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Zahid W, Farooqui N, Zahid N, Ahmed K, Anwar MF, Rizwan-ul-Hasan S, Hussain AR, Sarría-Santamera A, Abidi SH. Association of Interferon Lambda 3 and 4 Gene SNPs and Their Expression with COVID-19 Disease Severity: A Cross-Sectional Study. Infect Drug Resist 2023; 16:6619-6628. [PMID: 37840831 PMCID: PMC10576565 DOI: 10.2147/idr.s422095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2023] [Accepted: 09/21/2023] [Indexed: 10/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Expression and certain SNPs of interferon lambda 3 and 4 (IFNL3 and 4) have been associated with variable outcomes in COVID-19 patients in different regions, suggesting population-specific differences in the disease outcome. This study examined the association of INFL3 and INFL4 SNPs (rs12979860 and rs368234815, respectively) and nasopharyngeal expression with COVID-19 disease severity in Pakistani patients. Methods For this study, 117 retrospectively collected nasopharyngeal swab samples were used from individuals with mild and severe COVID-19 disease. qPCR assays were used to determine the viral loads and mRNA expression of IFNL3 and 4 through the Ct and delta Ct methods, respectively. Due to funding limitations, only one SNP each in INFL3 and INFL4 (found to be most significant through literature search) was analyzed using tetra-arm PCR and RFLP-PCR strategies, respectively. The Mann-Whitney U-test was applied to evaluate the statistical differences in the expression of IFNL3/4 genes in the mild and severe groups, while for SNPs, a Chi-square test was employed. A multivariate Cox regression test was performed to assess the relationship of different variables with COVID-19 severity. Results Comparative analysis of SNPs between mild and severe groups showed only the difference in SNP of the IFNL4 gene to be statistically significant (p = 0.001). Similarly, nasopharyngeal expression of IFNL3 and IFNL4 genes, respectively, was found to be 3.48-fold less and 3.48-fold higher in the severe group as compared to the mild group. Multivariate analysis revealed SNP in the IFNL4 gene and age to have a significant association with COVID-19 severity. Conclusion Despite the small sample size, IFNL4 gene SNP and patient age were associated with COVID-19 severity. Age, IFNL3/IFNL4 mRNA expression in the nasopharyngeal milieu, and the presence of SNP in the IFNL4 (rs368234815) gene in COVID-19 patients may be biomarkers for infection severity and help improve SARS-CoV-2 infection management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Warisha Zahid
- Department of Community Health Sciences, Aga Khan University, Karachi, Pakistan
| | - Nida Farooqui
- Department of Biological and Biomedical Sciences, Aga Khan University, Karachi, Pakistan
| | - Nida Zahid
- Department of Surgery, Aga Khan University, Karachi, Pakistan
| | - Khalid Ahmed
- Department of Biological and Biomedical Sciences, Aga Khan University, Karachi, Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Faraz Anwar
- Department of Biochemistry, Bahria University Medical and Dental College, Karachi, Pakistan
| | | | - Azhar R Hussain
- Department of Biological and Biomedical Sciences, Aga Khan University, Karachi, Pakistan
| | | | - Syed Hani Abidi
- Department of Biological and Biomedical Sciences, Aga Khan University, Karachi, Pakistan
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Nazarbayev University School of Medicine, Astana, Kazakhstan
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Araújo A, Sgorlon G, Aguiar LE, Cidrão MHMC, Teixeira KS, Villalobos Salcedo JM, Passos-Silva AM, Vieira D. Influence of polymorphic variations of IFNL, HLA, and IL-6 genes in severe cases of COVID-19. Exp Biol Med (Maywood) 2023; 248:787-797. [PMID: 37452704 PMCID: PMC10350587 DOI: 10.1177/15353702231181343] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/18/2023] Open
Abstract
The administration of vaccination doses to the global population has led to a decrease in the incidence of COVID-19. However, the clinical picture developed by infected individuals remains extremely concerning due to the great variability in the severity of cases even in vaccinated individuals. The clinical progression of the pathology is characterized by various influential factors such as sex, age group, comorbidities, and the genetics of the individual. The immune response to viral infections can be strongly influenced by the genetics of individuals; nucleotide variations called single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in structures involved in the innate and adaptive immune response such as interferon (IFN)-λ, human leukocyte antigen (HLA), and interleukin (IL)-6 are frequently associated with pathological progression. In this study, we conducted a review of the main SNPs of these structures that are associated with severity in COVID-19. Searches were conducted on some platforms of the National Center for Biotechnology and Information (NCBI), and 102 studies were selected for full reading according to the inclusion criteria. IFNs showed a strong association with antiviral function, specifically, IFN-λ3 (IL-28B) demonstrated genetic variants commonly related to clinical progression in various pathologies. For COVID-19, rs12979860 and rs1298275 presented frequently described unfavorable genotypes for pathological conditions of hepatitis C and hepatocellular carcinoma. The high genetic variability of HLA was reported in the studies as a crucial factor relevant to the late immune response, mainly due to its ability to recognize antigens, with the HLA-B*46:01 SNP being associated with susceptibility to COVID-19. For IL-6, rs1554606 showed a strong relationship with the clinical progression of COVID-19. In addition, rs2069837 was identified with possible host protection relationships when linked to this infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adrhyan Araújo
- Laboratório de Virologia Molecular, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz Rondônia (FIOCRUZ/RO), Porto Velho 76812-329, Brazil
- Centro de Pesquisa em Medicina Tropical (CEPEM), Porto Velho 76812-329, Brazil
| | - Gabriella Sgorlon
- Laboratório de Virologia Molecular, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz Rondônia (FIOCRUZ/RO), Porto Velho 76812-329, Brazil
- Centro de Pesquisa em Medicina Tropical (CEPEM), Porto Velho 76812-329, Brazil
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Biologia Experimental, Universidade Federal de Rondônia (UNIR), Porto Velho 76801-059, Brazil
| | | | | | - Karolaine Santos Teixeira
- Laboratório de Virologia Molecular, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz Rondônia (FIOCRUZ/RO), Porto Velho 76812-329, Brazil
- Centro de Pesquisa em Medicina Tropical (CEPEM), Porto Velho 76812-329, Brazil
| | - Juan Miguel Villalobos Salcedo
- Laboratório de Virologia Molecular, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz Rondônia (FIOCRUZ/RO), Porto Velho 76812-329, Brazil
- Universidade Federal de Rondônia (UNIR), Porto Velho 76801-059, Brazil
| | - Ana Maísa Passos-Silva
- Laboratório de Virologia Molecular, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz Rondônia (FIOCRUZ/RO), Porto Velho 76812-329, Brazil
- Centro de Pesquisa em Medicina Tropical (CEPEM), Porto Velho 76812-329, Brazil
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Biologia Experimental, Universidade Federal de Rondônia (UNIR), Porto Velho 76801-059, Brazil
| | - Deusilene Vieira
- Laboratório de Virologia Molecular, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz Rondônia (FIOCRUZ/RO), Porto Velho 76812-329, Brazil
- Centro de Pesquisa em Medicina Tropical (CEPEM), Porto Velho 76812-329, Brazil
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Biologia Experimental, Universidade Federal de Rondônia (UNIR), Porto Velho 76801-059, Brazil
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SARS-CoV-2 Viroporins: A Multi-Omics Insight from Nucleotides to Amino Acids. Appl Microbiol 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/applmicrobiol2030045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
COVID-19 is caused by SARS-CoV-2 which has so far affected more than 500 million people worldwide and killed over 6 million as of 1 May 2022. The approved emergency-use vaccines were lifesaving in such a devastating pandemic. Inflammation-related pathways have been well documented to be upregulated in the case of SARS-CoV-2 in rodents, non-human primates and human samples. We reanalysed a previously published dataset to understand if certain molecular components of inflammation could be higher in infected samples. Mechanistically, viroporins are important players in the life cycle of SARS-CoV-2 and are primary to its pathogenesis. We studied the two prominent viroporins of SARS-CoV-2 (i) Orf3a and (ii) envelope (E) protein from a sequence and structural point of view. Orf3a is a cation-selective viral ion channel which has been shown to disrupt the endosomal pathways. E protein is one of the most conserved proteins among the SARS-CoV proteome which affects the ERGIC-related pathways. The aqueous medium through the viroporins mediates the non-selective translocation of cations, affecting ionic homeostasis in the host cellular compartments. We hypothesize a possible mechanistic approach whereby the ionic imbalance caused by viroporin action could potentially be one of the major pathogenic drivers leading to the increased inflammatory response in the host cell. Our results shed light into the transcriptomic, genomic and structural proteomics aspects of widely studied SARS-CoV-2 viroporins, which can be potentially leveraged for the development of antiviral therapeutics.
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Znaidia M, Demeret C, van der Werf S, Komarova AV. Characterization of SARS-CoV-2 Evasion: Interferon Pathway and Therapeutic Options. Viruses 2022; 14:v14061247. [PMID: 35746718 PMCID: PMC9231409 DOI: 10.3390/v14061247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2022] [Revised: 05/30/2022] [Accepted: 06/02/2022] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) is responsible for the current COVID-19 pandemic. SARS-CoV-2 is characterized by an important capacity to circumvent the innate immune response. The early interferon (IFN) response is necessary to establish a robust antiviral state. However, this response is weak and delayed in COVID-19 patients, along with massive pro-inflammatory cytokine production. This dysregulated innate immune response contributes to pathogenicity and in some individuals leads to a critical state. Characterizing the interplay between viral factors and host innate immunity is crucial to better understand how to manage the disease. Moreover, the constant emergence of new SARS-CoV-2 variants challenges the efficacy of existing vaccines. Thus, to control this virus and readjust the antiviral therapy currently used to treat COVID-19, studies should constantly be re-evaluated to further decipher the mechanisms leading to SARS-CoV-2 pathogenesis. Regarding the role of the IFN response in SARS-CoV-2 infection, in this review we summarize the mechanisms by which SARS-CoV-2 evades innate immune recognition. More specifically, we explain how this virus inhibits IFN signaling pathways (IFN-I/IFN-III) and controls interferon-stimulated gene (ISG) expression. We also discuss the development and use of IFNs and potential drugs controlling the innate immune response to SARS-CoV-2, helping to clear the infection.
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Ramzannezhad S, Tarighi M, Mohammadnia-Afrouzi M, Aghapour S, Bagherzadeh M, Ahmadnia Z, Hosseini A, Javanian M, Ghorbani H, Shahbazi M. The association of decreased HLA-G + immune cell frequencies with critical COVID-19 patients. Microb Pathog 2022; 167:105550. [PMID: 35584714 PMCID: PMC9107627 DOI: 10.1016/j.micpath.2022.105550] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2021] [Revised: 04/09/2022] [Accepted: 04/19/2022] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION COVID-19 (coronavirus disease-2019) is an infectious disease caused by SARS-CoV-2 (severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2). Immune dysregulation causes inflammation and massive production of inflammatory mediators that worsen the patients' status. Here, regulatory immune cells may ameliorate inflammation and improve the severity of the disease. MATERIALS AND METHODS A total of 76 participants were enrolled in this study and divided into 3 groups as follows: patients with moderate/severe COVID-19 (n = 25), patients with critical COVID-19 (n = 26), and healthy controls (n = 25). After blood collection, peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) were isolated and stained by FITC-conjugated anti-CD4 monoclonal antibodies (mABs), PE-conjugated anti-HLA-G mABs, PerCPCy5.5-conjugated anti-CD14 mABs, and APC-conjugated anti-CD8 mABs. RESULTS Critical COVID-19 patients had a significantly lower frequency of CD4+ HLA-G+ T lymphocytes compared with moderate/severe COVID-19 patients (p value < 0.001; SMD, -1.27; 95% CI [-1.86, -0.66]) and healthy controls (p value < 0.05; SMD, -0.69; 95% CI [-1.25, -0.12]). Critical COVID-19 patients had a significantly lower frequency of CD14+ HLA-G+ monocytes compared with moderate/severe COVID-19 patients (p value < 0.001; SMD, -2.09; 95% CI [-2.77, -1.41]) and healthy controls (p value < 0.05; SMD, -0.83; 95% CI [-1.40, -0.25]). However, there was no difference between the groups regarding the frequency of CD8+ HLA-G+ T lymphocytes. CONCLUSION The increased amount of immunomodulatory HLA-G+ cells may reduce the severity of the disease in moderate/severe COVID-19 patients compared with critical COVID-19 patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Somayeh Ramzannezhad
- Immunoregulation Research Center, Health Research Institute, Babol University of Medical Sciences, Babol, Iran,Department of Pathology, School of Medicine, Babol University of Medical Sciences, Babol, Iran
| | - Mona Tarighi
- Immunoregulation Research Center, Health Research Institute, Babol University of Medical Sciences, Babol, Iran,Department of Immunology, School of Medicine, Babol University of Medical Sciences, Babol, Iran
| | - Mousa Mohammadnia-Afrouzi
- Immunoregulation Research Center, Health Research Institute, Babol University of Medical Sciences, Babol, Iran,Department of Immunology, School of Medicine, Babol University of Medical Sciences, Babol, Iran
| | - Soudabeh Aghapour
- Immunoregulation Research Center, Health Research Institute, Babol University of Medical Sciences, Babol, Iran,Department of Immunology, School of Medicine, Babol University of Medical Sciences, Babol, Iran
| | - Mojgan Bagherzadeh
- Immunoregulation Research Center, Health Research Institute, Babol University of Medical Sciences, Babol, Iran,Department of Immunology, School of Medicine, Babol University of Medical Sciences, Babol, Iran
| | - Zahra Ahmadnia
- Department of Pathology, School of Medicine, Babol University of Medical Sciences, Babol, Iran
| | - Akramossadat Hosseini
- Department of Pathology, School of Medicine, Babol University of Medical Sciences, Babol, Iran
| | - Mostafa Javanian
- Infectious Diseases and Tropical Medicine Research Center, Health Research Institute, Babol University of Medical Sciences, Babol, Iran
| | - Housein Ghorbani
- Immunoregulation Research Center, Health Research Institute, Babol University of Medical Sciences, Babol, Iran,Department of Pathology, School of Medicine, Babol University of Medical Sciences, Babol, Iran,Corresponding author. Department of Pathology, School of Medicine, Babol University of Medical Sciences, Ganj Afrooz Avenue, Babol, Mazandaran, Iran
| | - Mehdi Shahbazi
- Immunoregulation Research Center, Health Research Institute, Babol University of Medical Sciences, Babol, Iran,Department of Immunology, School of Medicine, Babol University of Medical Sciences, Babol, Iran,Corresponding author. Department of Immunology, School of Medicine, Babol University of Medical Sciences, Ganj Afrooz Avenue, Babol, Mazandaran, Iran
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Escape and Over-Activation of Innate Immune Responses by SARS-CoV-2: Two Faces of a Coin. Viruses 2022; 14:v14030530. [PMID: 35336937 PMCID: PMC8951629 DOI: 10.3390/v14030530] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2022] [Revised: 03/01/2022] [Accepted: 03/03/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
In the past 20 years, coronaviruses (CoVs), including SARS-CoV-1, MERS-CoV, and SARS-CoV-2, have rapidly evolved and emerged in the human population. The innate immune system is the first line of defense against invading pathogens. Multiple host cellular receptors can trigger the innate immune system to eliminate invading pathogens. However, these CoVs have acquired strategies to evade innate immune responses by avoiding recognition by host sensors, leading to impaired interferon (IFN) production and antagonizing of the IFN signaling pathways. In contrast, the dysregulated induction of inflammasomes, leading to uncontrolled production of IL-1 family cytokines (IL-1β and IL-18) and pyroptosis, has been associated with COVID-19 pathogenesis. This review summarizes innate immune evasion strategies employed by SARS-CoV-1 and MERS-CoV in brief and SARS-CoV-2 in more detail. In addition, we outline potential mechanisms of inflammasome activation and evasion and their impact on disease prognosis.
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Holder PG, Lim SA, Huang CS, Sharma P, Dagdas YS, Bulutoglu B, Sockolosky JT. Engineering interferons and interleukins for cancer immunotherapy. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2022; 182:114112. [PMID: 35085624 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2022.114112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2021] [Revised: 01/07/2022] [Accepted: 01/12/2022] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Cytokines are a class of potent immunoregulatory proteins that are secreted in response to various stimuli and act locally to regulate many aspects of human physiology and disease. Cytokines play important roles in cancer initiation, progression, and elimination, and thus, there is a long clinical history associated with the use of recombinant cytokines to treat cancer. However, the use of cytokines as therapeutics has been limited by cytokine pleiotropy, complex biology, poor drug-like properties, and severe dose-limiting toxicities. Nevertheless, cytokines are crucial mediators of innate and adaptive antitumor immunity and have the potential to enhance immunotherapeutic approaches to treat cancer. Development of immune checkpoint inhibitors and combination immunotherapies has reinvigorated interest in cytokines as therapeutics, and a variety of engineering approaches are emerging to improve the safety and effectiveness of cytokine immunotherapy. In this review we highlight recent advances in cytokine biology and engineering for cancer immunotherapy.
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Diamond MS, Kanneganti TD. Innate immunity: the first line of defense against SARS-CoV-2. Nat Immunol 2022; 23:165-176. [PMID: 35105981 PMCID: PMC8935980 DOI: 10.1038/s41590-021-01091-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 292] [Impact Index Per Article: 146.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2021] [Accepted: 11/03/2021] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV)-2, continues to cause substantial morbidity and mortality. While most infections are mild, some patients experience severe and potentially fatal systemic inflammation, tissue damage, cytokine storm and acute respiratory distress syndrome. The innate immune system acts as the first line of defense, sensing the virus through pattern recognition receptors and activating inflammatory pathways that promote viral clearance. Here, we discuss innate immune processes involved in SARS-CoV-2 recognition and the resultant inflammation. Improved understanding of how the innate immune system detects and responds to SARS-CoV-2 will help identify targeted therapeutic modalities that mitigate severe disease and improve patient outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael S Diamond
- Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, USA
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, USA
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, USA
- The Andrew M. and Jane M. Bursky Center for Human Immunology and Immunotherapy Programs, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, USA
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Plotnikova M, Lozhkov A, Romanovskaya-Romanko E, Baranovskaya I, Sergeeva M, Kаа K, Klotchenko S, Vasin A. IFN-λ1 Displays Various Levels of Antiviral Activity In Vitro in a Select Panel of RNA Viruses. Viruses 2021; 13:1602. [PMID: 34452467 PMCID: PMC8402797 DOI: 10.3390/v13081602] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2021] [Revised: 08/05/2021] [Accepted: 08/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Type III interferons (lambda IFNs) are a quite new, small family of three closely related cytokines with interferon-like activity. Attention to IFN-λ is mainly focused on direct antiviral activity in which, as with IFN-α, viral genome replication is inhibited without the participation of immune system cells. The heterodimeric receptor for lambda interferons is exposed mainly on epithelial cells, which limits its possible action on other cells, thus reducing the likelihood of developing undesirable side effects compared to type I IFN. In this study, we examined the antiviral potential of exogenous human IFN-λ1 in cellular models of viral infection. To study the protective effects of IFN-λ1, three administration schemes were used: 'preventive' (pretreatment); 'preventive/therapeutic' (pre/post); and 'therapeutic' (post). Three IFN-λ1 concentrations (from 10 to 500 ng/mL) were used. We have shown that human IFN-λ1 restricts SARS-CoV-2 replication in Vero cells with all three treatment schemes. In addition, we have shown a decrease in the viral loads of CHIKV and IVA with the 'preventive' and 'preventive/therapeutic' regimes. No significant antiviral effect of IFN-λ1 against AdV was detected. Our study highlights the potential for using IFN-λ as a broad-spectrum therapeutic agent against respiratory RNA viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marina Plotnikova
- Smorodintsev Research Institute of Influenza, Russian Ministry of Health, 197376 St. Petersburg, Russia; (M.P.); (A.L.); (E.R.-R.); (I.B.); (M.S.); (A.V.)
| | - Alexey Lozhkov
- Smorodintsev Research Institute of Influenza, Russian Ministry of Health, 197376 St. Petersburg, Russia; (M.P.); (A.L.); (E.R.-R.); (I.B.); (M.S.); (A.V.)
- Institute of Biomedical Systems and Biotechnologies, Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University, 195251 St. Petersburg, Russia
| | - Ekaterina Romanovskaya-Romanko
- Smorodintsev Research Institute of Influenza, Russian Ministry of Health, 197376 St. Petersburg, Russia; (M.P.); (A.L.); (E.R.-R.); (I.B.); (M.S.); (A.V.)
| | - Irina Baranovskaya
- Smorodintsev Research Institute of Influenza, Russian Ministry of Health, 197376 St. Petersburg, Russia; (M.P.); (A.L.); (E.R.-R.); (I.B.); (M.S.); (A.V.)
- Institute of Biomedical Systems and Biotechnologies, Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University, 195251 St. Petersburg, Russia
| | - Mariia Sergeeva
- Smorodintsev Research Institute of Influenza, Russian Ministry of Health, 197376 St. Petersburg, Russia; (M.P.); (A.L.); (E.R.-R.); (I.B.); (M.S.); (A.V.)
- Institute of Biomedical Systems and Biotechnologies, Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University, 195251 St. Petersburg, Russia
| | - Konstantin Kаа
- Chumakov Federal Scientific Center for Research and Development of Immune-and-Biological Products RAS, 108819 Moscow, Russia;
| | - Sergey Klotchenko
- Smorodintsev Research Institute of Influenza, Russian Ministry of Health, 197376 St. Petersburg, Russia; (M.P.); (A.L.); (E.R.-R.); (I.B.); (M.S.); (A.V.)
| | - Andrey Vasin
- Smorodintsev Research Institute of Influenza, Russian Ministry of Health, 197376 St. Petersburg, Russia; (M.P.); (A.L.); (E.R.-R.); (I.B.); (M.S.); (A.V.)
- Institute of Biomedical Systems and Biotechnologies, Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University, 195251 St. Petersburg, Russia
- Scientific and Educational Center for Biophysical Research in The Field of Pharmaceuticals, Saint Petersburg State Chemical Pharmaceutical University, 197022 St. Petersburg, Russia
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