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Eshghi S, Rajabi H, Shafaghi S, Nabati F, Nazerian S, Darvizeh A, Gorb SN. Allometric Scaling Reveals Evolutionary Constraint on Odonata Wing Cellularity via Critical Crack Length. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2024; 11:e2400844. [PMID: 38613834 PMCID: PMC11187826 DOI: 10.1002/advs.202400844] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2024] [Revised: 02/27/2024] [Indexed: 04/15/2024]
Abstract
Scaling in insect wings is a complex phenomenon that seems pivotal in maintaining wing functionality. In this study, the relationship between wing size and the size, location, and shape of wing cells in dragonflies and damselflies (Odonata) is investigated, aiming to address the question of how these factors are interconnected. To this end, WingGram, the recently developed computer-vision-based software, is used to extract the geometric features of wing cells of 389 dragonflies and damselfly wings from 197 species and 16 families. It has been found that the cell length of the wings does not depend on the wing size. Despite the wide variation in wing length (8.42 to 56.5 mm) and cell length (0.1 to 8.5 mm), over 80% of the cells had a length ranging from 0.5 to 1.5 mm, which was previously identified as the critical crack length of the membrane of locust wings. An isometric scaling of cells is also observed with maximum size in each wing, which increased as the size increased. Smaller cells tended to be more circular than larger cells. The results have implications for bio-mimetics, inspiring new materials and designs for artificial wings with potential applications in aerospace engineering and robotics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shahab Eshghi
- Department of Functional Morphology and BiomechanicsZoological InstituteKiel University24118KielGermany
| | - Hamed Rajabi
- Division of Mechanical Engineering and DesignSchool of EngineeringLondon South Bank UniversityLondonSE1 0AAUK
- Mechanical Intelligence Research GroupSouth Bank Applied BioEngineering Research (SABER)School of EngineeringLondon South Bank UniversityLondonSE1 0AAUK
| | - Shaghayegh Shafaghi
- Department of Mechanical EngineeringAhrar Institute of Technology and Higher EducationRasht4193163591Iran
| | - Fatemeh Nabati
- Department of Mechanical EngineeringAhrar Institute of Technology and Higher EducationRasht4193163591Iran
| | - Sana Nazerian
- Department Artificial Intelligence in Biomedical EngineeringFriedrich‐Alexander‐Universität Erlangen‐NürnbergHenkestraße 9191052ErlangenGermany
| | - Abolfazl Darvizeh
- Department of Mechanical EngineeringAhrar Institute of Technology and Higher EducationRasht4193163591Iran
- Faculty of Mechanical EngineeringUniversity of GuilanRasht4199613776Iran
| | - Stanislav N. Gorb
- Department of Functional Morphology and BiomechanicsZoological InstituteKiel University24118KielGermany
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Lehmann FO, Gorb S, Moussian B. Spatio-temporal distribution and genetic background of elastic proteins inside the chitin/chitosan matrix of insects including their functional significance for locomotion. INSECT BIOCHEMISTRY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2024; 168:104089. [PMID: 38485097 DOI: 10.1016/j.ibmb.2024.104089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2023] [Revised: 02/14/2024] [Accepted: 02/15/2024] [Indexed: 03/26/2024]
Abstract
In insects, cuticle proteins interact with chitin and chitosan of the exoskeleton forming crystalline, amorphic or composite material structures. The biochemical and mechanical composition of the structure defines the cuticle's physical properties and thus how the insect cuticle behaves under mechanical stress. The tissue-specific ratio between chitin and chitosan and its pattern of deacetylation are recognized and interpreted by cuticle proteins depending on their local position in the body. Despite previous research, the assembly of the cuticle composites in time and space including its functional impact is widely unexplored. This review is devoted to the genetics underlying the temporal and spatial distribution of elastic proteins and the potential function of elastic proteins in insects with a focus on Resilin in the fruit fly Drosophila. The potential impact and function of localized patches of elastic proteins is discussed for movements in leg joints, locomotion and damage resistance of the cuticle. We conclude that an interdisciplinary research approach serves as an integral example for the molecular mechanisms of generation and interpretation of the chitin/chitosan matrix, not only in Drosophila but also in other arthropod species, and might help to synthesize artificial material composites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fritz-Olaf Lehmann
- Fritz-Olaf Lehmann, Department of Animal Physiology, University of Rostock, Albert-Einstein-Str. 3, 18059, Rostock, Germany.
| | - Stanislav Gorb
- Stanislav Gorb, Functional Morphology and Biomechanics, Kiel University, Am Botanischen Garten 1-9, 24118, Kiel, Germany.
| | - Bernard Moussian
- Bernard Moussian, Institute Sophia Agrobiotech, University of Nice Sophia Antipolis, 38 Av. Emile Henriot, 06000, Nice, France.
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Toofani A, Eraghi SH, Basti A, Rajabi H. Complexity biomechanics: a case study of dragonfly wing design from constituting composite material to higher structural levels. Interface Focus 2024; 14:20230060. [PMID: 38618231 PMCID: PMC11008961 DOI: 10.1098/rsfs.2023.0060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2023] [Accepted: 01/25/2024] [Indexed: 04/16/2024] Open
Abstract
Presenting a novel framework for sustainable and regenerative design and development is a fundamental future need. Here we argue that a new framework, referred to as complexity biomechanics, which can be used for holistic analysis and understanding of natural mechanical systems, is key to fulfilling this need. We also present a roadmap for the design and development of intelligent and complex engineering materials, mechanisms, structures, systems, and processes capable of automatic adaptation and self-organization in response to ever-changing environments. We apply complexity biomechanics to elucidate how the different structural components of a complex biological system as dragonfly wings, from ultrastructure of the cuticle, the constituting bio-composite material of the wing, to higher structural levels, collaboratively contribute to the functionality of the entire wing system. This framework not only proposes a paradigm shift in understanding and drawing inspiration from natural systems but also holds potential applications in various domains, including materials science and engineering, biomechanics, biomimetics, bionics, and engineering biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arman Toofani
- Mechanical Intelligence (MI) Research Group, South Bank Applied BioEngineering Research (SABER), School of Engineering, London South Bank University, London, UK
- Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Guilan, Rasht, Iran
| | - Sepehr H. Eraghi
- Mechanical Intelligence (MI) Research Group, South Bank Applied BioEngineering Research (SABER), School of Engineering, London South Bank University, London, UK
- Division of Mechanical Engineering and Design, School of Engineering, London South Bank University, London, UK
| | - Ali Basti
- Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Guilan, Rasht, Iran
| | - Hamed Rajabi
- Mechanical Intelligence (MI) Research Group, South Bank Applied BioEngineering Research (SABER), School of Engineering, London South Bank University, London, UK
- Division of Mechanical Engineering and Design, School of Engineering, London South Bank University, London, UK
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Ishihara D, Onishi M, Sugikawa K. Vein-Membrane Interaction in Cambering of Flapping Insect Wings. Biomimetics (Basel) 2023; 8:571. [PMID: 38132510 PMCID: PMC10741490 DOI: 10.3390/biomimetics8080571] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2023] [Revised: 11/20/2023] [Accepted: 11/24/2023] [Indexed: 12/23/2023] Open
Abstract
It is still unclear how elastic deformation of flapping insect wings caused by the aerodynamic pressure results in their significant cambering. In this study, we present that a vein-membrane interaction (VMI) can clarify this mechanical process. In order to investigate the VMI, we propose a numerical method that consists of (a) a shape simplification model wing that consists of a few beams and a rectangular shell structure as the structural essence of flapping insect wings for the VMI, and (b) a monolithic solution procedure for strongly coupled beam and shell structures with large deformation and large rotation to analyze the shape simplification model wing. We incorporate data from actual insects into the proposed numerical method for the VMI. In the numerical analysis, we demonstrate that the model wing can generate a camber equivalent to that of the actual insects. Hence, the VMI will be a mechanical basis of the cambering of flapping insect wings. Furthermore, we present the mechanical roles of the veins in cambering. The intermediate veins increase the out-of-plane deflection of the wing membrane due to the aerodynamic pressure in the central area of the wing, while they decrease it in the vicinity of the trailing edge. As a result, these veins create the significant camber. The torsional flexibility of the leading-edge veins increases the magnitude of cambering.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daisuke Ishihara
- Department of Intelligent and Control Systems, Kyushu Institute of Technology, 680-4 Kawazu, Iizuka 820-8502, Fukuoka, Japan; (M.O.); (K.S.)
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Eraghi SH, Toofani A, Guilani RJA, Ramezanpour S, Bijma NN, Sedaghat A, Yasamandaryaei A, Gorb S, Rajabi H. Basal complex: a smart wing component for automatic shape morphing. Commun Biol 2023; 6:853. [PMID: 37591993 PMCID: PMC10435446 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-023-05206-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2023] [Accepted: 08/02/2023] [Indexed: 08/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Insect wings are adaptive structures that automatically respond to flight forces, surpassing even cutting-edge engineering shape-morphing systems. A widely accepted but not yet explicitly tested hypothesis is that a 3D component in the wing's proximal region, known as basal complex, determines the quality of wing shape changes in flight. Through our study, we validate this hypothesis, demonstrating that the basal complex plays a crucial role in both the quality and quantity of wing deformations. Systematic variations of geometric parameters of the basal complex in a set of numerical models suggest that the wings have undergone adaptations to reach maximum camber under loading. Inspired by the design of the basal complex, we develop a shape-morphing mechanism that can facilitate the shape change of morphing blades for wind turbines. This research enhances our understanding of insect wing biomechanics and provides insights for the development of simplified engineering shape-morphing systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sepehr H Eraghi
- Mechanical Intelligence (MI) Research Group, South Bank Applied BioEngineering Research (SABER), School of Engineering, London South Bank University, London, UK
| | - Arman Toofani
- Mechanical Intelligence (MI) Research Group, South Bank Applied BioEngineering Research (SABER), School of Engineering, London South Bank University, London, UK
| | - Ramin J A Guilani
- Mechanical Intelligence (MI) Research Group, South Bank Applied BioEngineering Research (SABER), School of Engineering, London South Bank University, London, UK
- Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Guilan, Rasht, Iran
| | - Shayan Ramezanpour
- Mechanical Intelligence (MI) Research Group, South Bank Applied BioEngineering Research (SABER), School of Engineering, London South Bank University, London, UK
| | - Nienke N Bijma
- Functional Morphology and Biomechanics, Institute of Zoology, Kiel University, Kiel, Germany
| | - Alireza Sedaghat
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Lahijan Branch, Islamic Azad University, Lahijan, Iran
| | - Armin Yasamandaryaei
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Lahijan Branch, Islamic Azad University, Lahijan, Iran
| | - Stanislav Gorb
- Functional Morphology and Biomechanics, Institute of Zoology, Kiel University, Kiel, Germany
| | - Hamed Rajabi
- Mechanical Intelligence (MI) Research Group, South Bank Applied BioEngineering Research (SABER), School of Engineering, London South Bank University, London, UK.
- Division of Mechanical Engineering and Design, School of Engineering, London South Bank University, London, UK.
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Zheng H, Mofatteh H, Hablicsek M, Akbarzadeh A, Akbarzadeh M. Dragonfly-Inspired Wing Design Enabled by Machine Learning and Maxwell's Reciprocal Diagrams. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2023; 10:e2207635. [PMID: 37119466 PMCID: PMC10288228 DOI: 10.1002/advs.202207635] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2022] [Revised: 02/28/2023] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
This research is taking the first steps toward applying a 2D dragonfly wing skeleton in the design of an airplane wing using artificial intelligence. The work relates the 2D morphology of the structural network of dragonfly veins to a secondary graph that is topologically dual and geometrically perpendicular to the initial network. This secondary network is referred as the reciprocal diagram proposed by Maxwell that can represent the static equilibrium of forces in the initial graph. Surprisingly, the secondary graph shows a direct relationship between the thickness of the structural members of a dragonfly wing and their in-plane static equilibrium of forces that gives the location of the primary and secondary veins in the network. The initial and the reciprocal graph of the wing are used to train an integrated and comprehensive machine-learning model that can generate similar graphs with both primary and secondary veins for a given boundary geometry. The result shows that the proposed algorithm can generate similar vein networks for an arbitrary boundary geometry with no prior topological information or the primary veins' location. The structural performance of the dragonfly wing in nature also motivated the authors to test this research's real-world application for designing the cellular structures for the core of airplane wings as cantilever porous beams. The boundary geometry of various airplane wings is used as an input for the design proccedure. The internal structure is generated using the training model of the dragonfly veins and their reciprocal graphs. One application of this method is experimentally and numerically examined for designing the cellular core, 3D printed by fused deposition modeling, of the airfoil wing; the results suggest up to 25% improvements in the out-of-plane stiffness. The findings demonstrate that the proposed machine-learning-assisted approach can facilitate the generation of multiscale architectural patterns inspired by nature to form lightweight load-bearable elements with superior structural properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hao Zheng
- Polyhedral Structures Laboratory, Department of Architecture, Weitzman School of DesignUniversity of PennsylvaniaPhiladelphiaPA19146USA
- General Office, Department of Architecture and Civil EngineeringCity University of Hong Kong83 Tat Chee Avenue, Kowloon TongKowloonHKSARChina
| | - Hossein Mofatteh
- Advanced Multifunctional and Multiphysics Metamaterials Lab (AM3L), Department of Bioresource EngineeringMcGill UniversityMontrealQCH9X 3V9Canada
| | - Marton Hablicsek
- Mathematical InstituteLeiden UniversityLeiden2333CAThe Netherlands
| | - Abdolhamid Akbarzadeh
- Advanced Multifunctional and Multiphysics Metamaterials Lab (AM3L), Department of Bioresource EngineeringMcGill UniversityMontrealQCH9X 3V9Canada
- Department of Mechanical EngineeringMcGill UniversityMontrealQCH3A 0C3Canada
| | - Masoud Akbarzadeh
- Polyhedral Structures Laboratory, Department of Architecture, Weitzman School of DesignUniversity of PennsylvaniaPhiladelphiaPA19146USA
- General Robotic, Automation, Sensing and Perception (GRASP) Lab, School of Engineering and Applied ScienceUniversity of Pennsylvania3330 Walnut StPhiladelphiaPA19104USA
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7
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Zhao W, Ma Q, Li Z, Wan C. Functional compliance and protective stiffness: cross-veins in the hind wing of locust Locusta migratoria. J Comp Physiol A Neuroethol Sens Neural Behav Physiol 2023; 209:231-237. [PMID: 36289065 DOI: 10.1007/s00359-022-01587-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2022] [Revised: 09/22/2022] [Accepted: 10/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Locusts (Locusta migratoria) have outstanding flying abilities, and most of their lift is provided by their hind wings. Insect aerodynamic performance is strongly affected by wing deformation during stroke, which is closely related to its functional morphology (particularly its mechanical properties). The cross-vein is one of the main morphologies in the hind wing of locusts. However, few studies on the mechanical properties of cross-veins have been conducted. This study evaluated the cross-veins of the locust hind wing using uniaxial tensile tester, scanning electron microscope, and finite element methods. Four cross-vein types were identified at different locations on the hind wing, including periodical semi- and full-ellipsoidal humps and periodical semi- and full-conical humps. The four cross-veins showed similar tensile stiffness but differed in bending compliance. We suggest that the mechanical properties of the four cross-veins can be attributed to their physiological functions. This study elucidates cross-veins of locust hind wing and contributes our understanding of the flapping flight mechanism in locusts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wanying Zhao
- Department of Mechanics, School of Aerospace Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, China
| | - Qiyue Ma
- Department of Mechanics, School of Aerospace Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, China
| | - Zhongjie Li
- Department of Mechanics, School of Aerospace Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, China
| | - Chao Wan
- Department of Mechanics, School of Aerospace Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, China.
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8
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Zhang J, Yuan Q, Jiang Y, Pang H, Rajabi H, Wu Z, Wu J. Elytra coupling of the ladybird Coccinella septempunctatafunctions as an energy absorber in intentional falls. BIOINSPIRATION & BIOMIMETICS 2021; 16:056018. [PMID: 34384068 DOI: 10.1088/1748-3190/ac1cef] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2021] [Accepted: 08/12/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Some insects, such as bees, wasps, and bugs, have specialized coupling structures to synchronize the wing motions in flight. Some others, such as ladybirds, are equipped with coupling structures that work only at rest. By locking elytra into each other, such structures provide hindwings with a protective cover to prevent contamination. Here, we show that the coupling may play another significant role: contributing to energy absorption in falls, thereby protecting the abdomen against mechanical damage. In this combined experimental, numerical and theoretical study, we investigated free falls of ladybirds (Coccinella septempunctata), and discovered that upon collision to the ground, the coupling may fail and the elytra may unlock. This unlocking of the coupling increased the energy absorption by 33%, in comparison to when the elytra remain coupled. Using micro-computed tomography scanning, we developed comparative models that enabled us to simulate impact scenarios numerically. Our results showed that unlocking of the coupling, here called elytra splitting, reduces both the peak impact force and rebound velocity. We fabricated the insect-inspired coupling mechanism using 3D printing and demonstrated its application as a damage preventing on system for quadcopters in accidental collisions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jie Zhang
- School of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, 510006, People's Republic of China
| | - Qiufeng Yuan
- School of Engineering and Technology, China University of Geosciences, Beijing, 100191, People's Republic of China
| | - Yiling Jiang
- School of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, 510006, People's Republic of China
| | - Hong Pang
- School of Ecology, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, 510006, People's Republic of China
| | - Hamed Rajabi
- Division of Mechanical Engineering and Design, School of Engineering, London South Bank University, London, United Kingdom
| | - Zhigang Wu
- School of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, 510006, People's Republic of China
| | - Jianing Wu
- School of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, 510006, People's Republic of China
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Klunk CL, Argenta MA, Casadei-Ferreira A, Economo EP, Pie MR. Mandibular morphology, task specialization and bite mechanics in Pheidole ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). J R Soc Interface 2021; 18:20210318. [PMID: 34102082 PMCID: PMC8187013 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2021.0318] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2021] [Accepted: 05/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Ants show remarkable ecological and evolutionary success due to their social life history and division of labour among colony members. In some lineages, the worker force became subdivided into morphologically distinct individuals (i.e. minor versus major workers), allowing for the differential performance of particular roles in the colony. However, the functional and ecological significance of these morphological differences are not well understood. Here, we applied finite element analysis (FEA) to explore the biomechanical differences between major and minor ant worker mandibles. Analyses were carried out on mandibles of two Pheidole species, a dimorphic ant genus. We tested whether major mandibles evolved to minimize stress when compared to minors using combinations of the apical tooth and masticatory margin bites under strike and pressure conditions. Majors performed better in pressure conditions yet, contrary to our expectations, minors performed better in strike bite scenarios. Moreover, we demonstrated that even small morphological differences in ant mandibles might lead to substantial differences in biomechanical responses to bite loading. These results also underscore the potential of FEA to uncover biomechanical consequences of morphological differences within and between ant workers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristian L. Klunk
- Graduate Program in Ecology and Conservation, Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba-PR, Brazil
| | - Marco A. Argenta
- Department of Civil Construction, Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba-PR, Brazil
| | - Alexandre Casadei-Ferreira
- Biodiversity and Biocomplexity Unit, Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University, Onna, Japan
| | - Evan P. Economo
- Biodiversity and Biocomplexity Unit, Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University, Onna, Japan
| | - Marcio R. Pie
- Graduate Program in Ecology and Conservation, Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba-PR, Brazil
- Department of Zoology, Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba-PR, Brazil
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Khaheshi A, Gorb S, Rajabi H. Triple Stiffness: A Bioinspired Strategy to Combine Load-Bearing, Durability, and Impact-Resistance. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2021; 8:e2004338. [PMID: 34105267 PMCID: PMC8188221 DOI: 10.1002/advs.202004338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2020] [Revised: 01/19/2021] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
Structures with variable stiffness have received increasing attention in the fields of robotics, aerospace, structural, and biomedical engineering. This is because they not only adapt to applied loads, but can also combine mutually exclusive properties. Here inspired by insect wings, the concept of "triple stiffness" is introduced and applied to engineering systems that exhibit three distinct deformability regimes. By implementing "flexible joints," "mechanical stoppers," and "buckling zones," structures are engineered to be not only load-bearing and durable, but also impact-resistant. To practice the performance of the design concept in real-life applications, the developed structures are integrated into 3D printed airplane wing models that withstood collisions without failure. The concept developed here opens new avenues for the development of structural elements that are load-bearing, durable, and impact-resistant at the same time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ali Khaheshi
- Functional Morphology and BiomechanicsInstitute of ZoologyKiel UniversityKiel24118Germany
| | - Stanislav Gorb
- Functional Morphology and BiomechanicsInstitute of ZoologyKiel UniversityKiel24118Germany
| | - Hamed Rajabi
- Functional Morphology and BiomechanicsInstitute of ZoologyKiel UniversityKiel24118Germany
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11
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Krishna S, Cho M, Wehmann HN, Engels T, Lehmann FO. Wing Design in Flies: Properties and Aerodynamic Function. INSECTS 2020; 11:E466. [PMID: 32718051 PMCID: PMC7469158 DOI: 10.3390/insects11080466] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2020] [Revised: 07/16/2020] [Accepted: 07/19/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The shape and function of insect wings tremendously vary between insect species. This review is engaged in how wing design determines the aerodynamic mechanisms with which wings produce an air momentum for body weight support and flight control. We work out the tradeoffs associated with aerodynamic key parameters such as vortex development and lift production, and link the various components of wing structure to flight power requirements and propulsion efficiency. A comparison between rectangular, ideal-shaped and natural-shaped wings shows the benefits and detriments of various wing shapes for gliding and flapping flight. The review expands on the function of three-dimensional wing structure, on the specific role of wing corrugation for vortex trapping and lift enhancement, and on the aerodynamic significance of wing flexibility for flight and body posture control. The presented comparison is mainly concerned with wings of flies because these animals serve as model systems for both sensorimotor integration and aerial propulsion in several areas of biology and engineering.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Fritz-Olaf Lehmann
- Department of Animal Physiology, Institute of Biosciences, University of Rostock, 18059 Rostock, Germany; (S.K.); (M.C.); (H.-N.W.); (T.E.)
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12
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Rajabi H, Dirks JH, Gorb SN. Insect wing damage: causes, consequences and compensatory mechanisms. J Exp Biol 2020; 223:223/9/jeb215194. [DOI: 10.1242/jeb.215194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
ABSTRACT
The evolution of wings has played a key role in the success of insect species, allowing them to diversify to fill many niches. Insect wings are complex multifunctional structures, which not only have to withstand aerodynamic forces but also need to resist excessive stresses caused by accidental collisions. This Commentary provides a summary of the literature on damage-reducing morphological adaptations in wings, covering natural causes of wing collisions, their impact on the structural integrity of wings and associated consequences for both insect flight performance and life expectancy. Data from the literature and our own observations suggest that insects have evolved strategies that (i) reduce the likelihood of wing damage and (ii) allow them to cope with damage when it occurs: damage-related fractures are minimized because wings evolved to be damage tolerant and, in the case of wing damage, insects compensate for the reduced aerodynamic efficiency with dedicated changes in flight kinematics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hamed Rajabi
- Functional Morphology and Biomechanics, Institute of Zoology, Kiel University, Am Botanischen Garten 1-9, D-24098 Kiel, Germany
| | - Jan-Henning Dirks
- Biomimetics-Innovation-Centre, Hochschule Bremen–City University of Applied Sciences, 28199 Bremen, Germany
| | - Stanislav N. Gorb
- Functional Morphology and Biomechanics, Institute of Zoology, Kiel University, Am Botanischen Garten 1-9, D-24098 Kiel, Germany
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13
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Rudolf J, Wang LY, Gorb S, Rajabi H. On the fracture resistance of dragonfly wings. J Mech Behav Biomed Mater 2019; 99:127-133. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jmbbm.2019.07.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2019] [Revised: 06/21/2019] [Accepted: 07/18/2019] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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14
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Sun J, Liu C, Bhushan B. A review of beetle hindwings: Structure, mechanical properties, mechanism and bioinspiration. J Mech Behav Biomed Mater 2019; 94:63-73. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jmbbm.2019.02.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2018] [Revised: 02/11/2019] [Accepted: 02/28/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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15
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Wehmann HN, Heepe L, Gorb SN, Engels T, Lehmann FO. Local deformation and stiffness distribution in fly wings. Biol Open 2019; 8:8/1/bio038299. [PMID: 30642916 PMCID: PMC6361194 DOI: 10.1242/bio.038299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Mechanical properties of insect wings are essential for insect flight aerodynamics. During wing flapping, wings may undergo tremendous deformations, depending on the wings’ spatial stiffness distribution. We here show an experimental evaluation of wing stiffness in three species of flies using a micro-force probe and an imaging method for wing surface reconstruction. Vertical deflection in response to point loads at 11 characteristic points on the wing surface reveals that average spring stiffness of bending lines between wing hinge and point loads varies ∼77-fold in small fruit flies and up to ∼28-fold in large blowflies. The latter result suggests that local wing deformation depends to a considerable degree on how inertial and aerodynamic forces are distributed on the wing surface during wing flapping. Stiffness increases with an increasing body mass, amounting to ∼0.6 Nm−1 in fruit flies, ∼0.7 Nm−1 in house flies and ∼2.6 Nm−1 in blowflies for bending lines, running from the wing base to areas near the center of aerodynamic pressure. Wings of house flies have a ∼1.4-fold anisotropy in mean stiffness for ventral versus dorsal loading, while anisotropy is absent in fruit flies and blowflies. We present two numerical methods for calculation of local surface deformation based on surface symmetry and wing curvature. These data demonstrate spatial deformation patterns under load and highlight how veins subdivide wings into functional areas. Our results on wings of living animals differ from previous experiments on detached, desiccated wings and help to construct more realistic mechanical models for testing the aerodynamic consequences of specific wing deformations. Summary: We determined mechanical properties of wings under load in three fly species. Fly wings broadly deform similar to homogenous beams. Veins and joints shape wing mechanics and govern wing deformation during flapping flight.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henja-Niniane Wehmann
- Department of Animal Physiology, Institute of Biological Sciences, University of Rostock, Albert-Einstein-Str. 3, Rostock 18059, Germany
| | - Lars Heepe
- Department of Functional Morphology and Biomechanics, Zoological Institute, University of Kiel, Christian-Albrechts-Platz, 24118 Kiel, Germany
| | - Stanislav N Gorb
- Department of Functional Morphology and Biomechanics, Zoological Institute, University of Kiel, Christian-Albrechts-Platz, 24118 Kiel, Germany
| | - Thomas Engels
- Laboratoire de métérologie dynamique, Department Géosciences, Ecole Normale Supérieure and PSL, Paris, 24 rue Lhomond, 75231 Paris Cedex 05, France
| | - Fritz-Olaf Lehmann
- Department of Animal Physiology, Institute of Biological Sciences, University of Rostock, Albert-Einstein-Str. 3, Rostock 18059, Germany
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16
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Bomphrey RJ, Godoy-Diana R. Insect and insect-inspired aerodynamics: unsteadiness, structural mechanics and flight control. CURRENT OPINION IN INSECT SCIENCE 2018; 30:26-32. [PMID: 30410869 PMCID: PMC6218012 DOI: 10.1016/j.cois.2018.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Flying insects impress by their versatility and have been a recurrent source of inspiration for engineering devices. A large body of literature has focused on various aspects of insect flight, with an essential part dedicated to the dynamics of flapping wings and their intrinsically unsteady aerodynamic mechanisms. Insect wings flex during flight and a better understanding of structural mechanics and aeroelasticity is emerging. Most recently, insights from solid and fluid mechanics have been integrated with physiological measurements from visual and mechanosensors in the context of flight control in steady airs and through turbulent conditions. We review the key recent advances concerning flight in unsteady environments and how the multi-body mechanics of the insect structure-wings and body-are at the core of the flight control question. The issues herein should be considered when applying bio-informed design principles to robotic flapping wings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard J Bomphrey
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Royal Veterinary College, London, United Kingdom
| | - Ramiro Godoy-Diana
- Physique et Mécanique des Milieux Hétérogènes laboratory (PMMH), CNRS, ESPCI Paris – PSL Research University, Sorbonne Université, Université Paris Diderot, Paris, France
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17
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Zhao J, Xu M, Liang Y, Yan S, Niu W. Influence of hydrodynamic pressure and vein strength on the super-elasticity of honeybee wings. JOURNAL OF INSECT PHYSIOLOGY 2018; 109:100-106. [PMID: 30006106 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinsphys.2018.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2018] [Revised: 07/09/2018] [Accepted: 07/10/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
The wings of honeybees (Apis mellifera L.) usually produce bending and torsional deformations during flapping wing movement. These deformations endow honeybees with perfect aerodynamic control to escape predators and exploit scattered resources. However, the mechanisms by which honeybee wings recover from large deformations are unclear. This study demonstrates that honeybee wings are super-elastic that they can recover rapidly from one extreme contorted state to their original position. A comparative experiment is conducted to evaluate the difference in super-elastic recovery between attached and detached wings. Results show that the structural stiffness of wings is affected by the reticulate vein and the haemolymph pressure generated by the blood circulation. Further analysis indicates that the haemolymph pressure can increase the stiffness of honeybee wings, especially that of the subcostal veins. This phenomenon shortens the recovery time of wing deflection behaviour.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jieliang Zhao
- Division of Intelligent and Biomechanical Systems, State Key Laboratory of Tribology, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, PR China
| | - Mengdi Xu
- Division of Intelligent and Biomechanical Systems, State Key Laboratory of Tribology, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, PR China; Robot and Protein Kinematics Laboratory, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21218, USA
| | - Youjian Liang
- Division of Intelligent and Biomechanical Systems, State Key Laboratory of Tribology, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, PR China
| | - Shaoze Yan
- Division of Intelligent and Biomechanical Systems, State Key Laboratory of Tribology, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, PR China.
| | - Wendong Niu
- Division of Intelligent and Biomechanical Systems, State Key Laboratory of Tribology, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, PR China
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18
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Rajabi H, Shafiei A, Darvizeh A, Gorb SN, Dürr V, Dirks JH. Both stiff and compliant: morphological and biomechanical adaptations of stick insect antennae for tactile exploration. J R Soc Interface 2018; 15:rsif.2018.0246. [PMID: 30045891 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2018.0246] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2018] [Accepted: 07/04/2018] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Active tactile exploration behaviour is constrained to a large extent by the morphological and biomechanical properties of the animal's somatosensory system. In the model organism Carausius morosus, the main tactile sensory organs are long, thin, seemingly delicate, but very robust antennae. Previous studies have shown that these antennae are compliant under contact, yet stiff enough to maintain a straight shape during active exploration. Overcritical damping of the flagellum, on the other hand, allows for a rapid return to the straight shape after release of contact. Which roles do the morphological and biomechanical adaptations of the flagellum play in determining these special mechanical properties? To investigate this question, we used a combination of biomechanical experiments and numerical modelling. A set of four finite-element (FE) model variants was derived to investigate the effect of the distinct geometrical and material properties of the flagellum on its static (bending) and dynamic (damping) characteristics. The results of our numerical simulations show that the tapered shape of the flagellum had the strongest influence on its static biomechanical behaviour. The annulated structure and thickness gradient affected the deformability of the flagellum to a lesser degree. The inner endocuticle layer of the flagellum was confirmed to be essential for explaining the strongly damped return behaviour of the antenna. By highlighting the significance of two out of the four main structural features of the insect flagellum, our study provides a basis for mechanical design of biomimetic touch sensors tuned to become maximally flexible while quickly resuming a straight shape after contact.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Rajabi
- Functional Morphology and Biomechanics, Zoological Institute, Kiel University, Kiel, Germany
| | - A Shafiei
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Guilan, Rasht, Iran.,Department of Mechanical Engineering, McGill University, 817 Sherbrooke Street West, Montreal, Quebec, Canada H3A 2K6
| | - A Darvizeh
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Anzali Branch, Islamic Azad University, Bandar Anzali, Iran
| | - S N Gorb
- Functional Morphology and Biomechanics, Zoological Institute, Kiel University, Kiel, Germany
| | - V Dürr
- Department of Biological Cybernetics, Faculty of Biology, Bielefeld University, Universitätsstrasse 25, 33615 Bielefeld, Germany
| | - J-H Dirks
- Max-Planck-Institute for Intelligent Systems, Stuttgart, Germany.,Biomimetics-Innovation-Centre, Hochschule Bremen-City University of Applied Sciences, Bremen, Germany
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19
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Bergmann P, Richter S, Glöckner N, Betz O. Morphology of hindwing veins in the shield bug Graphosoma italicum (Heteroptera: Pentatomidae). ARTHROPOD STRUCTURE & DEVELOPMENT 2018; 47:375-390. [PMID: 29684555 DOI: 10.1016/j.asd.2018.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2018] [Revised: 04/18/2018] [Accepted: 04/19/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Light, fluorescence, and electron microscopy were applied to cross sections and -breakage and whole-mount preparations of the anterior hindwing vein of the shield bug Graphosoma italicum. These analyses were complemented by investigations of the basal part of the forewing Corium and Clavus. The integration of structural, histological, and fluorescence data revealed a complex arrangement of both rigid and elastic structures in the wall of wing veins and provided insights into the constitution of transition zones between rigid and elastic regions. Beneath the exocuticular layers, which are continuous with the dorsal and ventral cuticle of the wing membrane, the lumen of the veins is encompassed by a mesocuticular layer, an internal circular exocuticular layer, and an internal longitudinal endocuticular layer. Separate parallel lumina within the anterior longitudinal vein of the hindwing, arranged side-by-side rostro-caudally, suggest that several veins have fused in the phylogenetic context of vein reduction in the pentatomid hindwing. Gradual structural transition zones and resilin enrichment between sclerotized layers of the vein wall and along the edges of the claval furrow are interpreted as mechanical adaptations to enhance the reliability and durability of the mechanically stressed wing veins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paavo Bergmann
- Electron Microscopy Center, Biology, University of Konstanz, Germany; Evolutionary Biology of Invertebrates, Institute of Evolution and Ecology, University of Tübingen, Germany.
| | - Sandra Richter
- Center for Plant Molecular Biology, University of Tübingen, Germany
| | - Nina Glöckner
- Center for Plant Molecular Biology, University of Tübingen, Germany
| | - Oliver Betz
- Evolutionary Biology of Invertebrates, Institute of Evolution and Ecology, University of Tübingen, Germany
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20
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Rajabi H, Stamm K, Appel E, Gorb SN. Micro-morphological adaptations of the wing nodus to flight behaviour in four dragonfly species from the family Libellulidae (Odonata: Anisoptera). ARTHROPOD STRUCTURE & DEVELOPMENT 2018; 47:442-448. [PMID: 29339328 DOI: 10.1016/j.asd.2018.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2017] [Revised: 01/03/2018] [Accepted: 01/09/2018] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Adult dragonflies can be divided into two major groups, perchers and fliers, exhibiting notably different flight behaviour. Previous studies have yielded conflicting results regarding the link between the wing macro-morphology and flight style in these two groups. In this study, we present the first systematic investigation of the micro-morphological differences of wings of percher and flier dragonflies in four closely related species from the family Libellulidae. Our results suggest that the shape and material composition of wing microstructural components and, in particular, the nodus are adapted to facilitate the specific wing functioning in fliers and perchers. The findings further indicate a decreasing trend in the area proportion of the soft resilin-dominated cuticle in the nodus in the series of species from typical perchers to typical fliers. Such a reduction in the resilin proportion in the nodus of fliers is associated with an increase in the wing aspect ratio. The knot-shaped protrusion at the nodus of perchers, which becomes notably smaller in that of strong fliers, is likely to act as a mechanical stopper, avoiding large wing displacements. This study aims to develop a novel framework for future research on the relationship between wing morphology and flight behaviour in dragonflies.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Rajabi
- Institute of Zoology, Functional Morphology and Biomechanics, Kiel University, Kiel, Germany.
| | - K Stamm
- Institute of Zoology, Functional Morphology and Biomechanics, Kiel University, Kiel, Germany
| | - E Appel
- Institute of Zoology, Functional Morphology and Biomechanics, Kiel University, Kiel, Germany
| | - S N Gorb
- Institute of Zoology, Functional Morphology and Biomechanics, Kiel University, Kiel, Germany
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21
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Yazawa K, Numata K, Norma-Rashid Y. Morphological and mechanical properties of flexible resilin joints on damselfly wings (Rhinocypha spp.). PLoS One 2018. [PMID: 29513694 PMCID: PMC5841740 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0193147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Resilin functions as an elastic spring that demonstrates extraordinary extensibility and elasticity. Here we use combined techniques, laser scanning confocal microscopy (LSCM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) to illuminate the structure and study the function of wing flexibility in damselflies, focusing on the genus Rhinocypha. Morphological studies using LSCM and SEM revealed that resilin patches and cuticular spikes were widespread along the longitudinal veins on both dorsal and ventral wing surfaces. Nanoindentation was performed by using atomic force microscopy (AFM), where the wing samples were divided into three sections (membrane of the wing, mobile and immobile joints). The resulting topographic images revealed the presence of various sizes of nanostructures for all sample sections. The elasticity range values were: membrane (0.04 to 0.16 GPa), mobile joint (1.1 to 2.0 GPa) and immobile joint (1.8 to 6.0 GPa). The elastomeric and glycine-rich biopolymer, resilin was shown to be an important protein responsible for the elasticity and wing flexibility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenjiro Yazawa
- Enzyme Research Team, Biomass Engineering Research Division, RIKEN Center for Sustainable Resource Science, Wako-shi, Saitama, Japan
| | - Keiji Numata
- Enzyme Research Team, Biomass Engineering Research Division, RIKEN Center for Sustainable Resource Science, Wako-shi, Saitama, Japan
| | - Y Norma-Rashid
- Institute of Biological Science, Faculty of Science, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
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22
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Rajabi H, Jafarpour M, Darvizeh A, Dirks JH, Gorb SN. Stiffness distribution in insect cuticle: a continuous or a discontinuous profile? J R Soc Interface 2018; 14:rsif.2017.0310. [PMID: 28724628 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2017.0310] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2017] [Accepted: 06/23/2017] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Insect cuticle is a biological composite with a high degree of complexity in terms of both architecture and material composition. Given the complex morphology of many insect body parts, finite-element (FE) models play an important role in the analysis and interpretation of biomechanical measurements, taken by either macroscopic or nanoscopic techniques. Many previous studies show that the interpretation of nanoindentation measurements of this layered composite material is very challenging. To develop accurate FE models, it is of particular interest to understand more about the variations in the stiffness through the thickness of the cuticle. Considering the difficulties of making direct measurements, in this study, we use the FE method to analyse previously published data and address this issue numerically. For this purpose, sets of continuous or discontinuous stiffness profiles through the thickness of the cuticle were mathematically described. The obtained profiles were assigned to models developed based on the cuticle of three insect species with different geometries and layer configurations. The models were then used to simulate the mechanical behaviour of insect cuticles subjected to nanoindentation experiments. Our results show that FE models with discontinuous exponential stiffness gradients along their thickness were able to predict the stress and deformation states in insect cuticle very well. Our results further suggest that, for more accurate measurements and interpretation of nanoindentation test data, the ratio of the indentation depth to cuticle thickness should be limited to 7% rather than the traditional '10% rule'. The results of this study thus might be useful to provide a deeper insight into the biomechanical consequences of the distinct material distribution in insect cuticle and also to form a basis for more realistic modelling of this complex natural composite.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Rajabi
- Institute of Zoology, Functional Morphology and Biomechanics, Kiel University, Kiel, Germany
| | - M Jafarpour
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Guilan, Rasht, Iran
| | - A Darvizeh
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Guilan, Rasht, Iran
| | - J-H Dirks
- Biomimetics-Innovation-Centre, Bremen University of Applied Sciences, Bremen, Germany
| | - S N Gorb
- Institute of Zoology, Functional Morphology and Biomechanics, Kiel University, Kiel, Germany
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23
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Schmitt M, Büscher TH, Gorb SN, Rajabi H. How does a slender tibia resist buckling? Effect of material, structural and geometric characteristics on buckling behaviour of the hindleg tibia in stick insect postembryonic development. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2018; 221:jeb.173047. [PMID: 29361600 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.173047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2017] [Accepted: 12/14/2017] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
During the lifespan of the stick insect Carausius morosus, their long and narrow tibiae experience substantial compressive loads. The mechanical load on the tibiae increases as the weight of the insect rises. The increase in body weight is accompanied by a notable increase in the insect's body size and, accordingly, by an increase in the length of the tibiae. Both of these changes can raise the risk of buckling of the tibiae. In this study, we tracked changes in the material and geometric properties of the hindleg tibia of C. morosus during growth. The results show that although buckling (either by Euler buckling or local buckling) is the dominant failure mode under compression, the tibia is very capable of maintaining its buckling resistance in each postembryonic developmental stage. This is essentially the result of a compromise between the increasing slenderness of the tibia and its increasing material stiffness. The use of an optimal radius to thickness ratio, a soft resilin-dominated core, and chitin fibres oriented in both longitudinal and circumferential directions are presumably additional strategies preventing buckling of the tibia. This study, providing the first quantitative data on changes in the biomechanical properties of cuticle during the entire life of an insect, is expected to shed more light on the structure-property-function relationship in this complex biological composite.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maximilian Schmitt
- Functional Morphology and Biomechanics, Institute of Zoology, Kiel University, Am Botanischen Garten 1-9, D-24098 Kiel, Germany.,Westphalian Institute for Biomimetics, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Westphalian University of Applied Sciences, Münsterstrasse 265, 46397 Bocholt, Germany
| | - Thies H Büscher
- Functional Morphology and Biomechanics, Institute of Zoology, Kiel University, Am Botanischen Garten 1-9, D-24098 Kiel, Germany
| | - Stanislav N Gorb
- Functional Morphology and Biomechanics, Institute of Zoology, Kiel University, Am Botanischen Garten 1-9, D-24098 Kiel, Germany
| | - Hamed Rajabi
- Functional Morphology and Biomechanics, Institute of Zoology, Kiel University, Am Botanischen Garten 1-9, D-24098 Kiel, Germany
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24
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Schieber G, Born L, Bergmann P, Körner A, Mader A, Saffarian S, Betz O, Milwich M, Gresser GT, Knippers J. Hindwings of insects as concept generator for hingeless foldable shading systems. BIOINSPIRATION & BIOMIMETICS 2017; 13:016012. [PMID: 29094682 DOI: 10.1088/1748-3190/aa979c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Hingeless shading systems inspired by nature are increasingly the focus of architectural research. In contrast to traditional systems, these compliant mechanisms can reduce the amount of maintenance-intensive parts and can easily be adapted to irregular, doubly curved, facade geometries. Previous mechanisms rely merely on the reversible material deformation of composite structures with almost homogeneous material properties. This leads to large actuation forces and an inherent conflict between the requirements of movement and the capacity to carry external loads. To enhance the performance of such systems, current research is directed at natural mechanisms with concentrated compliance and distinct hinge zones with high load-bearing capacity. Here, we provide insights into our biological findings and the development of a deployable structure inspired by the Flexagon model of hindwings of insects in general and the hierarchical structure of the wing cuticle of the shield bug (Graphosoma lineatum). By using technical fibre-reinforced plastics in combination with an elastomer foil, natural principles have been partially transferred into a multi-layered structure with locally adapted stiffness. Initial small prototypes have been produced in a vacuum-assisted hot press and sustain this functionality. Initial theoretical studies on test surfaces outline the advantages of these bio-inspired structures as deployable external shading systems for doubly curved facades.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Schieber
- Institute of Building Structures and Structural Design (ITKE), University of Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany
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25
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Rajabi H, Ghoroubi N, Stamm K, Appel E, Gorb S. Dragonfly wing nodus: A one-way hinge contributing to the asymmetric wing deformation. Acta Biomater 2017; 60:330-338. [PMID: 28739543 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2017.07.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2017] [Revised: 07/18/2017] [Accepted: 07/20/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Dragonfly wings are highly specialized locomotor systems, which are formed by a combination of several structural components. The wing components, also known as structural elements, are responsible for the various aspects of the wing functionality. Considering the complex interactions between the wing components, modelling of the wings as a whole is only possible with inevitable huge oversimplifications. In order to overcome this difficulty, we have recently proposed a new approach to model individual components of complex wings comparatively. Here, we use this approach to study nodus, a structural element of dragonfly wings which has been less studied to date. Using a combination of several imaging techniques including scanning electron microscopy (SEM), wide-field fluorescence microscopy (WFM), confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) and micro-computed tomography (micro-CT) scanning, we aim to characterize the spatial morphology and material composition of fore- and hindwing nodi of the dragonfly Brachythemis contaminata. The microscopy results show the presence of resilin in the nodi, which is expected to help the deformability of the wings. The computational results based on three-dimensional (3D) structural data suggest that the specific geometry of the nodus restrains its displacements when subjected to pressure on the ventral side. This effect, resulting from an interlocking mechanism, is expected to contribute to the dorso-ventral asymmetry of wing deformation and to provide a higher resistance to aerodynamic forces during the downstroke. Our results provide an important step towards better understanding of the structure-property-function relationship in dragonfly wings. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE In this study, we investigate the wing nodus, a specialized wing component in dragonflies. Using a combination of modern imaging techniques, we demonstrate the presence of resilin in the nodus, which is expected to facilitate the wing deformability in flight. The specific geometry of the nodus, however, seems to restrain its displacements when subjected to pressure on the ventral side. This effect, resulting from an interlocking mechanism, is suggested to contribute to dorso-ventral asymmetry of wing deformations and to provide a higher resistance to aerodynamic forces during the downstroke. Our results provide an important step towards better understanding of the structure-property-function relationship in dragonfly wings and might help to design more efficient wings for biomimetic micro-air vehicles.
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26
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Rajabi H, Bazargan P, Pourbabaei A, Eshghi S, Darvizeh A, Gorb SN, Taylor D, Dirks JH. Wing cross veins: an efficient biomechanical strategy to mitigate fatigue failure of insect cuticle. Biomech Model Mechanobiol 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/s10237-017-0930-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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27
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Rajabi H, Shafiei A, Darvizeh A, Gorb SN. Resilin microjoints: a smart design strategy to avoid failure in dragonfly wings. Sci Rep 2016; 6:39039. [PMID: 27966641 PMCID: PMC5155300 DOI: 10.1038/srep39039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2016] [Accepted: 11/17/2016] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Dragonflies are fast and manoeuvrable fliers and this ability is reflected in their unique wing morphology. Due to the specific lightweight structure, with the crossing veins joined by rubber-like resilin patches, wings possess strong deformability but can resist high forces and large deformations during aerial collisions. The computational results demonstrate the strong influence of resilin-containing vein joints on the stress distribution within the wing. The presence of flexible resilin in the contact region of the veins prevents excessive bending of the cross veins and significantly reduces the stress concentration in the joint.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Rajabi
- Institute of Zoology, Functional Morphology and Biomechanics, Christian-Albrechts-University, Kiel, Germany
| | - A Shafiei
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Guilan, Rasht, Iran
| | - A Darvizeh
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Anzali Branch, Islamic Azad University, Bandar Anzali, Iran
| | - S N Gorb
- Institute of Zoology, Functional Morphology and Biomechanics, Christian-Albrechts-University, Kiel, Germany
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28
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Michels J, Appel E, Gorb SN. Functional diversity of resilin in Arthropoda. BEILSTEIN JOURNAL OF NANOTECHNOLOGY 2016; 7:1241-1259. [PMID: 27826498 PMCID: PMC5082342 DOI: 10.3762/bjnano.7.115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2016] [Accepted: 07/15/2016] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
Resilin is an elastomeric protein typically occurring in exoskeletons of arthropods. It is composed of randomly orientated coiled polypeptide chains that are covalently cross-linked together at regular intervals by the two unusual amino acids dityrosine and trityrosine forming a stable network with a high degree of flexibility and mobility. As a result of its molecular prerequisites, resilin features exceptional rubber-like properties including a relatively low stiffness, a rather pronounced long-range deformability and a nearly perfect elastic recovery. Within the exoskeleton structures, resilin commonly forms composites together with other proteins and/or chitin fibres. In the last decades, numerous exoskeleton structures with large proportions of resilin and various resilin functions have been described. Today, resilin is known to be responsible for the generation of deformability and flexibility in membrane and joint systems, the storage of elastic energy in jumping and catapulting systems, the enhancement of adaptability to uneven surfaces in attachment and prey catching systems, the reduction of fatigue and damage in reproductive, folding and feeding systems and the sealing of wounds in a traumatic reproductive system. In addition, resilin is present in many compound eye lenses and is suggested to be a very suitable material for optical elements because of its transparency and amorphousness. The evolution of this remarkable functional diversity can be assumed to have only been possible because resilin exhibits a unique combination of different outstanding properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Michels
- Department of Functional Morphology and Biomechanics, Institute of Zoology, Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel, Am Botanischen Garten 1–9, D-24118 Kiel, Germany
| | - Esther Appel
- Department of Functional Morphology and Biomechanics, Institute of Zoology, Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel, Am Botanischen Garten 1–9, D-24118 Kiel, Germany
| | - Stanislav N Gorb
- Department of Functional Morphology and Biomechanics, Institute of Zoology, Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel, Am Botanischen Garten 1–9, D-24118 Kiel, Germany
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Rajabi H, Ghoroubi N, Malaki M, Darvizeh A, Gorb SN. Basal Complex and Basal Venation of Odonata Wings: Structural Diversity and Potential Role in the Wing Deformation. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0160610. [PMID: 27513753 PMCID: PMC4981387 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0160610] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2016] [Accepted: 07/21/2016] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Dragonflies and damselflies, belonging to the order Odonata, are known to be excellent fliers with versatile flight capabilities. The ability to fly over a wide range of speeds, high manoeuvrability and great agility are a few characteristics of their flight. The architecture of the wings and their structural elements have been found to play a major role in this regard. However, the precise influence of individual wing components on the flight performance of these insects remains unknown. The design of the wing basis (so called basal complex) and the venation of this part are responsible for particular deformability and specific shape of the wing blade. However, the wing bases are rather different in representatives of different odonate groups. This presumably reflects the dimensions of the wings on one hand, and different flight characteristics on the other hand. In this article, we develop the first three-dimensional (3D) finite element (FE) models of the proximal part of the wings of typical representatives of five dragonflies and damselflies families. Using a combination of the basic material properties of insect cuticle, a linear elastic material model and a nonlinear geometric analysis, we simulate the mechanical behaviour of the wing bases. The results reveal that although both the basal venation and the basal complex influence the structural stiffness of the wings, it is only the latter which significantly affects their deformation patterns. The use of numerical simulations enabled us to address the role of various wing components such as the arculus, discoidal cell and triangle on the camber formation in flight. Our study further provides a detailed representation of the stress concentration in the models. The numerical analysis presented in this study is not only of importance for understanding structure-function relationship of insect wings, but also might help to improve the design of the wings for biomimetic micro-air vehicles (MAVs).
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Affiliation(s)
- H. Rajabi
- Institute of Zoology, Functional Morphology and Biomechanics, Kiel University, Kiel, Germany
- * E-mail:
| | - N. Ghoroubi
- Young Researchers Club, Rasht Branch, Islamic Azad University, Rasht, Iran
| | - M. Malaki
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, The University of Guilan, Rasht, Iran
| | - A. Darvizeh
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Anzali Branch, Islamic Azad University, Bandar Anzali, Iran
| | - S. N. Gorb
- Institute of Zoology, Functional Morphology and Biomechanics, Kiel University, Kiel, Germany
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Rajabi H, Ghoroubi N, Darvizeh A, Appel E, Gorb SN. Effects of multiple vein microjoints on the mechanical behaviour of dragonfly wings: numerical modelling. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2016; 3:150610. [PMID: 27069649 PMCID: PMC4821260 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.150610] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2015] [Accepted: 02/16/2016] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Dragonfly wings are known as biological composites with high morphological complexity. They mainly consist of a network of rigid veins and flexible membranes, and enable insects to perform various flight manoeuvres. Although several studies have been done on the aerodynamic performance of Odonata wings and the mechanisms involved in their deformations, little is known about the influence of vein joints on the passive deformability of the wings in flight. In this article, we present the first three-dimensional finite-element models of five different vein joint combinations observed in Odonata wings. The results from the analysis of the models subjected to uniform pressures on their dorsal and ventral surfaces indicate the influence of spike-associated vein joints on the dorsoventral asymmetry of wing deformation. Our study also supports the idea that a single vein joint may result in different angular deformations when it is surrounded by different joint types. The developed numerical models also enabled us to simulate the camber formation and stress distribution in the models. The computational data further provide deeper insights into the functional role of resilin patches and spikes in vein joint structures. This study might help to more realistically model the complex structure of insect wings in order to design more efficient bioinspired micro-air vehicles in future.
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Affiliation(s)
- H. Rajabi
- Zoological Institute, Functional Morphology and Biomechanics, Kiel University, Kiel, Germany
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, The University of Guilan, Rasht, Iran
- Author for correspondence: H. Rajabi e-mail:
| | - N. Ghoroubi
- Young Researchers Club, Rasht Branch, Islamic Azad University, Rasht, Iran
| | - A. Darvizeh
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, The University of Guilan, Rasht, Iran
| | - E. Appel
- Zoological Institute, Functional Morphology and Biomechanics, Kiel University, Kiel, Germany
| | - S. N. Gorb
- Zoological Institute, Functional Morphology and Biomechanics, Kiel University, Kiel, Germany
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