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Lee BJ. Aripiprazole Treatment in a Patient with Schizophrenia and Severe Antipsychotic-Induced Parkinsonism Following Long-Term use of Methylphenidate: A Case Report. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2016. [DOI: 10.5455/bcp.20150908025240] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Bong Ju Lee
- Inje University College of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry, Busan, Republic of Korea
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy Gough
- From the Faculty of Medicine, Dalhousie University (Gough); and the Department of Psychiatry, Dalhousie University (Morrison), Halifax, Nova Scotia
| | - Jason Morrison
- From the Faculty of Medicine, Dalhousie University (Gough); and the Department of Psychiatry, Dalhousie University (Morrison), Halifax, Nova Scotia
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Abstract
Interest in the negative symptoms of schizophrenia has increased rapidly over the last several decades, paralleling a growing interest in functional, in addition to clinical, recovery, and evidence underscoring the importance negative symptoms play in the former. Efforts continue to better define and measure negative symptoms, distinguish their impact from that of other symptom domains, and establish effective treatments as well as trials to assess these. Multiple interventions have been the subject of investigation, to date, including numerous pharmacological strategies, brain stimulation, and non-somatic approaches. Level and quality of evidence vary considerably, but to this point, no specific treatment can be recommended. This is particularly problematic for individuals burdened with negative symptoms in the face of mild or absent positive symptoms. Presently, clinicians will sometimes turn to interventions that are seen as more “benign” and in line with routine clinical practice. Strategies include use of atypical antipsychotics, ensuring the lowest possible antipsychotic dose that maintains control of positive symptoms (this can involve a shift from antipsychotic polypharmacy to monotherapy), possibly an antidepressant trial (given diagnostic uncertainty and the frequent use of these drugs in schizophrenia), and non-somatic interventions (e.g., cognitive behavioral therapy, CBT). The array and diversity of strategies currently under investigation highlight the lack of evidence-based treatments and our limited understanding regarding negative symptoms underlying etiology and pathophysiology. Their onset, which can precede the first psychotic break, also means that treatments are delayed. From this perspective, identification of biomarkers and/or endophenotypes permitting earlier diagnosis and intervention may serve to improve treatment efficacy as well as outcomes.
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Pallanti S, Salerno L. Raising attention to attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in schizophrenia. World J Psychiatry 2015; 5:47-55. [PMID: 25815254 PMCID: PMC4369549 DOI: 10.5498/wjp.v5.i1.47] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2014] [Revised: 11/20/2014] [Accepted: 12/31/2014] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Schizophrenia and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) are two psychiatric disorders with a negative impact on quality of life of individuals affected. Although they are classified into distinct disorders categories, attentional dysfunction is considered as a core feature in both conditions, either at the clinical then pathophysiological level. Beyond the obvious clinical overlap between these disorders, the Research Domain Criteria approach might offer an interesting perspective for disentangling common circuits underpinning both disorders. Hence, we review evidences regarding the overlap between schizophrenia and ADHD, at the clinical level, and at the level of underlying brain mechanisms. The evidence regarding the influence of environmental risk factors in the emergence of both disorders, and their developmental trajectories is also reviewed. Among these, we will try to elucidate the complex relationship between stimulants use and psychotic symptoms, discussing the potential role of ADHD medication in inducing psychosis or in exacerbating it. We aim that, taken together, these findings may promote further investigation with important implications both for clinicians and research. In fact, considering the amounting evidence on the overlap between schizophrenia and ADHD, the delineation of their boundaries might help in the decision for diagnosis and treatment. Moreover, it may help to promote interventions focused on the prevention of both schizophrenia and ADHD, by the reduction of recognized environmental risk factors.
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Sinita E, Coghill D. The use of stimulant medications for non-core aspects of ADHD and in other disorders. Neuropharmacology 2014; 87:161-72. [PMID: 24951855 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2014.06.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2014] [Revised: 06/02/2014] [Accepted: 06/11/2014] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Psychostimulants play a central role in the management of ADHD. Here we review the evidence pertaining to the use of methylphenidate, dexamphetamine and related amphetamine salts, the prodrug lisdexamfetamine and modafinil for the management of comorbid ADHD and non-ADHD indications. There is a growing consensus that stimulant medications are helpful at improving the emotional dysregulation and lability, and oppositional and conduct symptoms that are often associated with ADHD. There is some evidence that psychostimulants may improve outcomes in those with treatment resistant depression, reduce negative symptoms and improve cognitive performance in schizophrenia, and that methylphenidate may reduce binge eating in those with bulimia nervosa. In general medicine, whilst the evidence is at times contradictory, psychostimulants have been shown in some studies to be effective treatments for chronic fatigue and narcolepsy, and to improve outcomes post stroke, post head injury, in dementia and various cancers. It seems likely that these effects often result from a combination of, reduction in fatigue, improvements in concentration and cognitive functioning and a lifting of mood which may be a direct or indirect consequence of the medication. Further studies seem warranted and these should focus on efficacy, effectiveness and long term safety. This article is part of the Special Issue entitled 'CNS Stimulants'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eugenia Sinita
- Department of Research and Development, National Centre of Mental Health, Clinical Psychiatric Hospital, Chisinau, Republic of Moldova
| | - David Coghill
- Division of Neuroscience, University of Dundee, Dundee, UK.
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Huemer J, Sibitz I. Detecting and treating adult attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in a patient with schizophrenia. NEUROPSYCHIATRIE : KLINIK, DIAGNOSTIK, THERAPIE UND REHABILITATION : ORGAN DER GESELLSCHAFT OSTERREICHISCHER NERVENARZTE UND PSYCHIATER 2014; 28:92-96. [PMID: 24841900 DOI: 10.1007/s40211-014-0103-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2013] [Accepted: 03/15/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The comorbidity of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and schizophrenia poses a considerable diagnostic challenge due to significant symptom overlap, and represents a highly debilitating condition for the patient. This case report aims to present the history of a 19-year-old patient suffering from these two diagnostic entities, and thereby seeks to elucidate diagnostic and therapeutic approaches for this condition. METHODS The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (fourth edition) criteria for ADHD and schizophrenia were used to establish clinical diagnoses. Furthermore, an in-depth clinical interview with the patient's mother was carried out. Finally, a clinical interview was conducted with the patient and the Wender Utah Rating Scale was applied to assess ADHD symptoms retrospectively. RESULTS Outcomes of the mentioned diagnostic approaches confirmed the diagnosis of ADHD in the patient suffering from schizophrenia. As amphetamines would be contraindicated in the described patient, atomoxetine, a drug approved for the treatment of ADHD due to its efficacy as a selective norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor, was chosen. Following a 6-week interval after treatment initiation, a clinical re-evaluation was carried out, which showed an improvement of symptoms according to the International Classification of Diseases (tenth revision) criteria. CONCLUSION The present case report indicates that atomoxetine may be effective in treating symptoms of ADHD in patients with schizophrenia, without increasing psychotic symptoms. Results are discussed in terms of diagnostic and therapeutic implications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia Huemer
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Medical University of Vienna, Waehringer Guertel 18-20, 1090, Vienna, Austria,
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Blasco-Fontecilla H, Carballo JJ, Garcia-Nieto R, Lopez-Castroman J, Alegria AA, Basurte-Villamor I, Sevilla-Vicente J, Navarro-Jimenez R, Legido-Gil T, Morant-Ginestar C, Jimenez-Arriero MA, Saiz-Ruiz J, Baca-Garcia E. Factors contributing to the utilization of adult mental health services in children and adolescents diagnosed with hyperkinetic disorder. ScientificWorldJournal 2012; 2012:451205. [PMID: 22654608 PMCID: PMC3361257 DOI: 10.1100/2012/451205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2011] [Accepted: 12/25/2011] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Objectives. To examine whether age of First diagnosis, gender, psychiatric comorbidity, and treatment modalities (pharmacotherapy or psychotherapy) at Child and Adolescent Mental Health Services (CAMHS) moderate the risk of Adult Mental Health Services (AMHS) utilization in patients diagnosed with hyperkinetic disorder at CAMHS. Methods. Data were derived from the Madrid Psychiatric Cumulative Register Study. The target population comprised 32,183 patients who had 3 or more visits at CAMHS. Kaplan-Meier curves were used to assess survival data. A series of logistic regression analyses were performed to study the role of age of diagnosis, gender, psychiatric comorbidity, and treatment modalities. Results. 7.1% of patients presented with hyperkinetic disorder at CAMHS. Compared to preschool children, children and adolescents first diagnosed with hyperkinetic disorder at CAMHS were more likely to use AMHS. Female gender and comorbidity with affective disorders, schizophrenia, schizotypal and delusional disorders increased the risk of use of AMHS. Pharmacological or combined treatment of hyperkinetic disorder diagnosed at CAMHS was associated with increased risk of use at AMHS. Conclusions. Older age of first diagnosis, female gender, psychiatric comorbidity, and pharmacological treatment at CAMHS are markers of risk for the transition from CAMHS to AMHS in patients with hyperkinetic disorder diagnosed at CAMHS.
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Donev R, Gantert D, Alawam K, Edworthy A, Hässler F, Meyer-Lindenberg A, Dressing H, Thome J. Comorbidity of schizophrenia and adult attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. World J Biol Psychiatry 2011; 12 Suppl 1:52-6. [PMID: 21905996 DOI: 10.3109/15622975.2011.599212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Adult ADHD is characterised by a plethora of comorbid conditions. However, the comorbidity of schizophrenia and ADHD does not seem to be a typical feature and is therefore under-researched. OBJECTIVE To identify adult patients with schizophrenia and comorbid ADHD and compare their symptomatology with schizophrenic patients without ADHD. METHOD Performance in specific neuropsychological tests (set shifting, selective and sustained attention, cognitive performance, and speed of information processing) was determined. Additionally, important demographic data and information about the patients' history such as the number of suicide attempts were gathered. Twenty-seven patients were involved in this study (14 male and 13 female). Fifteen patients were diagnosed with schizophrenia/no ADHD and twelve had both schizophrenia/ADHD. RESULTS We report here an increase in suicidal behaviour of patients with both schizophrenia and ADHD compared to schizophrenia only. A significant underperformance of the patients with ADHD comorbidity compared to patients with schizophrenia only was also determined. CONCLUSIONS The increased suicidal behaviour in patients with schizophrenia and ADHD suggests the need of further studies on mood regulation and suicidal ideations in these patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rossen Donev
- Academic Unit of Psychiatry, College of Medicine, Swansea University, Swansea, UK
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9
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Kooij SJJ, Bejerot S, Blackwell A, Caci H, Casas-Brugué M, Carpentier PJ, Edvinsson D, Fayyad J, Foeken K, Fitzgerald M, Gaillac V, Ginsberg Y, Henry C, Krause J, Lensing MB, Manor I, Niederhofer H, Nunes-Filipe C, Ohlmeier MD, Oswald P, Pallanti S, Pehlivanidis A, Ramos-Quiroga JA, Rastam M, Ryffel-Rawak D, Stes S, Asherson P. European consensus statement on diagnosis and treatment of adult ADHD: The European Network Adult ADHD. BMC Psychiatry 2010; 10:67. [PMID: 20815868 PMCID: PMC2942810 DOI: 10.1186/1471-244x-10-67] [Citation(s) in RCA: 505] [Impact Index Per Article: 36.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2010] [Accepted: 09/03/2010] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is among the most common psychiatric disorders of childhood that persists into adulthood in the majority of cases. The evidence on persistence poses several difficulties for adult psychiatry considering the lack of expertise for diagnostic assessment, limited treatment options and patient facilities across Europe. METHODS The European Network Adult ADHD, founded in 2003, aims to increase awareness of this disorder and improve knowledge and patient care for adults with ADHD across Europe. This Consensus Statement is one of the actions taken by the European Network Adult ADHD in order to support the clinician with research evidence and clinical experience from 18 European countries in which ADHD in adults is recognised and treated. RESULTS Besides information on the genetics and neurobiology of ADHD, three major questions are addressed in this statement: (1) What is the clinical picture of ADHD in adults? (2) How can ADHD in adults be properly diagnosed? (3) How should ADHD in adults be effectively treated? CONCLUSIONS ADHD often presents as an impairing lifelong condition in adults, yet it is currently underdiagnosed and treated in many European countries, leading to ineffective treatment and higher costs of illness. Expertise in diagnostic assessment and treatment of ADHD in adults must increase in psychiatry. Instruments for screening and diagnosis of ADHD in adults are available and appropriate treatments exist, although more research is needed in this age group.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra JJ Kooij
- PsyQ, psycho medische programma's, Department Adult ADHD, Carel Reinierszkade 197, Den Haag, The Netherlands
| | - Susanne Bejerot
- Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinksa Institutet, Section Psychiatry, St. Goran, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Andrew Blackwell
- University Department of Psychiatry, Addenbrookes Hospital, Cambridge, UK
| | - Herve Caci
- Pediatric Department, Hôpitaux Pédiatriques CHU-Lenval, 06200 Nice, France
| | - Miquel Casas-Brugué
- Servicio de Psiquiatria, Hospital Universitari Vall d' Hebron, Universidad Autonoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Pieter J Carpentier
- Reinier van Arkel Groep, Postbus 70058, 5201 DZ 's-Hertogenbosch, The Netherlands
| | - Dan Edvinsson
- Department of Neuroscience/Psychiatri Ulleråker, MK 75, S-750 17 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - John Fayyad
- Institute of Development, Research, Advocacy and Applied Care (IDRAAC), Department of Psychiatry and Clinical Psychology, St George Hospital University Medical Centre, Balamand University, Beirut, Lebanon
| | - Karin Foeken
- Centre des Consultations, Institut A Tzanck, Mougins, France
| | - Michael Fitzgerald
- Department of Psychiatry, Trinity College Dublin (TCD), Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Veronique Gaillac
- Clinique des Maladies Mentales et de l'Encéphale (CMME), Sainte Anne Hospital Paris, France
| | - Ylva Ginsberg
- Affektiva mottagningen, M 59, Psykiatri Sydväst, 141 86 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Chantal Henry
- Département de Psychiatrie Adulte, Unité Lescure, CH Charles Perrens, Bordeaux, France
| | - Johanna Krause
- Private clinic for psychiatry and psychotherapy, 11a Schillerstrasse, Ottobrunn, Germany
| | - Michael B Lensing
- Department of Child Neurology, Oslo University Hospital, Ullevaal, Oslo, Norway
| | - Iris Manor
- Geha Mental Health Center, Petach-Tiqva, Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel-Aviv University, Israel
| | - Helmut Niederhofer
- Department of Child Psychiatry, Regional Hospital of Bolzano, Via Guncina, Bolzano, Italy
| | - Carlos Nunes-Filipe
- Faculty of Medical Sciences, New University of Lisbon, Campo dos Mártires da Pátria, 1169-056 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Martin D Ohlmeier
- Department of Psychiatry, Social Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Hannover Medical School, Germany
| | - Pierre Oswald
- Department of Psychiatry, Brugmann University Hospital, Université Libre de Bruxelles, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Stefano Pallanti
- Department of Neurosciences, Florence University, Florence, Italy
| | - Artemios Pehlivanidis
- Department of Psychiatry, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens Medical School, Eginition Hospital, Athens, Greece
| | - Josep A Ramos-Quiroga
- Programa Integral del Déficit de Atención en el Adulto (P.I.D.A.A), Servei de Psiquiatria, Hospital Universitari Vall d'Hebron, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Maria Rastam
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Lund, Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Lund University, Sweden
| | | | - Steven Stes
- ADHD Program, University Psychiatric Center, Catholic University Leuven, Kortenberg, Belgium
| | - Philip Asherson
- MRC Social Genetic and Developmental Psychiatry, Institute of Psychiatry, Kings College London, London, UK
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De l’hyperactivité à la schizophrénie ? Discussion clinique, neurobiologique et thérapeutique, à propos d’un cas. ANNALES MEDICO-PSYCHOLOGIQUES 2009. [DOI: 10.1016/j.amp.2008.11.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Gogtay N, Rapoport J. Clozapine use in children and adolescents. Expert Opin Pharmacother 2008; 9:459-65. [PMID: 18220495 DOI: 10.1517/14656566.9.3.459] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Although the role of clozapine is well established for treatment-resistant schizophrenia, it is rarely used in pediatric populations, mainly due to its potentially serious adverse effects. OBJECTIVE To summarize practical aspects of use of clozapine in treating children with schizophrenia and management of associated adverse effects. METHODS Available studies in the literature using clozapine in the pediatric population are summarized and the NIMH experience in treating refractory childhood-onset schizophrenia cases with clozapine is discussed. CONCLUSION Despite a higher incidence of adverse effects in children, clozapine appears to be a uniquely beneficial second-line agent for treating children with refractory schizophrenia.
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Ross RG, Heinlein S, Tregellas H. High rates of comorbidity are found in childhood-onset schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 2006; 88:90-5. [PMID: 16916600 DOI: 10.1016/j.schres.2006.07.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2006] [Revised: 07/07/2006] [Accepted: 07/10/2006] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND For adults with schizophrenia, comorbidity is common and contributes to impairment. Thus, there has been an increasing effort to identify and treat comorbid symptoms. This report extends that work by examining comorbidity in children and young adolescents with childhood-onset schizophrenia. METHODS Eighty-two children, ages 4-15 years, with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder received structured diagnostic instruments for symptoms and pharmacological treatment history. DSM-IV diagnoses were identified using a non-hierarchical approach. RESULTS Eighty-one (99%) of the children with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder had at least one comorbid psychiatric illness: attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (84%), oppositional defiant disorder (43%), depression (30%), and separation anxiety disorder (25%) were the most common comorbid conditions identified. Pharmacological treatment of the comorbid conditions was uncommon. DISCUSSION Comorbid syndromes are common in children and young adolescents with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder. Pharmacological treatment of the comorbid conditions is rare; however it is unclear if this is due to DSM-IVs hierarchical diagnostic system or to a lack of empirically driven guidelines for appropriate treatment. Additional efforts focused on comorbidity in very-early-onset schizophrenia are warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Randal G Ross
- University of Colorado at Denver and Health Sciences Center, 4200 E 9th Avenue, Denver, CO 80262, USA.
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Ettinger U, Joober R, DE Guzman R, O'driscoll GA. Schizotypy, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, and dopamine genes. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2006; 60:764-7. [PMID: 17109713 DOI: 10.1111/j.1440-1819.2006.01594.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Previous research has suggested that there may be overlap between schizophrenia and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). The relationship between schizotypal personality traits, ADHD features and polymorphisms was evaluated in dopamine-related genes. Thirty-one healthy, Caucasian men completed the Rust Inventory of Schizotypal Cognitions (RISC) and the ADHD Self-Report Scale (ASRS). Catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) Val158Met, dopamine receptors of the D3 type (DRD3) Ser9Gly, DRD4 variable number of tandem repeats (VNTR), and SLC6A3 VNTR polymorphisms were analyzed. RISC score was correlated with ASRS score (r = 0.54, P = 0.003). COMT Met homozygotes had higher ASRS scores than Val homozygotes (P = 0.005). These findings are consistent with evidence of overlap between schizophrenia and ADHD and support an involvement of COMT genotype in ADHD features.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ulrich Ettinger
- Centre for Neuroimaging Sciences, Institute of Psychiatry, King's College London, London, UK.
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Marsh PJ, Williams LM. ADHD and schizophrenia phenomenology: visual scanpaths to emotional faces as a potential psychophysiological marker? Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2006; 30:651-65. [PMID: 16466794 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2005.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2005] [Accepted: 11/28/2005] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Commonalities in the clinical phenomenology and psychopharmacology of ADHD and schizophrenia are reviewed. The potential of psychostimulants to produce psychotic symptoms emphasizes the need for objective psychophysiological distinctions between these disorders. Impaired emotion perception in both disorders is discussed. It is proposed that visual scanpaths to facial expressions of emotion might prove a potentially useful psychophysiological distinction between ADHD and schizophrenia. There is consistent evidence that both facial affect recognition and scanpaths to facial expressions are impaired in schizophrenia, with emerging empirical evidence showing that facial affect recognition is impaired in ADHD also. Brain imaging studies show reduced activity in the medial prefrontal and limbic (amygdala) brain regions required to process emotional faces in schizophrenia, but suggest more localized loss of activity in these regions in ADHD. As amygdala activity in particular has been linked to effective visual scanning of face stimuli, it is postulated that condition-specific breakdowns in these brain regions that subserve emotional behavior might manifest as distinct scanpath aberrations to facial expressions of emotion in schizophrenia and ADHD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pamela J Marsh
- Western Clinical School, The Brain Dynamics Centre, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia.
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