]
Abstract
Detecting ferroelectricity at micro- and nanoscales is crucial for advanced nanomaterials and materials with complicated topography. Switching spectroscopy piezoresponse force microscopy (SSPFM), which involves measuring piezoelectric hysteresis loops via a scanning probe microscopy tip, is a widely accepted approach to characterize polarization reversal at the local scale and confirm ferroelectricity. However, the local hysteresis loops acquired through this method often exhibit unpredictable shapes, a phenomenon often attributed to the influence of parasitic factors such as electrostatic forces and current flow. Our research has uncovered that the deviation in hysteresis loop shapes can be caused by spontaneous backswitching occurring after polarization reversal. Moreover, we've determined that the extent of this effect can be exacerbated when employing inappropriate SSPFM waveform parameters, including duration, frequency, and AC voltage amplitude. Notably, the conventional 'pulse-mode' SSPFM method has been found to intensify spontaneous backswitching. In response to these challenges, we have redesigned SSPFM approach by introducing the positive up-negative down (PUND) method within the 'step-mode' SSPFM. This modification allows for effective probing of local piezoelectric hysteresis loops in ferroelectrics with reversible piezoresponse while removing undesirable electrostatic contribution. This advancement extends the applicability of the technique to a diverse range of ferroelectrics, including semiconductor ferroelectrics and relaxors, promising a more reliable and accurate characterization of their properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Denis Alikin
- School of Natural Sciences and Mathematics, Ural Federal University, Ekaterinburg, Russia
| | - Violetta Safina
- School of Natural Sciences and Mathematics, Ural Federal University, Ekaterinburg, Russia
| | - Alexander Abramov
- School of Natural Sciences and Mathematics, Ural Federal University, Ekaterinburg, Russia
| | - Boris Slautin
- School of Natural Sciences and Mathematics, Ural Federal University, Ekaterinburg, Russia
| | - Vladimir Shur
- School of Natural Sciences and Mathematics, Ural Federal University, Ekaterinburg, Russia
| | - Anatoly Pavlenko
- Southern Scientific Center, Russian Academy of Sciences, Rostov-on-Don, Russia
| | - Andrei Kholkin
- School of Natural Sciences and Mathematics, Ural Federal University, Ekaterinburg, Russia
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2
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Toalá CU, Prokhorov E, Barcenas GL, Landaverde MAH, Limón JMY, Gervacio-Arciniega JJ, de Fuentes OA, Tapia AMG. Electrostrictive and piezoelectrical properties of chitosan-poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) blend films. Int J Biol Macromol 2023; 250:126251. [PMID: 37562485 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.126251] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2023] [Revised: 07/27/2023] [Accepted: 08/07/2023] [Indexed: 08/12/2023]
Abstract
Herein, we report the high apparent piezoelectric coefficient for chitosan-poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) (CS-PHB) blend films. The structure of chitosan-poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) (CS-PHB) blend films, exploiting characteristics such as dielectric, polarization, apparent piezoelectric properties, and their dependencies on the composition, were investigated. Based on the results of XRD, SEM, FTIR, PFM, and dielectric spectroscopy measurements, the structure of CS-PHB blend films has been proposed, which consists of spheric-like inclusion formed by precipitating isotactic-PHB interface layer, which consists of syndiotactic-PHB hydrogen bonding with CS, and CS matrix. The synergistic effects of piezoelectricity and electrostriction help explain the high value of the apparent piezoelectric coefficient (d33) obtained in the blend film with 13 wt% of PHB (d33 ≈ 200 pC/N). The investigated CS-PHB blend films are a good candidate for tissue engineering applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Uitz Toalá
- Nanosciences Program, Cinvestav del IPN, Mexico; CINVESTAV del IPN, Unidad Querétaro, Mexico
| | - E Prokhorov
- CINVESTAV del IPN, Unidad Querétaro, Mexico.
| | - G Luna Barcenas
- Nanosciences Program, Cinvestav del IPN, Mexico; CINVESTAV del IPN, Unidad Querétaro, Mexico.
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3
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Kwon J, Cho H. Collagen piezoelectricity in osteogenesis imperfecta and its role in intrafibrillar mineralization. Commun Biol 2022; 5:1229. [DOI: 10.1038/s42003-022-04204-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2021] [Accepted: 11/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
AbstractIntrafibrillar mineralization plays a critical role in attaining desired mechanical properties of bone. It is well known that amorphous calcium phosphate (ACP) infiltrates into the collagen through the gap regions, but its underlying driving force is not understood. Based on the authors’ previous observations that a collagen fibril has higher piezoelectricity at gap regions, it was hypothesized that the piezoelectric heterogeneity of collagen helps ACP infiltration through the gap. To further examine this hypothesis, the collagen piezoelectricity of osteogenesis imperfecta (OI), known as brittle bone disease, is characterized by employing Piezoresponse Force Microscopy (PFM). The OI collagen reveals similar piezoelectricity between gap and overlap regions, implying that losing piezoelectric heterogeneity in OI collagen results in abnormal intrafibrillar mineralization and, accordingly, losing the benefit of mechanical heterogeneity from the fibrillar level. This finding suggests a perspective to explain the ACP infiltration, highlighting the physiological role of collagen piezoelectricity in intrafibrillar mineralization.
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Buragohain P, Lu H, Richter C, Schenk T, Kariuki P, Glinsek S, Funakubo H, Íñiguez J, Defay E, Schroeder U, Gruverman A. Quantification of the Electromechanical Measurements by Piezoresponse Force Microscopy. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2022; 34:e2206237. [PMID: 36210741 DOI: 10.1002/adma.202206237] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2022] [Revised: 09/10/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Piezoresponse force microscopy (PFM) is widely used for characterization and exploration of the nanoscale properties of ferroelectrics. However, quantification of the PFM signal is challenging due to the convolution of various extrinsic and intrinsic contributions. Although quantification of the PFM amplitude signal has received considerable attention, quantification of the PFM phase signal has not been addressed. A properly calibrated PFM phase signal can provide valuable information on the sign of the local piezoelectric coefficient-an important and nontrivial issue for emerging ferroelectrics. In this work, two complementary methodologies to calibrate the PFM phase signal are discussed. The first approach is based on using a standard reference sample with well-known independently measured piezoelectric coefficients, while the second approach exploits the electrostatic sample-cantilever interactions to determine the parasitic phase offset. Application of these methodologies to studies of the piezoelectric behavior in ferroelectric HfO2 -based thin-film capacitors reveals intriguing variations in the sign of the longitudinal piezoelectric coefficient, d33,eff . It is shown that the piezoelectric properties of the HfO2 -based capacitors are inherently sensitive to their thickness, electrodes, as well as deposition methods, and can exhibit wide variations including a d33,eff sign change within a single device.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pratyush Buragohain
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68588, USA
| | - Haidong Lu
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68588, USA
| | - Claudia Richter
- NaMLab gGmbH, 01187, Noethnitzer Strasse 64 a, Dresden, Germany
| | - Tony Schenk
- Ferroelectric Memory GmbH, 01099, Charlotte-Bühler-Str. 12, Dresden, Germany
| | - Pamenas Kariuki
- NaMLab gGmbH, 01187, Noethnitzer Strasse 64 a, Dresden, Germany
| | - Sebastjan Glinsek
- Materials Research and Technology Department, Luxembourg Institute of Science and Technology, 41 Rue du Brill, Belvaux, L-4422, Luxembourg
| | - Hiroshi Funakubo
- School of Materials and Chemical Technology, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Yokohama, 226-8502, Japan
| | - Jorge Íñiguez
- Materials Research and Technology Department, Luxembourg Institute of Science and Technology, 41 Rue du Brill, Belvaux, L-4422, Luxembourg
- Department of Physics and Materials Science, University of Luxembourg, 41 Rue du Brill, Belvaux, L-4422, Luxembourg
| | - Emmanuel Defay
- Materials Research and Technology Department, Luxembourg Institute of Science and Technology, 41 Rue du Brill, Belvaux, L-4422, Luxembourg
| | - Uwe Schroeder
- NaMLab gGmbH, 01187, Noethnitzer Strasse 64 a, Dresden, Germany
| | - Alexei Gruverman
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68588, USA
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Loo CC, Ng SS, Chang WS. Electrostatic Contribution to the Photo-Assisted Piezoresponse Force Microscopy by Photo-Induced Surface Charge. MICROSCOPY AND MICROANALYSIS : THE OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF MICROSCOPY SOCIETY OF AMERICA, MICROBEAM ANALYSIS SOCIETY, MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY OF CANADA 2022; 28:1-5. [PMID: 35616223 DOI: 10.1017/s143192762200085x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The surging interest in manipulating the polarization of piezo/ferroelectric materials by means of light has driven an increasing number of studies toward their light-polarization interaction. One way to investigate such interaction is by performing piezoresponse force microscopy (PFM) while/after the sample is exposed to light illumination. However, caution must be exercised when analyzing and interpreting the data, as demonstrated in this paper, because sizeable photo-response observed in the PFM amplitude image of the sample is shown to be caused by the electrostatic interaction between the photo-induced surface charge and tip. Through photo-assisted Kelvin probe force microscopy (KPFM), positive surface potential is found to be developed near the sample's surface under 405 nm light illumination, whose effects on the measured PFM signal is revealed by the comparative studies on its amplitude curves that are obtained using PFM spectroscopy mode with/without illumination. This work exemplifies the need for complementary use of KPFM, PFM imaging mode, and PFM spectroscopy mode in order to distinguish real behavior from artifacts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chin Chyi Loo
- Mechanical Engineering Discipline, School of Engineering, Monash University, Bandar Sunway, Selangor 47500, Malaysia
| | - Sha Shiong Ng
- Institute of Nano Optoelectronics Research and Technology (INOR), Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 USM, Penang, Malaysia
| | - Wei Sea Chang
- Mechanical Engineering Discipline, School of Engineering, Monash University, Bandar Sunway, Selangor 47500, Malaysia
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Research Center for Intelligent Medical devices, Ming Chi University of Technology, New Taipei City 24301, Taiwan
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Kang S, Jang WS, Morozovska AN, Kwon O, Jin Y, Kim YH, Bae H, Wang C, Yang SH, Belianinov A, Randolph S, Eliseev EA, Collins L, Park Y, Jo S, Jung MH, Go KJ, Cho HW, Choi SY, Jang JH, Kim S, Jeong HY, Lee J, Ovchinnikova OS, Heo J, Kalinin SV, Kim YM, Kim Y. Highly enhanced ferroelectricity in HfO 2-based ferroelectric thin film by light ion bombardment. Science 2022; 376:731-738. [PMID: 35549417 DOI: 10.1126/science.abk3195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
Continuous advancement in nonvolatile and morphotropic beyond-Moore electronic devices requires integration of ferroelectric and semiconductor materials. The emergence of hafnium oxide (HfO2)-based ferroelectrics that are compatible with atomic-layer deposition has opened interesting and promising avenues of research. However, the origins of ferroelectricity and pathways to controlling it in HfO2 are still mysterious. We demonstrate that local helium (He) implantation can activate ferroelectricity in these materials. The possible competing mechanisms, including He ion-induced molar volume changes, vacancy redistribution, vacancy generation, and activation of vacancy mobility, are analyzed. These findings both reveal the origins of ferroelectricity in this system and open pathways for nanoengineered binary ferroelectrics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seunghun Kang
- School of Advanced Materials Science and Engineering, Sungkyunkwan University (SKKU), Suwon 16419, Republic of Korea
| | - Woo-Sung Jang
- Department of Energy Science, Sungkyunkwan University (SKKU), Suwon 16419, Republic of Korea
| | - Anna N Morozovska
- Institute of Physics, National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, 46, Prospekt. Nauky, 03028 Kyiv, Ukraine
| | - Owoong Kwon
- School of Advanced Materials Science and Engineering, Sungkyunkwan University (SKKU), Suwon 16419, Republic of Korea
| | - Yeongrok Jin
- Department of Physics, Pusan National University, Busan 46241, Republic of Korea
| | - Young-Hoon Kim
- Department of Energy Science, Sungkyunkwan University (SKKU), Suwon 16419, Republic of Korea
| | - Hagyoul Bae
- Samsung Advanced Institute of Technology, Suwon 16678, Republic of Korea
| | - Chenxi Wang
- School of Advanced Materials Science and Engineering, Sungkyunkwan University (SKKU), Suwon 16419, Republic of Korea
| | - Sang-Hyeok Yang
- Department of Energy Science, Sungkyunkwan University (SKKU), Suwon 16419, Republic of Korea
| | - Alex Belianinov
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN 37831, USA.,Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, NM 87123, USA
| | - Steven Randolph
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN 37831, USA
| | - Eugene A Eliseev
- Institute for Problems of Materials Science, National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, Krjijanovskogo 3, 03142 Kyiv, Ukraine
| | - Liam Collins
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN 37831, USA
| | - Yeehyun Park
- School of Advanced Materials Science and Engineering, Sungkyunkwan University (SKKU), Suwon 16419, Republic of Korea
| | - Sanghyun Jo
- Samsung Advanced Institute of Technology, Suwon 16678, Republic of Korea
| | - Min-Hyoung Jung
- Department of Energy Science, Sungkyunkwan University (SKKU), Suwon 16419, Republic of Korea
| | - Kyoung-June Go
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH), Pohang 37673, Republic of Korea
| | - Hae Won Cho
- School of Advanced Materials Science and Engineering, Sungkyunkwan University (SKKU), Suwon 16419, Republic of Korea
| | - Si-Young Choi
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH), Pohang 37673, Republic of Korea
| | - Jae Hyuck Jang
- Center for Scientific Instrumentation, Korea Basic Science Institute (KBSI), Daejeon 34133, Republic of Korea
| | - Sunkook Kim
- School of Advanced Materials Science and Engineering, Sungkyunkwan University (SKKU), Suwon 16419, Republic of Korea
| | - Hu Young Jeong
- Graduate School of Semiconductor Materials and Devices Engineering, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST), Ulsan 44919, Republic of Korea
| | - Jaekwang Lee
- Department of Physics, Pusan National University, Busan 46241, Republic of Korea
| | - Olga S Ovchinnikova
- Computational Sciences and Engineering Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN 37831, USA
| | - Jinseong Heo
- Samsung Advanced Institute of Technology, Suwon 16678, Republic of Korea
| | - Sergei V Kalinin
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN 37831, USA.,Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37920, USA
| | - Young-Min Kim
- Department of Energy Science, Sungkyunkwan University (SKKU), Suwon 16419, Republic of Korea
| | - Yunseok Kim
- School of Advanced Materials Science and Engineering, Sungkyunkwan University (SKKU), Suwon 16419, Republic of Korea
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7
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Killgore JP, Robins L, Collins L. Electrostatically-blind quantitative piezoresponse force microscopy free of distributed-force artifacts. NANOSCALE ADVANCES 2022; 4:2036-2045. [PMID: 36133417 PMCID: PMC9418616 DOI: 10.1039/d2na00046f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2022] [Accepted: 03/15/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
The presence of electrostatic forces and associated artifacts complicates the interpretation of piezoresponse force microscopy (PFM) and electrochemical strain microscopy (ESM). Eliminating these artifacts provides an opportunity for precisely mapping domain wall structures and dynamics, accurately quantifying local piezoelectric coupling coefficients, and reliably investigating hysteretic processes at the single nanometer scale to determine properties and mechanisms which underly important applications including computing, batteries and biology. Here we exploit the existence of an electrostatic blind spot (ESBS) along the length of the cantilever, due to the distributed nature of the electrostatic force, which can be universally used to separate unwanted long range electrostatic contributions from short range electromechanical responses of interest. The results of ESBS-PFM are compared to state-of-the-art interferometric displacement sensing PFM, showing excellent agreement above their respective noise floors. Ultimately, ESBS-PFM allows for absolute quantification of piezoelectric coupling coefficients independent of probe, lab or experimental conditions. As such, we expect the widespread adoption of EBSB-PFM to be a paradigm shift in the quantification of nanoscale electromechanics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason P Killgore
- Applied Chemicals and Materials Division, National Institute of Standards and Technology Boulder CO USA
| | - Larry Robins
- Applied Chemicals and Materials Division, National Institute of Standards and Technology Boulder CO USA
| | - Liam Collins
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory Oak Ridge TN USA
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8
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Neumayer SM, Zhao Z, O'Hara A, McGuire MA, Susner MA, Pantelides ST, Maksymovych P, Balke N. Nanoscale Control of Polar Surface Phases in Layered van der Waals CuInP 2S 6. ACS NANO 2022; 16:2452-2460. [PMID: 35129970 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.1c08970] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Antiferroelectric (AFE) materials, in which alternating dipole moments cancel out to a zero net macroscopic polarization, can be used for high-density energy storage and memory applications. The AFE phase can exist in bulk CuInP2Se6, CuBiP2S6, and a few other transition-metal thiophosphates below 200 K. The required low temperature poses challenges for practical applications. In this work, we report the coexistence of ferrielectric (FE) states and a stable surface phase that does not show piezoelectric response ("zero-response phase") in bulk CuInP2S6 at room temperature. Using piezoresponse force microscopy (PFM) tomographic imaging together with density functional theory, we find that direct and alternating voltages can locally and stably convert FE to zero-response phases and vice versa. While PFM loops show pinched hystereses reminiscent of antiferroelectricity, PFM tomography reveals that the zero-response areas form only on top of the FE phase in which the polarization vector is pointing up. Theoretical calculations suggest that the zero-response phase may correspond to AFE ordering where stacked CuInP2S6 layers have alternating polarization orientations thereby leading to a net-zero polarization. Consistent with experimental findings, theory predicts that the FE polarization pointing down is robust up to the top surface, whereas FE polarization pointing up energetically favors the formation of an AFE surface layer, whose thickness is likely to be sensitive to local strains. AFE order is likely to be more robust against detrimental size effects than polar order, therefore providing additional opportunities to create multifunctional heterostructures with 2D electronic materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabine M Neumayer
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, United States
| | - Zhenghang Zhao
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee 37235, United States
| | - Andrew O'Hara
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee 37235, United States
| | - Michael A McGuire
- Materials Science and Technology Division, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, United States
| | - Michael A Susner
- Materials and Manufacturing Directorate, Air Force Research Laboratory, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Dayton, Ohio 45433, United States
| | - Sokrates T Pantelides
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee 37235, United States
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee 37235, United States
| | - Petro Maksymovych
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, United States
| | - Nina Balke
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, United States
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27695-7907, United States
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9
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Kelley KP, Morozovska AN, Eliseev EA, Sharma V, Yilmaz DE, van Duin ACT, Ganesh P, Borisevich A, Jesse S, Maksymovych P, Balke N, Kalinin SV, Vasudevan RK. Oxygen Vacancy Injection as a Pathway to Enhancing Electromechanical Response in Ferroelectrics. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2022; 34:e2106426. [PMID: 34647655 DOI: 10.1002/adma.202106426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2021] [Revised: 10/01/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Since their discovery in late 1940s, perovskite ferroelectric materials have become one of the central objects of condensed matter physics and materials science due to the broad spectrum of functional behaviors they exhibit, including electro-optical phenomena and strong electromechanical coupling. In such disordered materials, the static properties of defects such as oxygen vacancies are well explored but the dynamic effects are less understood. In this work, the first observation of enhanced electromechanical response in BaTiO3 thin films is reported driven via dynamic local oxygen vacancy control in piezoresponse force microscopy (PFM). A persistence in peizoelectricity past the bulk Curie temperature and an enhanced electromechanical response due to a created internal electric field that further enhances the intrinsic electrostriction are explicitly demonstrated. The findings are supported by a series of temperature dependent band excitation PFM in ultrahigh vacuum and a combination of modeling techniques including finite element modeling, reactive force field, and density functional theory. This study shows the pivotal role that dynamics of vacancies in complex oxides can play in determining functional properties and thus provides a new route toward- achieving enhanced ferroic response with higher functional temperature windows in ferroelectrics and other ferroic materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyle P Kelley
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, 37831, USA
| | - Anna N Morozovska
- Institute of Physics, National Academy of Science of Ukraine, pr. Nauki 46, Kyiv, 03028, Ukraine
| | - Eugene A Eliseev
- Institute for Problems of Materials Science, National Academy of Science of Ukraine, Krjijanovskogo 3, Kyiv, 03142, Ukraine
| | - Vinit Sharma
- National Institute for Computational Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, 37831, USA
- Joint Institute for Computational Sciences, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, 37996, USA
| | - Dundar E Yilmaz
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
| | - Adri C T van Duin
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
| | - Panchapakesan Ganesh
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, 37831, USA
| | - Albina Borisevich
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, 37831, USA
| | - Stephen Jesse
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, 37831, USA
| | - Peter Maksymovych
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, 37831, USA
| | - Nina Balke
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, 37831, USA
| | - Sergei V Kalinin
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, 37831, USA
| | - Rama K Vasudevan
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, 37831, USA
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10
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Zeng Q, Huang Q, Wang H, Li C, Fan Z, Chen D, Cheng Y, Zeng K. Breaking the Fundamental Limitations of Nanoscale Ferroelectric Characterization: Non-Contact Heterodyne Electrostrain Force Microscopy. SMALL METHODS 2021; 5:e2100639. [PMID: 34927968 DOI: 10.1002/smtd.202100639] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2021] [Revised: 09/09/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Perceiving nanoscale ferroelectric phenomena from real space is of great importance for elucidating underlying ferroelectric physics. During the past decades, nanoscale ferroelectric characterization has mainly relied on the Piezoresponse Force Microscopy (PFM) invented in 1992, however, the fundamental limitations of PFM have made the nanoscale ferroelectric studies encounter significant bottlenecks. In this study, a high-resolution non-contact ferroelectric measurement, named Non-Contact Heterodyne Electrostrain Force Microscopy (NC-HEsFM), is introduced. It is demonstrated that NC-HEsFM can operate on multiple eigenmodes to perform ideal high-resolution ferroelectric domain mapping, standard ferroelectric hysteresis loop measurement, and controllable domain manipulation. By using a quartz tuning fork (QTF) sensor, multi-frequency operation, and heterodyne detection schemes, NC-HEsFM achieves a real non-contact yet non-destructive ferroelectric characterization with negligible electrostatic force effect and hence breaks the fundamental limitations of the conventional PFM. It is believed that NC-HEsFM can be extensively used in various ferroelectric or piezoelectric studies with providing substantially improved characterization performance. Meanwhile, the QTF-based force detection makes NC-HEsFM highly compatible for high-vacuum and low-temperature environments, providing ideal conditions for investigating the intrinsic ferroelectric phenomena with the possibility of achieving an atomically resolved ferroelectric characterization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qibin Zeng
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore, 117576, Singapore
| | - Qicheng Huang
- Institute for Advanced Materials, South China Academy of Advanced Optoelectronics, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, 510006, China
| | - Hongli Wang
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore, 117576, Singapore
- The Key Lab of Guangdong for Modern Surface Engineering Technology, National Engineering Laboratory for Modern Materials Surface Engineering Technology, Institute of New Materials, Guangdong Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, 510650, China
| | - Caiwen Li
- Institute for Advanced Materials, South China Academy of Advanced Optoelectronics, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, 510006, China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Optical Information Materials and Technology, South China Academy of Advanced Optoelectronics, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, 510006, China
| | - Zhen Fan
- Institute for Advanced Materials, South China Academy of Advanced Optoelectronics, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, 510006, China
| | - Deyang Chen
- Institute for Advanced Materials, South China Academy of Advanced Optoelectronics, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, 510006, China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Optical Information Materials and Technology, South China Academy of Advanced Optoelectronics, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, 510006, China
| | - Yuan Cheng
- Institute of High-Performance Computing, Agency for Science Technology and Research, Singapore, 138632, Singapore
- Monash Suzhou Research Institute, Suzhou, 215123, China
| | - Kaiyang Zeng
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore, 117576, Singapore
- NUS (Suzhou) Research Institute (NUSRI), Suzhou, 215123, China
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11
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Kwon O, Kang S, Jo S, Kim YD, Han H, Park Y, Lu X, Lee W, Heo J, Alexe M, Kim Y. Quantitative Local Probing of Polarization with Application on HfO 2 -Based Thin Films. SMALL METHODS 2021; 5:e2100781. [PMID: 34927955 DOI: 10.1002/smtd.202100781] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2021] [Revised: 09/09/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Owing to their switchable spontaneous polarization, ferroelectric materials have been applied in various fields, such as information technologies, actuators, and sensors. In the last decade, as the characteristic sizes of both devices and materials have decreased significantly below the nanoscale, the development of appropriate characterization tools became essential. Recently, a technique based on conductive atomic force microscopy (AFM), called AFM-positive-up-negative-down (PUND), is employed for the direct measurement of ferroelectric polarization under the AFM tip. However, the main limitation of AFM-PUND is the low frequency (i.e., on the order of a few hertz) that is used to initiate ferroelectric hysteresis. A significantly higher frequency is required to increase the signal-to-noise ratio and the measurement efficiency. In this study, a novel method based on high-frequency AFM-PUND using continuous waveform and simultaneous signal acquisition of the switching current is presented, in which polarization-voltage hysteresis loops are obtained on a high-polarization BiFeO3 nanocapacitor at frequencies up to 100 kHz. The proposed method is comprehensively evaluated by measuring nanoscale polarization values of the emerging ferroelectric Hf0.5 Zr0.5 O2 under the AFM tip.
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Affiliation(s)
- Owoong Kwon
- School of Advanced Materials and Engineering, Sungkyunkwan University (SKKU), Suwon, 16419, Republic of Korea
| | - Seunghun Kang
- School of Advanced Materials and Engineering, Sungkyunkwan University (SKKU), Suwon, 16419, Republic of Korea
| | - Sanghyun Jo
- Samsung Advanced Institute of Technology, Suwon, 16678, Republic of Korea
| | - Yun Do Kim
- Department of Nano Science, University of Science and Technology (UST), Daejeon, 34113, Republic of Korea
| | - Hee Han
- National Nano Fab Center (NNFC), Daejeon, 34141, Republic of Korea
| | - Yeehyun Park
- School of Advanced Materials and Engineering, Sungkyunkwan University (SKKU), Suwon, 16419, Republic of Korea
| | - Xiaoli Lu
- School of Microelectronics & State Key Discipline Laboratory of Wide Bandgap Semiconductor Technology, Xidian University, Xi'an, 710071, China
| | - Woo Lee
- Korea Research Institute of Standards and Science (KRISS), Daejeon, 34113, Republic of Korea
| | - Jinseong Heo
- Samsung Advanced Institute of Technology, Suwon, 16678, Republic of Korea
| | - Marin Alexe
- Department of Physics, The University of Warwick, Coventry, CV4 7AL, UK
| | - Yunseok Kim
- School of Advanced Materials and Engineering, Sungkyunkwan University (SKKU), Suwon, 16419, Republic of Korea
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12
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Badur S, Renz D, Cronau M, Göddenhenrich T, Dietzel D, Roling B, Schirmeisen A. Characterization of Vegard strain related to exceptionally fast Cu-chemical diffusion in Cu[Formula: see text]Mo[Formula: see text]S[Formula: see text] by an advanced electrochemical strain microscopy method. Sci Rep 2021; 11:18133. [PMID: 34518556 PMCID: PMC8438055 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-96602-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2021] [Accepted: 08/04/2021] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Electrochemical strain microscopy (ESM) has been developed with the aim of measuring Vegard strains in mixed ionic-electronic conductors (MIECs), such as electrode materials for Li-ion batteries, caused by local changes in the chemical composition. In this technique, a voltage-biased AFM tip is used in contact resonance mode. However, extracting quantitative strain information from ESM experiments is highly challenging due to the complexity of the signal generation process. In particular, electrostatic interactions between tip and sample contribute significantly to the measured ESM signals, and the separation of Vegard strain-induced signal contributions from electrostatically induced signal contributions is by no means a trivial task. Recently, we have published a compensation method for eliminating frequency-independent electrostatic contributions in ESM measurements. Here, we demonstrate the potential of this method for detecting Vegard strain in MIECs by choosing Cu[Formula: see text]Mo[Formula: see text]S[Formula: see text] as a model-type MIEC with an exceptionally high Cu chemical diffusion coefficient. Even for this material, Vegard strains are only measurable around and above room-temperature and with proper elimination of electrostatics. The analyis of the measured Vegards strains gives strong indication that due to a high charge transfer resistance at the tip/interface, the local Cu concentration variations are much smaller than predicted by the local Nernst equation. This suggests that charge transfer resistances have to be analyzed in more detail in future ESM studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian Badur
- Institute of Applied Physics, Justus-Liebig-Universität Giessen, 35392 Giessen, Germany
| | - Diemo Renz
- Department of Chemistry, Philipps-Universität Marburg, Hans-Meerwein-Straße 4, 35032 Marburg, Germany
| | - Marvin Cronau
- Department of Chemistry, Philipps-Universität Marburg, Hans-Meerwein-Straße 4, 35032 Marburg, Germany
| | - Thomas Göddenhenrich
- Institute of Applied Physics, Justus-Liebig-Universität Giessen, 35392 Giessen, Germany
| | - Dirk Dietzel
- Institute of Applied Physics, Justus-Liebig-Universität Giessen, 35392 Giessen, Germany
- Center for Materials Research, Justus-Liebig-Universität Giessen, 35392 Giessen, Germany
| | - Bernhard Roling
- Department of Chemistry, Philipps-Universität Marburg, Hans-Meerwein-Straße 4, 35032 Marburg, Germany
| | - André Schirmeisen
- Institute of Applied Physics, Justus-Liebig-Universität Giessen, 35392 Giessen, Germany
- Center for Materials Research, Justus-Liebig-Universität Giessen, 35392 Giessen, Germany
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13
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Local Piezoelectric Properties of Doped Biomolecular Crystals. MATERIALS 2021; 14:ma14174922. [PMID: 34501012 PMCID: PMC8433892 DOI: 10.3390/ma14174922] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2021] [Revised: 08/25/2021] [Accepted: 08/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Piezoelectricity is the ability of certain crystals to generate mechanical strain proportional to an external electric field. Though many biomolecular crystals contain polar molecules, they are frequently centrosymmetric, signifying that the dipole moments of constituent molecules cancel each other. However, piezoelectricity can be induced by stereospecific doping leading to symmetry reduction. Here, we applied piezoresponse force microscopy (PFM), highly sensitive to local piezoelectricity, to characterize (01¯0) faces of a popular biomolecular material, α-glycine, doped with other amino acids such as L-alanine and L-threonine as well as co-doped with both. We show that, while apparent vertical piezoresponse is prone to parasitic electrostatic effects, shear piezoelectric activity is strongly affected by doping. Undoped α-glycine shows no shear piezoelectric response at all. The shear response of the L-alanine doped crystals is much larger than those of the L-threonine doped crystals and co-doped crystals. These observations are rationalized in terms of host–guest molecule interactions.
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14
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Labardi M, Capaccioli S. Tuning-fork-based piezoresponse force microscopy. NANOTECHNOLOGY 2021; 32:445701. [PMID: 34284362 DOI: 10.1088/1361-6528/ac1634] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2021] [Accepted: 07/20/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Surface displacements of a few picometers, occurring after application of an electric potential to piezoelectric materials, can be detected and mapped with nanometer-scale lateral resolution by scanning probe methods, the most notable being piezoresponse force microscopy (PFM). Yet, absolute determination of such displacements, giving access for instance to materials' piezoelectric coefficients, are hindered by both mechanical and electrostatic side-effects, requiring complex experimental and/or post-processing procedures for carrying out reliable results. The employment of quartz tuning-fork force sensors in an intermittent contact mode PFM is able to provide measurements of electrically-induced surface displacements that are not influenced by electrostatic side-effects typical of more conventional cantilever-based PFM. The method is shown to yield piezoeffect mapping on standard ferroelectric test crystals (periodically-poled lithium niobate and triglycine sulfate), as well as on a ferroelectric polymer (PVDF), with no visible influence from the applied dc electric potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Labardi
- CNR-IPCF, Sede Secondaria di Pisa, c/o Physics Department, University of Pisa, Largo Pontecorvo 3, I-56127 Pisa, Italy
| | - S Capaccioli
- CNR-IPCF, Sede Secondaria di Pisa, c/o Physics Department, University of Pisa, Largo Pontecorvo 3, I-56127 Pisa, Italy
- Physics Department, University of Pisa, Largo Pontecorvo 3, I-56127 Pisa, Italy
- CISUP, Centro per l'Integrazione della Strumentazione dell'Università di Pisa, Lungarno Pacinotti 43, I-56126 Pisa, Italy
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15
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Udalov A, Alikin D, Kholkin A. Piezoresponse in Ferroelectric Materials under Uniform Electric Field of Electrodes. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2021; 21:3707. [PMID: 34073558 PMCID: PMC8198153 DOI: 10.3390/s21113707] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2021] [Revised: 05/21/2021] [Accepted: 05/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The analytical solution for the displacements of an anisotropic piezoelectric material in the uniform electric field is presented for practical use in the "global excitation mode" of piezoresponse force microscopy. The solution is given in the Wolfram Mathematica interactive program code, allowing the derivation of the expression of the piezoresponse both in cases of the anisotropic and isotropic elastic properties. The piezoresponse's angular dependencies are analyzed using model lithium niobate and barium titanate single crystals as examples. The validity of the isotropic approximation is verified in comparison to the fully anisotropic solution. The approach developed in the paper is important for the quantitative measurements of the piezoelectric response in nanomaterials as well as for the development of novel piezoelectric materials for the sensors/actuators applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Artur Udalov
- School of Natural Sciences and Mathematics, Ural Federal University, 620000 Ekaterinburg, Russia; (A.U.); (A.K.)
| | - Denis Alikin
- School of Natural Sciences and Mathematics, Ural Federal University, 620000 Ekaterinburg, Russia; (A.U.); (A.K.)
| | - Andrei Kholkin
- School of Natural Sciences and Mathematics, Ural Federal University, 620000 Ekaterinburg, Russia; (A.U.); (A.K.)
- Department of Physics & CICECO—Aveiro Institute of Materials, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
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16
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Schön N, Schierholz R, Jesse S, Yu S, Eichel RA, Balke N, Hausen F. Signal Origin of Electrochemical Strain Microscopy and Link to Local Chemical Distribution in Solid State Electrolytes. SMALL METHODS 2021; 5:e2001279. [PMID: 34928092 DOI: 10.1002/smtd.202001279] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2020] [Revised: 02/10/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Electrochemical strain microscopy (ESM) is a distinguished method to characterize Li-ion mobility in energy materials with extremely high spatial resolution. The exact origin of the cantilever deflection when the technique is applied on solid state electrolytes (SSEs) is currently discussed in the literature. Understanding local properties and influences on ion mobility in SSEs is of utmost importance to improve such materials for next generation batteries. Here, the exact signal formation process of ESM when applied on sodium super ionic conductor (NASICON)-type SSE containing Na- and Li-ions is investigated. Changes in the dielectric properties, which are linked to the local chemical composition, are found to be responsible for the observed contrast in the deflection of the cantilever instead of a physical volume change as a result of Vegard´s Law. The cantilever response is strongly reduced in areas of high sodium content which is attributed to a reduction of the tip-sample capacitance in comparison to areas with high lithium content. This is the first time a direct link between electrostatic forces in contact mode and local chemical information is demonstrated on SSEs. The results open up new possibilities in information gain since dielectric properties are sensitive to subtle changes in local chemical composition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nino Schön
- Forschungszentrum Jülich, Institute of Energy and Climate Research-Fundamental Electrochemistry, IEK-9, 52428, Jülich, Germany
- RWTH Aachen University, Institute of Physical Chemistry, 52074, Aachen, Germany
| | - Roland Schierholz
- Forschungszentrum Jülich, Institute of Energy and Climate Research-Fundamental Electrochemistry, IEK-9, 52428, Jülich, Germany
| | - Stephen Jesse
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, 37830, USA
| | - Shicheng Yu
- Forschungszentrum Jülich, Institute of Energy and Climate Research-Fundamental Electrochemistry, IEK-9, 52428, Jülich, Germany
| | - Rüdiger-A Eichel
- Forschungszentrum Jülich, Institute of Energy and Climate Research-Fundamental Electrochemistry, IEK-9, 52428, Jülich, Germany
- RWTH Aachen University, Institute of Physical Chemistry, 52074, Aachen, Germany
- Jülich Aachen Research Alliance, Section: JARA-Energy, Wilhelm-Johnen-Strasse, 52425, Jülich, Germany
| | - Nina Balke
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, 37830, USA
| | - Florian Hausen
- Forschungszentrum Jülich, Institute of Energy and Climate Research-Fundamental Electrochemistry, IEK-9, 52428, Jülich, Germany
- RWTH Aachen University, Institute of Physical Chemistry, 52074, Aachen, Germany
- Jülich Aachen Research Alliance, Section: JARA-Energy, Wilhelm-Johnen-Strasse, 52425, Jülich, Germany
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17
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Zeng Q, Wang H, Xiong Z, Huang Q, Lu W, Sun K, Fan Z, Zeng K. Nanoscale Ferroelectric Characterization with Heterodyne Megasonic Piezoresponse Force Microscopy. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2021; 8:2003993. [PMID: 33898182 PMCID: PMC8061351 DOI: 10.1002/advs.202003993] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2020] [Revised: 01/10/2021] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
Piezoresponse force microscopy (PFM), as a powerful nanoscale characterization technique, has been extensively utilized to elucidate diverse underlying physics of ferroelectricity. However, intensive studies of conventional PFM have revealed a growing number of concerns and limitations which are largely challenging its validity and applications. In this study, an advanced PFM technique is reported, namely heterodyne megasonic piezoresponse force microscopy (HM-PFM), which uses 106 to 108 Hz high-frequency excitation and heterodyne method to measure the piezoelectric strain at nanoscale. It is found that HM-PFM can unambiguously provide standard ferroelectric domain and hysteresis loop measurements, and an effective domain characterization with excitation frequency up to ≈110 MHz is demonstrated. Most importantly, owing to the high-frequency and heterodyne scheme, the contributions from both electrostatic force and electrochemical strain can be significantly minimized in HM-PFM. Furthermore, a special measurement of difference-frequency piezoresponse frequency spectrum (DFPFS) is developed on HM-PFM and a distinct DFPFS characteristic is observed on the materials with piezoelectricity. By performing DFPFS measurement, a truly existed but very weak electromechanical coupling in CH3NH3PbI3 perovskite is revealed. It is believed that HM-PFM can be an excellent candidate for the ferroelectric or piezoelectric studies where conventional PFM results are highly controversial.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qibin Zeng
- Department of Mechanical EngineeringNational University of SingaporeSingapore117576Singapore
| | - Hongli Wang
- Department of Mechanical EngineeringNational University of SingaporeSingapore117576Singapore
- The Key Lab of Guangdong for Modern Surface Engineering TechnologyNational Engineering Laboratory for Modern Materials Surface Engineering TechnologyInstitute of New Materials, Guangdong Academy of ScienceGuangzhou510650China
| | - Zhuang Xiong
- MOE Key Laboratory of Low‐Grade Energy Utilization Technologies and Systems, School of Energy & Power EngineeringChongqing UniversityChongqing400044China
| | - Qicheng Huang
- Institute for Advanced Materials, South China Academy of Advanced OptoelectronicsSouth China Normal UniversityGuangzhou510006China
| | - Wanheng Lu
- Department of Electrical and Computer EngineeringNational University of SingaporeSingapore117583Singapore
| | - Kuan Sun
- MOE Key Laboratory of Low‐Grade Energy Utilization Technologies and Systems, School of Energy & Power EngineeringChongqing UniversityChongqing400044China
| | - Zhen Fan
- Institute for Advanced Materials, South China Academy of Advanced OptoelectronicsSouth China Normal UniversityGuangzhou510006China
| | - Kaiyang Zeng
- Department of Mechanical EngineeringNational University of SingaporeSingapore117576Singapore
- NUS (Suzhou) Research Institute (NUSRI)Suzhou215123China
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18
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Chouprik A, Kirtaev R, Spiridonov M, Markeev AM, Negrov D. Nanoscale Tailoring of Ferroelectricity in a Thin Dielectric Film. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2020; 12:56195-56202. [PMID: 33258603 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.0c16741] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
New opportunities in the development and commercialization of novel photonic and electronic devices can be opened following the development of technology-compatible arbitrary-shaped ferroelectrics encapsulated in a passive environment. Here, we report and experimentally demonstrate nanoscale tailoring of ferroelectricity by an arbitrary pattern within the nonferroelectric thin film. For inducing the ferroelectric nanoregions in the nonferroelectric surrounding, we developed a technology-compatible approach of local doping of a thin (10 nm) HfO2 film by Ga ions right in the thin-film capacitor device via focused ion beam implantation. Local crystallization of the doped regions to the ferroelectric structural phase occurs during subsequent annealing. The remnant polarization of the HfO2:Ga regions reached 13 μC/cm2 at a Ga concentration of 0.6 at. %. Piezoresponse force microscopy over the capacitor device revealed an asymmetrical switching of ferroelectric domains within written HfO2:Ga patterns after capacitor switching, which was attributed to the mechanical stress across the doped film. The lateral spatial resolution of ferroelectricity tailoring is found to be ∼200 nm, which enables diverse applications in switchable photonics and microelectronic memories.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anastasia Chouprik
- Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology, 9 Institutskiy lane, Dolgoprudny, Moscow Region 141700, Russia
| | - Roman Kirtaev
- Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology, 9 Institutskiy lane, Dolgoprudny, Moscow Region 141700, Russia
| | - Maxim Spiridonov
- Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology, 9 Institutskiy lane, Dolgoprudny, Moscow Region 141700, Russia
| | - Andrey M Markeev
- Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology, 9 Institutskiy lane, Dolgoprudny, Moscow Region 141700, Russia
| | - Dmitrii Negrov
- Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology, 9 Institutskiy lane, Dolgoprudny, Moscow Region 141700, Russia
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19
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Collins L, Celano U. Revealing Antiferroelectric Switching and Ferroelectric Wakeup in Hafnia by Advanced Piezoresponse Force Microscopy. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2020; 12:41659-41665. [PMID: 32870659 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.0c07809] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Hafnium oxide (HfO2)-based ferroelectrics offer remarkable promise for memory and logic devices in view of their compatibility with traditional silicon complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) technology, high switchable polarization, good endurance, and thickness scalability. These factors have led to a steep rise in the level of research on HfO2 over the past number of years. While measurements on capacitors are promising for understanding macroscopic effects, many open questions regarding the emergence of ferroelectricity and electric field cycling behaviors remain. Continued progress requires information regarding the nanoscale ferroelectric behaviors on the bare surface (i.e., without encapsulation), which is notably absent. To overcome this barrier, we have applied complementary modes of piezoresponse force microscopy with the goal of directly and quantitatively sensing nanoscale ferroelectric behaviors in bare HfO2 thin films. Our results on 8 nm Si-doped HfO2 reveal nanoscale domains of local remnant polarization states exhibiting a weak piezoelectric coupling (deff) in the range 0.6-1.5 pm/V. While we observed localized enhancement of deff during progressive stressing of the bare HfO2 thin film, we did not detect stable polarization switching which is a prerequisite of ferroelectric switching. This result could be explained using polarization switching spectroscopy which revealed antiferroelectric-like switching in the form of pinched hysteresis loops as well as increasing remnant response with repeated cycling. As such, our results offer a promising route for material scientists who want to explore the nanoscale origins of antiferroelectricity and ferroelectric wakeup in HfO2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liam Collins
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, United States
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20
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Kwon O, Seol D, Qiao H, Kim Y. Recent Progress in the Nanoscale Evaluation of Piezoelectric and Ferroelectric Properties via Scanning Probe Microscopy. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2020; 7:1901391. [PMID: 32995111 PMCID: PMC7507502 DOI: 10.1002/advs.201901391] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2019] [Revised: 06/05/2020] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Piezoelectric and ferroelectric materials have garnered significant interest owing to their excellent physical properties and multiple potential applications. Accordingly, the need for evaluating piezoelectric and ferroelectric properties has also increased. The piezoelectric and ferroelectric properties are evaluated macroscopically using laser interferometers and polarization-electric field loop measurements. However, as the research focus is shifted from bulk to nanosized materials, scanning probe microscopy (SPM) techniques have been suggested as an alternative approach for evaluating piezoelectric and ferroelectric properties. In this Progress Report, the recent progress on the nanoscale evaluation of piezoelectric and ferroelectric properties of diverse materials using SPM-based methods is summarized. Among the SPM techniques, the focus is on recent studies that are related to piezoresponse force microscopy and conductive atomic force microscopy; further, the utilization of these two modes to understand piezoelectric and ferroelectric properties at the nanoscale level is discussed. This work can provide guidelines for evaluating the piezoelectric and ferroelectric properties of materials based on SPM techniques.
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Affiliation(s)
- Owoong Kwon
- School of Advanced Materials and Engineering & Research Center for Advanced Materials TechnologySungkyunkwan University (SKKU)Suwon16419Republic of Korea
| | - Daehee Seol
- School of Advanced Materials and Engineering & Research Center for Advanced Materials TechnologySungkyunkwan University (SKKU)Suwon16419Republic of Korea
| | - Huimin Qiao
- School of Advanced Materials and Engineering & Research Center for Advanced Materials TechnologySungkyunkwan University (SKKU)Suwon16419Republic of Korea
| | - Yunseok Kim
- School of Advanced Materials and Engineering & Research Center for Advanced Materials TechnologySungkyunkwan University (SKKU)Suwon16419Republic of Korea
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21
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Neumayer SM, Brehm JA, Tao L, O'Hara A, Ganesh P, Jesse S, Susner MA, McGuire MA, Pantelides ST, Maksymovych P, Balke N. Local Strain and Polarization Mapping in Ferrielectric Materials. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2020; 12:38546-38553. [PMID: 32805973 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.0c09246] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
CuInP2S6 (CIPS) is a van der Waals material that has attracted attention because of its unusual properties. Recently, a combination of density functional theory (DFT) calculations and piezoresponse force microscopy (PFM) showed that CIPS is a uniaxial quadruple-well ferrielectric featuring two polar phases and a total of four polarization states that can be controlled by external strain. Here, we combine DFT and PFM to investigate the stress-dependent piezoelectric properties of CIPS, which have so far remained unexplored. The two different polarization phases are predicted to differ in their mechanical properties and the stress sensitivity of their piezoelectric constants. This knowledge is applied to the interpretation of ferroelectric domain images, which enables investigation of local strain and stress distributions. The interplay of theory and experiment produces polarization maps and layer spacings which we compare to macroscopic X-ray measurements. We found that the sample contains only the low-polarization phase and that domains of one polarization orientation are strained, whereas domains of the opposite polarization direction are fully relaxed. The described nanoscale imaging methodology is applicable to any material for which the relationship between electromechanical and mechanical characteristics is known, providing insight on structural, mechanical, and electromechanical properties down to ∼10 nm length scales.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabine M Neumayer
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, 37831 Tennessee, United States
| | - John A Brehm
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, 37235 Tennessee, United States
| | - Lei Tao
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, 37235 Tennessee, United States
- Institute of Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100190, China
| | - Andrew O'Hara
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, 37235 Tennessee, United States
| | - Panchapakesan Ganesh
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, 37831 Tennessee, United States
| | - Stephen Jesse
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, 37831 Tennessee, United States
| | - Michael A Susner
- Materials and Manufacturing Directorate, Air Force Research Laboratory, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Dayton, 45433 Ohio, United States
| | - Michael A McGuire
- Materials Science and Technology Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, 37831 Tennessee, United States
| | - Sokrates T Pantelides
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, 37235 Tennessee, United States
| | - Petro Maksymovych
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, 37831 Tennessee, United States
| | - Nina Balke
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, 37831 Tennessee, United States
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22
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Chemical Solution Deposition of BiFeO3 Films with Layer-by-Layer Control of the Coverage and Composition. COATINGS 2020. [DOI: 10.3390/coatings10050438] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Chemical solution deposition of BiFeO3 thin films is one of the most commercially available techniques to produce large-scale low-cost coatings for further application in memory devices. In this contribution, we implemented piezoresponse force and conductive atomic force microscopies to study the layer-by-layer sol-gel deposition of BiFeO3 thin films focusing on the local phase distribution, morphology, piezoelectric response, and leakage current. The final properties of resulting thin films are found to be determined not only by the composition of the gel and crystallization step but by the gelation step as well. The drying temperature and treatment duration of the solution are shown to drastically influence the film coverage, which finally determines the morphology of the films and behavior of the crystallization process.
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23
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Peculiarities of the Crystal Structure Evolution of BiFeO 3-BaTiO 3 Ceramics across Structural Phase Transitions. NANOMATERIALS 2020; 10:nano10040801. [PMID: 32326324 PMCID: PMC7221926 DOI: 10.3390/nano10040801] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2020] [Revised: 04/14/2020] [Accepted: 04/17/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Evolution of the crystal structure of ceramics BiFeO3–BaTiO3 across the morphotropic phase boundary was analyzed using the results of macroscopic measuring techniques such as X-ray diffraction, differential scanning calorimetry, and differential thermal analysis, as well as the data obtained by local scale methods of scanning probe microscopy. The obtained results allowed to specify the concentration and temperature regions of the single phase and phase coexistent regions as well as to clarify a modification of the structural parameters across the rhombohedral–cubic phase boundary. The structural data show unexpected strengthening of structural distortion specific for the rhombohedral phase, which occurs upon dopant concentration and temperature-driven phase transitions to the cubic phase. The obtained results point to the non-monotonous character of the phase evolution, which is specific for metastable phases. The compounds with metastable structural state are characterized by enhanced sensitivity to external stimuli, which significantly expands the perspectives of their particular use.
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Labardi M, Magnani A, Capaccioli S. Piezoelectric displacement mapping of compliant surfaces by constant-excitation frequency-modulation piezoresponse force microscopy. NANOTECHNOLOGY 2020; 31:075707. [PMID: 31665710 DOI: 10.1088/1361-6528/ab52ca] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
A simple experimental method for piezoresponse force microscopy (PFM) measurements for reliable evaluation of piezoelectric surface displacements even on compliant surfaces is proposed based on atomic force microscopy (AFM) operated in frequency-modulation (FM) dynamic mode with constant excitation (CE), by using non-contact mode cantilevers. Surface displacement by piezoelectric effect after application of an electric potential to the conductive AFM probe translates into a likewise variation of the probe oscillation amplitude, while the related electrostatic forces mainly affect the oscillator resonant frequency, and cantilever bending is limited due to their high stiffness. Our non-contact CE-FM-PFM method is shown to reduce electrostatic force contributions as compared to contact-PFM modes. Converse piezoelectric effect mapping is demonstrated on poly(vinylidenefluoride) nanofibers obtained by electrospinning.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Labardi
- CNR-IPCF, Sede Secondaria di Pisa, Largo Pontecorvo 3, I-56127 Pisa, Italy
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25
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Brehm JA, Neumayer SM, Tao L, O'Hara A, Chyasnavichus M, Susner MA, McGuire MA, Kalinin SV, Jesse S, Ganesh P, Pantelides ST, Maksymovych P, Balke N. Tunable quadruple-well ferroelectric van der Waals crystals. NATURE MATERIALS 2020; 19:43-48. [PMID: 31740791 DOI: 10.1038/s41563-019-0532-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2019] [Accepted: 10/08/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
The family of layered thio- and seleno-phosphates has gained attention as potential control dielectrics for the rapidly growing family of two-dimensional and quasi-two-dimensional electronic materials. Here we report a combination of density functional theory calculations, quantum molecular dynamics simulations and variable-temperature, -pressure and -bias piezoresponse force microscopy data to predict and verify the existence of an unusual ferroelectric property-a uniaxial quadruple potential well for Cu displacements-enabled by the van der Waals gap in copper indium thiophosphate (CuInP2S6). The calculated potential energy landscape for Cu displacements is strongly influenced by strain, accounting for the origin of the negative piezoelectric coefficient and rendering CuInP2S6 a rare example of a uniaxial multi-well ferroelectric. Experimental data verify the coexistence of four polarization states and explore the temperature-, pressure- and bias-dependent piezoelectric and ferroelectric properties, which are supported by bias-dependent molecular dynamics simulations. These phenomena offer new opportunities for both fundamental studies and applications in data storage and electronics.
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Affiliation(s)
- John A Brehm
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA
- Materials Science and Technology Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, USA
| | - Sabine M Neumayer
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, USA
| | - Lei Tao
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences & Institute of Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Andrew O'Hara
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Marius Chyasnavichus
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, USA
| | - Michael A Susner
- Aerospace Systems Directorate, Air Force Research Laboratory, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, OH, USA
| | - Michael A McGuire
- Materials Science and Technology Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, USA
| | - Sergei V Kalinin
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, USA
| | - Stephen Jesse
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, USA
| | - Panchapakesan Ganesh
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, USA
| | - Sokrates T Pantelides
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA.
- Materials Science and Technology Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, USA.
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA.
| | - Petro Maksymovych
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, USA.
| | - Nina Balke
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, USA.
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26
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Kalinin SV, Dyck O, Balke N, Neumayer S, Tsai WY, Vasudevan R, Lingerfelt D, Ahmadi M, Ziatdinov M, McDowell MT, Strelcov E. Toward Electrochemical Studies on the Nanometer and Atomic Scales: Progress, Challenges, and Opportunities. ACS NANO 2019; 13:9735-9780. [PMID: 31433942 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.9b02687] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Electrochemical reactions and ionic transport underpin the operation of a broad range of devices and applications, from energy storage and conversion to information technologies, as well as biochemical processes, artificial muscles, and soft actuators. Understanding the mechanisms governing function of these applications requires probing local electrochemical phenomena on the relevant time and length scales. Here, we discuss the challenges and opportunities for extending electrochemical characterization probes to the nanometer and ultimately atomic scales, including challenges in down-scaling classical methods, the emergence of novel probes enabled by nanotechnology and based on emergent physics and chemistry of nanoscale systems, and the integration of local data into macroscopic models. Scanning probe microscopy (SPM) methods based on strain detection, potential detection, and hysteretic current measurements are discussed. We further compare SPM to electron beam probes and discuss the applicability of electron beam methods to probe local electrochemical behavior on the mesoscopic and atomic levels. Similar to a SPM tip, the electron beam can be used both for observing behavior and as an active electrode to induce reactions. We briefly discuss new challenges and opportunities for conducting fundamental scientific studies, matter patterning, and atomic manipulation arising in this context.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sergei V Kalinin
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences , Oak Ridge National Laboratory , Oak Ridge , Tennessee 37831 , United States
| | - Ondrej Dyck
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences , Oak Ridge National Laboratory , Oak Ridge , Tennessee 37831 , United States
| | - Nina Balke
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences , Oak Ridge National Laboratory , Oak Ridge , Tennessee 37831 , United States
| | - Sabine Neumayer
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences , Oak Ridge National Laboratory , Oak Ridge , Tennessee 37831 , United States
| | - Wan-Yu Tsai
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences , Oak Ridge National Laboratory , Oak Ridge , Tennessee 37831 , United States
| | - Rama Vasudevan
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences , Oak Ridge National Laboratory , Oak Ridge , Tennessee 37831 , United States
| | - David Lingerfelt
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences , Oak Ridge National Laboratory , Oak Ridge , Tennessee 37831 , United States
| | - Mahshid Ahmadi
- Joint Institute for Advanced Materials, Department of Materials Science and Engineering , University of Tennessee , Knoxville , Tennessee 37996 , United States
| | - Maxim Ziatdinov
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences , Oak Ridge National Laboratory , Oak Ridge , Tennessee 37831 , United States
| | - Matthew T McDowell
- George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering and School of Materials Science and Engineering , Georgia Institute of Technology , Atlanta , Georgia 30332 , United States
| | - Evgheni Strelcov
- Institute for Research in Electronics and Applied Physics , University of Maryland , College Park , Maryland 20742 , United States
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27
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Seol D, Kang S, Sun C, Kim Y. Significance of electrostatic interactions due to surface potential in piezoresponse force microscopy. Ultramicroscopy 2019; 207:112839. [PMID: 31494481 DOI: 10.1016/j.ultramic.2019.112839] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2019] [Revised: 07/15/2019] [Accepted: 08/30/2019] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Piezoresponse force microscopy (PFM) has gradually becomes indispensable tool to investigate local piezoelectric and ferroelectric properties in diverse material systems. However, numerous reports have shown that the PFM signal can originate from several non-piezoelectric origins. Among them, because the electrostatic interaction between the AFM tip/cantilever and sample surface can be readily involved, it can be the most important factor during PFM measurement. In particular, in materials with relatively low piezoelectricity, the situation can be more significant because the PFM signals from weak piezoelectricity can be hidden or buried by the electrostatic interactions. Herein, we examined the significance of the electrostatic interactions induced by the surface potential in PFM. Using piezoelectric and non-piezoelectric materials, we examined how the surface potential-dependent electrostatic interactions can significantly affect the PFM signal. We observed that the electrostatically induced PFM amplitude have a linear relationship with the magnitude of surface potential when the instrumental noise floor is properly considered. Our results demonstrate that electrostatic interactions can be significant and their recognition and minimization are essential during PFM and other AFM-based measurements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daehee Seol
- School of Advanced Materials Science and Engineering, Sungkyunkwan University (SKKU), Suwon 16419, Republic of Korea
| | - Seunghun Kang
- School of Advanced Materials Science and Engineering, Sungkyunkwan University (SKKU), Suwon 16419, Republic of Korea
| | - Changhyo Sun
- School of Advanced Materials Science and Engineering, Sungkyunkwan University (SKKU), Suwon 16419, Republic of Korea
| | - Yunseok Kim
- School of Advanced Materials Science and Engineering, Sungkyunkwan University (SKKU), Suwon 16419, Republic of Korea.
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28
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Collins L, Liu Y, Ovchinnikova OS, Proksch R. Quantitative Electromechanical Atomic Force Microscopy. ACS NANO 2019; 13:8055-8066. [PMID: 31268678 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.9b02883] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
The ability to probe a material's electromechanical functionality on the nanoscale is critical to applications from energy storage and computing to biology and medicine. Voltage-modulated atomic force microscopy (VM-AFM) has become a mainstay characterization tool for investigating these materials due to its ability to locally probe electromechanically responsive materials with spatial resolution from micrometers to nanometers. However, with the wide popularity of VM-AFM techniques such as piezoresponse force microscopy and electrochemical strain microscopy there has been a rise in reports of nanoscale electromechanical functionality, including hysteresis, in materials that should be incapable of exhibiting piezo- or ferroelectricity. Explanations for the origins of unexpected nanoscale phenomena have included new material properties, surface-mediated polarization changes, and/or spatially resolved behavior that is not present in bulk measurements. At the same time, it is well known that VM-AFM measurements are susceptible to numerous forms of crosstalk, and, despite efforts within the AFM community, a global approach for eliminating this has remained elusive. In this work, we develop a method for easily demonstrating the presence of hysteretic (i.e., "false ferroelectric") long-range interactions between the sample and cantilever body. This method should be easy to implement in any VM-AFM measurement. We then go on to demonstrate fully quantitative and repeatable nanoelectromechanical characterization using an interferometer. These quantitative measurements are critical for a wide range of devices including MEMS actuators and sensors, memristor, energy storage, and memory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liam Collins
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences , Oak Ridge National Laboratory , Oak Ridge , Tennessee 37831 , United States
| | - Yongtao Liu
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences , Oak Ridge National Laboratory , Oak Ridge , Tennessee 37831 , United States
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering , University of Tennessee , Knoxville , Tennessee 37996 , United States
| | - Olga S Ovchinnikova
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences , Oak Ridge National Laboratory , Oak Ridge , Tennessee 37831 , United States
| | - Roger Proksch
- Asylum Research , An Oxford Instruments Company, Santa Barbara , California 93117 , United States
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29
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Abooalizadeh Z, Sudak LJ, Egberts P. Nanoscale spatial mapping of mechanical properties through dynamic atomic force microscopy. BEILSTEIN JOURNAL OF NANOTECHNOLOGY 2019; 10:1332-1347. [PMID: 31355102 PMCID: PMC6633814 DOI: 10.3762/bjnano.10.132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2019] [Accepted: 06/03/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Dynamic atomic force microscopy (AFM) was employed to spatially map the elastic modulus of highly oriented pyrolytic graphite (HOPG), specifically by using force modulation microscopy (FMM) and contact resonance (CR) AFM. In both of these techniques, a variation in the amplitude signal was observed when scanning over an uncovered step edge of HOPG. In comparison, no variation in the amplitude signal was observed when scanning over a covered step on the same surface. These observations qualitatively indicate that there is a variation in the elastic modulus over uncovered steps and no variation over covered ones. The quantitative results of the elastic modulus required the use of FMM, while the CR mode better highlighted areas of reduced elastic modulus (although it was difficult to convert the data into a quantifiable modulus). In the FMM measurements, single atomic steps of graphene with uncovered step edges showed a decrease in the elastic modulus of approximately 0.5%, which is compared with no change in the elastic modulus for covered steps. The analysis of the experimental data taken under varying normal loads and with several different tips showed that the elastic modulus determination was unaffected by these parameters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zahra Abooalizadeh
- Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, University of Calgary, 40 Research Place NW, Calgary, Alberta T2L 1Y6, Canada
| | - Leszek Josef Sudak
- Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, University of Calgary, 40 Research Place NW, Calgary, Alberta T2L 1Y6, Canada
| | - Philip Egberts
- Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, University of Calgary, 40 Research Place NW, Calgary, Alberta T2L 1Y6, Canada
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30
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Correlative Confocal Raman and Scanning Probe Microscopy in the Ionically Active Particles of LiMn 2O 4 Cathodes. MATERIALS 2019; 12:ma12091416. [PMID: 31052308 PMCID: PMC6539315 DOI: 10.3390/ma12091416] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2019] [Revised: 04/23/2019] [Accepted: 04/26/2019] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
In this contribution, a correlative confocal Raman and scanning probe microscopy approach was implemented to find a relation between the composition, lithiation state, and functional electrochemical response in individual micro-scale particles of a LiMn2O4 spinel in a commercial Li battery cathode. Electrochemical strain microscopy (ESM) was implemented both at a low-frequency (3.5 kHz) and in a high-frequency range of excitation (above 400 kHz). It was shown that the high-frequency ESM has a significant cross-talk with topography due to a tip-sample electrostatic interaction, while the low-frequency ESM yields a response correlated with distributions of Li ions and electrochemically inactive phases revealed by the confocal Raman microscopy. Parasitic contributions into the electromechanical response from the local Joule heating and flexoelectric effect were considered as well and found to be negligible. It was concluded that the low-frequency ESM response directly corresponds to the confocal Raman microscopy data. The analysis implemented in this work is an important step towards the quantitative measurement of diffusion coefficients and ion concentration via strain-based scanning probe microscopy methods in a wide range of ionically active materials.
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31
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Gruverman A, Alexe M, Meier D. Piezoresponse force microscopy and nanoferroic phenomena. Nat Commun 2019; 10:1661. [PMID: 30971688 PMCID: PMC6458164 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-019-09650-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 119] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2017] [Accepted: 03/05/2019] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Since its inception more than 25 years ago, Piezoresponse Force Microscopy (PFM) has become one of the mainstream techniques in the field of nanoferroic materials. This review describes the evolution of PFM from an imaging technique to a set of advanced methods, which have played a critical role in launching new areas of ferroic research, such as multiferroic devices and domain wall nanoelectronics. The paper reviews the impact of advanced PFM modes concerning the discovery and scientific understanding of novel nanoferroic phenomena and discusses challenges associated with the correct interpretation of PFM data. In conclusion, it offers an outlook for future trends and developments in PFM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexei Gruverman
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE, 68588, USA.
| | - Marin Alexe
- Department of Physics, University of Warwick, Coventry, CV4 7AL, UK
| | - Dennis Meier
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), N-7034, Trondheim, Norway
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32
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Vasudevan RK, Choudhary K, Mehta A, Smith R, Kusne G, Tavazza F, Vlcek L, Ziatdinov M, Kalinin SV, Hattrick-Simpers J. Materials Science in the AI age: high-throughput library generation, machine learning and a pathway from correlations to the underpinning physics. MRS COMMUNICATIONS 2019; 9:10.1557/mrc.2019.95. [PMID: 32166045 PMCID: PMC7067066 DOI: 10.1557/mrc.2019.95] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2019] [Accepted: 07/03/2019] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
The use of advanced data analytics and applications of statistical and machine learning approaches ('AI') to materials science is experiencing explosive growth recently. In this prospective, we review recent work focusing on generation and application of libraries from both experiment and theoretical tools, across length scales. The available library data both enables classical correlative machine learning, and also opens the pathway for exploration of underlying causative physical behaviors. We highlight the key advances facilitated by this approach, and illustrate how modeling, macroscopic experiments and atomic-scale imaging can be combined to dramatically accelerate understanding and development of new material systems via a statistical physics framework. These developments point towards a data driven future wherein knowledge can be aggregated and used collectively, accelerating the advancement of materials science.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rama K. Vasudevan
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge TN 37831, USA
| | - Kamal Choudhary
- Material Measurement Laboratory, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD 20899
| | - Apurva Mehta
- Stanford Synchrotron Radiation Lightsource, SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, CA 94025
| | - Ryan Smith
- Material Measurement Laboratory, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD 20899
| | - Gilad Kusne
- Material Measurement Laboratory, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD 20899
| | - Francesca Tavazza
- Material Measurement Laboratory, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD 20899
| | - Lukas Vlcek
- Material Measurement Laboratory, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD 20899
- Materials Science and Technology Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge TN 37831, USA
| | - Maxim Ziatdinov
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge TN 37831, USA
- Material Measurement Laboratory, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD 20899
- Computational Sciences and Engineering Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge TN 37831, USA
| | - Sergei V. Kalinin
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge TN 37831, USA
| | - Jason Hattrick-Simpers
- Material Measurement Laboratory, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD 20899
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Cao K, Hu Q, Cai J, Gong M, Yang J, Shan B, Chen R. Development of a scanning probe microscopy integrated atomic layer deposition system for in situ successive monitoring of thin film growth. THE REVIEW OF SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS 2018; 89:123702. [PMID: 30599563 DOI: 10.1063/1.5042463] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2018] [Accepted: 11/12/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
A dual chamber system integrated with atomic layer deposition (ALD) and atomic force microscopy (AFM) was developed for the successive monitoring of nanoparticles to thin film growth process. The samples were fabricated in the ALD chamber. A magnetic transmission rod enabled sample transferring between the ALD and the AFM test chambers without breaking the vacuum, avoiding possible surface morphology change when frequently varying the growth condition and oxidation under ambient condition. The sample transmission also avoids deposition and contamination on the AFM tip during the successive testing. The sample stage has machined a group of accurate location pinholes, ensuring the 10 μm2 measurement consistency. As a demonstration, the platinum thin films with different thickness were fabricated by varying ALD cycles. The surface morphology was monitored successively during the deposition. Under vacuum with controlled oxygen partial pressure, the aging and sintering phenomenon of particles has been studied in the AFM testing chamber after high temperature treatment. The integrated AFM/ALD instrument is potentially a powerful system for monitoring the thin film preparation and characterization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kun Cao
- State Key Laboratory of Digital Manufacturing Equipment and Technology, School of Mechanical Science and Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, 1037 Luoyu Road, Wuhan, Hubei 430074, People's Republic of China
| | - Quan Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Material Processing and Die and Mould Technology, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, 1037 Luoyu Road, Wuhan, Hubei 430074, People's Republic of China
| | - Jiaming Cai
- State Key Laboratory of Digital Manufacturing Equipment and Technology, School of Mechanical Science and Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, 1037 Luoyu Road, Wuhan, Hubei 430074, People's Republic of China
| | - Miao Gong
- State Key Laboratory of Digital Manufacturing Equipment and Technology, School of Mechanical Science and Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, 1037 Luoyu Road, Wuhan, Hubei 430074, People's Republic of China
| | - Jianfeng Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Material Processing and Die and Mould Technology, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, 1037 Luoyu Road, Wuhan, Hubei 430074, People's Republic of China
| | - Bin Shan
- State Key Laboratory of Material Processing and Die and Mould Technology, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, 1037 Luoyu Road, Wuhan, Hubei 430074, People's Republic of China
| | - Rong Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Digital Manufacturing Equipment and Technology, School of Mechanical Science and Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, 1037 Luoyu Road, Wuhan, Hubei 430074, People's Republic of China
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34
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Chae I, Jeong CK, Ounaies Z, Kim SH. Review on Electromechanical Coupling Properties of Biomaterials. ACS APPLIED BIO MATERIALS 2018; 1:936-953. [DOI: 10.1021/acsabm.8b00309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Inseok Chae
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Research Institute, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, United States
| | - Chang Kyu Jeong
- Division of Advanced Materials Engineering, Chonbuk National University, Jeonju, Jeonbuk 54896, Republic of Korea
| | - Zoubeida Ounaies
- Department of Mechanical and Nuclear Engineering and Materials Research Institute, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, United States
| | - Seong H. Kim
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Research Institute, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, United States
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, United States
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35
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Kang S, Jeon S, Kim S, Seol D, Yang H, Lee J, Kim Y. Tunable Out-of-Plane Piezoelectricity in Thin-Layered MoTe 2 by Surface Corrugation-Mediated Flexoelectricity. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2018; 10:27424-27431. [PMID: 30022658 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.8b06325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Piezoelectricity crystallographically exists only in the in-plane direction in two-dimensional transition metal dichalcogenides. Here, we demonstrated flexoelectricity-tunable out-of-plane piezoelectricity in semiconducting 2H-MoTe2 flakes by creating surface corrugation. In particular, the strong out-of-plane piezoelectricity and its spatial variation depending on local flexoelectricity was observed even though crystallographically there exists only in-plane piezoelectricity. Surface corrugation-mediated flexoelectricity tuning can be applied to other two-dimensional or thin-layered materials and, furthermore, the results could provide useful information on the interweaving nature between mechanical stimulus and electric dipole in low-dimensional materials.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Sera Jeon
- Department of Physics , Pusan National University , Busan 46241 , Republic of Korea
| | | | | | | | - Jaekwang Lee
- Department of Physics , Pusan National University , Busan 46241 , Republic of Korea
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36
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Schön N, Gunduz DC, Yu S, Tempel H, Schierholz R, Hausen F. Correlative electrochemical strain and scanning electron microscopy for local characterization of the solid state electrolyte Li 1.3Al 0.3Ti 1.7(PO 4) 3. BEILSTEIN JOURNAL OF NANOTECHNOLOGY 2018; 9:1564-1572. [PMID: 29977690 PMCID: PMC6009433 DOI: 10.3762/bjnano.9.148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2018] [Accepted: 04/23/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Correlative microscopy has been used to investigate the relationship between Li-ion conductivity and the microstructure of lithium aluminum titanium phosphate (Li1.3Al0.3Ti1.7(PO4)3, LATP) with high spatial resolution. A key to improvement of solid state electrolytes such as LATP is a better understanding of interfacial and ion transport properties on relevant length scales in the nanometer to micrometer range. Using common techniques, such as electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, only global information can be obtained. In this work, we employ multiple microscopy techniques to gain local chemical and structural information paired with local insights into the Li-ion conductivity based on electrochemical strain microscopy (ESM). Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) have been applied at identical regions to identify microstructural components such as an AlPO4 secondary phase. We found significantly lower Li-ion mobility in the secondary phase areas as well as at grain boundaries. Additionally, various aspects of signal formation obtained from ESM for solid state electrolytes are discussed. We demonstrate that correlative microscopy is an adjuvant tool to gain local insights into interfacial properties of energy materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nino Schön
- Forschungszentrum Jülich, Institute of Energy and Climate Research, IEK-9, 52425 Jülich, Germany
- RWTH Aachen University, Institute of Physical Chemistry, 52074 Aachen, Germany
| | - Deniz Cihan Gunduz
- Forschungszentrum Jülich, Institute of Energy and Climate Research, IEK-9, 52425 Jülich, Germany
- RWTH Aachen University, Institute of Physical Chemistry, 52074 Aachen, Germany
| | - Shicheng Yu
- Forschungszentrum Jülich, Institute of Energy and Climate Research, IEK-9, 52425 Jülich, Germany
- RWTH Aachen University, Institute of Physical Chemistry, 52074 Aachen, Germany
| | - Hermann Tempel
- Forschungszentrum Jülich, Institute of Energy and Climate Research, IEK-9, 52425 Jülich, Germany
| | - Roland Schierholz
- Forschungszentrum Jülich, Institute of Energy and Climate Research, IEK-9, 52425 Jülich, Germany
| | - Florian Hausen
- Forschungszentrum Jülich, Institute of Energy and Climate Research, IEK-9, 52425 Jülich, Germany
- RWTH Aachen University, Institute of Physical Chemistry, 52074 Aachen, Germany
- Jülich-Aachen Research Alliance, section JARA-Energy, 52425 Jülich, Germany
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Ganeshkumar R, Somnath S, Cheah CW, Jesse S, Kalinin SV, Zhao R. Decoding Apparent Ferroelectricity in Perovskite Nanofibers. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2017; 9:42131-42138. [PMID: 29130311 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.7b14257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Ferroelectric perovskites are an important group of materials underpinning a wide variety of devices ranging from sensors and transducers to nonvolatile memories and photovoltaic cells. Despite the progress in material synthesis, ferroelectric characterization of nanoscale perovskites is still a challenge. Piezoresponse force microscopy (PFM) is one of the most popular tools for probing and manipulating nanostructures to study the ferroelectric properties. However, the interpretation of hysteresis data and alternate signal origins are critical. Here, we use a family of scanning probe microscopy (SPM) techniques to systematically investigate the ferroelectric behavior of electrospun potassium niobate (KNbO3) nanofibers. Band Excitation (BE) SPM scans reveal that PFM signals are dominated by changes in resonant frequency due to rough nanofiber surfaces, rather than the actual local piezoelectric strength. We investigate the bias-induced charge injection properties and electrostatic interactions on the PFM response of the nanofiber using contact mode Kelvin probe force microscopy (cKPFM). Furthermore, the impact of relative humidity on the KNbO3 nanofiber's piezoresponse, switching behavior, and tip-induced charges are explored. The resultant data from BE scans were utilized to estimate the piezoelectric constants of the KNO nanofiber. These observations will provide clarity in studying newly developed ferroelectric nanostructures and unambiguously interpreting the PFM data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rajasekaran Ganeshkumar
- Engineering Product Development, Singapore University of Technology and Design , 487372 Republic of Singapore
| | | | - Chin Wei Cheah
- Engineering Product Development, Singapore University of Technology and Design , 487372 Republic of Singapore
| | | | | | - Rong Zhao
- Engineering Product Development, Singapore University of Technology and Design , 487372 Republic of Singapore
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Abstract
Contact and non-contact based atomic force microscopy (AFM) approaches have been extensively utilized to explore various nanoscale surface properties. In most AFM-based measurements, a concurrent electrostatic effect between the AFM tip/cantilever and sample surface can occur. This electrostatic effect often hinders accurate measurements. Thus, it is very important to quantify as well as remove the impact of the electrostatic effect on AFM-based measurements. In this study, we examine the impact of the electrostatic effect on the electromechanical (EM) response in piezoresponse force microscopy as a model AFM mode. We quantitatively studied the effects of increasing the external electric field and reducing the spring constant of a cantilever. Further, we explored ways to minimize the electrostatic effect. The results provide broad guidelines for quantitatively analyzing the EM response as well as, eventually, for obtaining the electrostatic-free EM response. The conclusions can be applied to other AFM-based measurements that are subject to a strong electrostatic effect between the AFM tip/cantilever and sample surface, regardless of contact and non-contact modes.
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Balke N, Jesse S, Carmichael B, Okatan MB, Kravchenko II, Kalinin SV, Tselev A. Quantification of in-contact probe-sample electrostatic forces with dynamic atomic force microscopy. NANOTECHNOLOGY 2017; 28:065704. [PMID: 28050969 DOI: 10.1088/1361-6528/aa5370] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Atomic force microscopy (AFM) methods utilizing resonant mechanical vibrations of cantilevers in contact with a sample surface have shown sensitivities as high as few picometers for detecting surface displacements. Such a high sensitivity is harnessed in several AFM imaging modes. Here, we demonstrate a cantilever-resonance-based method to quantify electrostatic forces on a probe in the probe-sample junction in the presence of a surface potential or when a bias voltage is applied to the AFM probe. We find that the electrostatic forces acting on the probe tip apex can produce signals equivalent to a few pm of surface displacement. In combination with modeling, the measurements of the force were used to access the strength of the electrical field at the probe tip apex in contact with a sample. We find an evidence that the electric field strength in the junction can reach ca. 1 V nm-1 at a bias voltage of a few volts and is limited by non-ideality of the tip-sample contact. This field is sufficiently strong to significantly influence material states and kinetic processes through charge injection, Maxwell stress, shifts of phase equilibria, and reduction of energy barriers for activated processes. Besides, the results provide a baseline for accounting for the effects of local electrostatic forces in electromechanical AFM measurements as well as offer additional means to probe ionic mobility and field-induced phenomena in solids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nina Balke
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN 37831 USA
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Gao Q, Come J, Naguib M, Jesse S, Gogotsi Y, Balke N. Synergetic effects of K+and Mg2+ion intercalation on the electrochemical and actuation properties of the two-dimensional Ti3C2MXene. Faraday Discuss 2017; 199:393-403. [DOI: 10.1039/c6fd00251j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Two-dimensional materials, such as MXenes, are attractive candidates for energy storage and electrochemical actuators due to their high volume changes upon ion intercalation. Of special interest for boosting energy storage is the intercalation of multivalent ions such as Mg2+, which suffers from sluggish intercalation and transport kinetics due to its ion size. By combining traditional electrochemical characterization techniques with electrochemical dilatometry and contact resonance atomic force microscopy, the synergetic effects of the pre-intercalation of K+ions are demonstrated to improve the charge storage of multivalent ions, as well as tune the mechanical and actuation properties of the Ti3C2MXene. Our results have important implications for quantitatively understanding the charge storage processes in intercalation compounds and provide a new path for studying the mechanical evolution of energy storage materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiang Gao
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences
- Oak Ridge National Laboratory
- Oak Ridge
- USA
| | - Jeremy Come
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences
- Oak Ridge National Laboratory
- Oak Ridge
- USA
| | - Michael Naguib
- Materials Science and Technology Division
- Oak Ridge National Laboratory
- Oak Ridge
- USA
| | - Stephen Jesse
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences
- Oak Ridge National Laboratory
- Oak Ridge
- USA
| | - Yury Gogotsi
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering & A.J. Drexel Nanomaterials Institute
- Drexel University
- Philadelphia
- USA
| | - Nina Balke
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences
- Oak Ridge National Laboratory
- Oak Ridge
- USA
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