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Carver CM, DeWitt HR, Stoja AP, Shapiro MS. Blockade of TRPC Channels Limits Cholinergic-Driven Hyperexcitability and Seizure Susceptibility After Traumatic Brain Injury. Front Neurosci 2021; 15:681144. [PMID: 34489621 PMCID: PMC8416999 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2021.681144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2021] [Accepted: 06/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
We investigated the contribution of excitatory transient receptor potential canonical (TRPC) cation channels to posttraumatic hyperexcitability in the brain 7 days following controlled cortical impact model of traumatic brain injury (TBI) to the parietal cortex in male adult mice. We investigated if TRPC1/TRPC4/TRPC5 channel expression is upregulated in excitatory neurons after TBI in contribution to epileptogenic hyperexcitability in key hippocampal and cortical circuits that have substantial cholinergic innervation. This was tested by measuring TRPC1/TRPC4/TRPC5 protein and messenger RNA (mRNA) expression, assays of cholinergic function, neuronal Ca2+ imaging in brain slices, and seizure susceptibility after TBI. We found region-specific increases in expression of TRPC1, TRPC4, and TRPC5 subunits in the hippocampus and cortex following TBI. The dentate gyrus, CA3 region, and cortex all exhibited robust upregulation of TRPC4 mRNA and protein. TBI increased cFos activity in dentate gyrus granule cells (DGGCs) and layer 5 pyramidal neurons both at the time of TBI and 7 days post-TBI. DGGCs displayed greater magnitude and duration of acetylcholine-induced rises in intracellular Ca2+ in brain slices from mice subjected to TBI. The TBI mice also exhibited greater seizure susceptibility in response to pentylenetetrazol-induced kindling. Blockade of TRPC4/TRPC5 channels with M084 reduced neuronal hyperexcitation and impeded epileptogenic progression of kindling. We observed that the time-dependent upregulation of TRPC4/TRPC5-containing channels alters cholinergic responses and activity of principal neurons acting to increase proexcitatory sensitivity. The underlying mechanism includes acutely decreased acetylcholinesterase function, resulting in greater Gq/11-coupled muscarinic receptor activation of TRPC channels. Overall, our evidence suggests that TBI-induced plasticity of TRPC channels strongly contributes to overt hyperexcitability and primes the hippocampus and cortex for seizures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chase M Carver
- Department of Cellular and Integrative Physiology, University of Texas Health San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, United States
| | - Haley R DeWitt
- Department of Cellular and Integrative Physiology, University of Texas Health San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, United States
| | - Aiola P Stoja
- Department of Cellular and Integrative Physiology, University of Texas Health San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, United States
| | - Mark S Shapiro
- Department of Cellular and Integrative Physiology, University of Texas Health San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, United States
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Sabet N, Soltani Z, Khaksari M. Multipotential and systemic effects of traumatic brain injury. J Neuroimmunol 2021; 357:577619. [PMID: 34058510 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2021.577619] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2021] [Revised: 05/07/2021] [Accepted: 05/24/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is one of the leading causes of disability and mortality of people at all ages. Biochemical, cellular and physiological events that occur during primary injury lead to a delayed and long-term secondary damage that can last from hours to years. Secondary brain injury causes tissue damage in the central nervous system and a subsequent strong and rapid inflammatory response that may lead to persistent inflammation. However, this inflammatory response is not limited to the brain. Inflammatory mediators are transferred from damaged brain tissue to the bloodstream and produce a systemic inflammatory response in peripheral organs, including the cardiovascular, pulmonary, gastrointestinal, renal and endocrine systems. Complications of TBI are associated with its multiple and systemic effects that should be considered in the treatment of TBI patients. Therefore, in this review, an attempt was made to examine the systemic effects of TBI in detail. It is hoped that this review will identify the mechanisms of injury and complications of TBI, and open a window for promising treatment in TBI complications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nazanin Sabet
- Endocrinology and Metabolism Research Center, Institute of Basic and Clinical Physiology Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran; Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Afzalipour Faculty of Medicine, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran
| | - Zahra Soltani
- Endocrinology and Metabolism Research Center, Institute of Basic and Clinical Physiology Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran; Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Afzalipour Faculty of Medicine, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran.
| | - Mohammad Khaksari
- Physiology Research Center, Institute of Neuropharmacology, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran
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3
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Fakhoury M, Shakkour Z, Kobeissy F, Lawand N. Depression following traumatic brain injury: a comprehensive overview. Rev Neurosci 2020; 32:289-303. [PMID: 33661587 DOI: 10.1515/revneuro-2020-0037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2020] [Accepted: 10/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) represents a major health concern affecting the neuropsychological health; TBI is accompanied by drastic long-term adverse complications that can influence many aspects of the life of affected individuals. A substantial number of studies have shown that mood disorders, particularly depression, are the most frequent complications encountered in individuals with TBI. Post-traumatic depression (P-TD) is present in approximately 30% of individuals with TBI, with the majority of individuals experiencing symptoms of depression during the first year following head injury. To date, the mechanisms of P-TD are far from being fully understood, and effective treatments that completely halt this condition are still lacking. The aim of this review is to outline the current state of knowledge on the prevalence and risk factors of P-TD, to discuss the accompanying brain changes at the anatomical, molecular and functional levels, and to discuss current approaches used for the treatment of P-TD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marc Fakhoury
- Department of Anatomy, Cell Biology and Physiological Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, American University of Beirut, Beirut, Lebanon.,Department of Natural Sciences, School of Arts and Sciences, Lebanese American University, Beirut, Lebanon
| | - Zaynab Shakkour
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Faculty of Medicine, American University of Beirut, Beirut, Lebanon
| | - Firas Kobeissy
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Faculty of Medicine, American University of Beirut, Beirut, Lebanon
| | - Nada Lawand
- Department of Anatomy, Cell Biology and Physiological Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, American University of Beirut, Beirut, Lebanon.,Department of Neurology, Faculty of Medicine, American University of Beirut, Beirut, Lebanon
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4
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Więckowska A, Gajewska-Woźniak O, Głowacka A, Ji B, Grycz K, Czarkowska-Bauch J, Skup M. Spinalization and locomotor training differentially affect muscarinic acetylcholine receptor type 2 abutting on α-motoneurons innervating the ankle extensor and flexor muscles. J Neurochem 2018; 147:361-379. [DOI: 10.1111/jnc.14567] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2018] [Revised: 07/10/2018] [Accepted: 08/06/2018] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Anna Głowacka
- Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology; Warsaw Poland
| | - Benjun Ji
- Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology; Warsaw Poland
| | - Kamil Grycz
- Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology; Warsaw Poland
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Shin SS, Dixon CE. Alterations in Cholinergic Pathways and Therapeutic Strategies Targeting Cholinergic System after Traumatic Brain Injury. J Neurotrauma 2015; 32:1429-40. [PMID: 25646580 DOI: 10.1089/neu.2014.3445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) results in varying degrees of disability in a significant number of persons annually. The mechanisms of cognitive dysfunction after TBI have been explored in both animal models and human clinical studies for decades. Dopaminergic, serotonergic, and noradrenergic dysfunction has been described in many previous reports. In addition, cholinergic dysfunction has also been a familiar topic among TBI researchers for many years. Although pharmacological agents that modulate cholinergic neurotransmission have been used with varying degrees of success in previous studies, improving their function and maximizing cognitive recovery is an ongoing process. In this article, we review the previous findings on the biological mechanism of cholinergic dysfunction after TBI. In addition, we describe studies that use both older agents and newly developed agents as candidates for targeting cholinergic neurotransmission in future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel S Shin
- 1 Brain Trauma Research Center, University of Pittsburgh , Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.,2 Department of Neurological Surgery, University of Pittsburgh , Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.,3 Safar Center for Resuscitation Research, University of Pittsburgh , Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - C Edward Dixon
- 1 Brain Trauma Research Center, University of Pittsburgh , Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.,2 Department of Neurological Surgery, University of Pittsburgh , Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.,3 Safar Center for Resuscitation Research, University of Pittsburgh , Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.,4 Veterans Affairs Pittsburgh Healthcare System , Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
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6
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Abstract
OBJECTIVE There is evidence that the cholinergic system is involved in cognitive sequels of traumatic brain injury (TBI). Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) are known to have a major role in cognitive functions. Smokers have up-regulation of these receptors. This study investigated whether smoking is associated with the outcome from TBI. METHODS A specific questionnaire was sent, after checking inclusion and exclusion criteria, to 1022 subjects with TBI who had visited the neurological outpatient clinic of a university hospital during a 14-year period. Of these, 689 (67.4%) responded, forming the final study population. Associations between demographic variables, injury severity and outcome and smoking history were analysed using multivariate methods. RESULTS Smokers were more often men (p < 0.001), younger at the time of the injury (p = 0.008) and had less education (p < 0.0001). In univariate analysis, non-smokers did not differ for outcome of TBI by GOS-E (p = 0.08). Furthermore, in multivariate analysis, no association was found between smoking history and TBI outcome. CONCLUSIONS This study does not suggest that smoking affects the outcome of TBI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Ostberg
- Department of Neurology, University of Turku and Turku University Central Hospital , Turku , Finland
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Steuer E, Schaefer ML, Belluscio L. Using the olfactory system as an in vivo model to study traumatic brain injury and repair. J Neurotrauma 2014; 31:1277-91. [PMID: 24694002 DOI: 10.1089/neu.2013.3296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Loss of olfactory function is an early indicator of traumatic brain injury (TBI). The regenerative capacity and well-defined neural maps of the mammalian olfactory system enable investigations into the degeneration and recovery of neural circuits after injury. Here, we introduce a unique olfactory-based model of TBI that reproduces many hallmarks associated with human brain trauma. We performed a unilateral penetrating impact to the mouse olfactory bulb and observed a significant loss of olfactory sensory neurons (OSNs) in the olfactory epithelium (OE) ipsilateral to the injury, but not contralateral. By comparison, we detected the injury markers p75(NTR), β-APP, and activated caspase-3 in both the ipsi- and contralateral OE. In the olfactory bulb (OB), we observed a graded cell loss, with ipsilateral showing a greater reduction than contralateral and both significantly less than sham. Similar to OE, injury markers in the OB were primarily detected on the ipsilateral side, but also observed contralaterally. Behavioral experiments measured 4 days after impact also demonstrated loss of olfactory function, yet following a 30-day recovery period, we observed a significant improvement in olfactory function and partial recovery of olfactory circuitry, despite the persistence of TBI markers. Interestingly, by using the M71-IRES-tauLacZ reporter line to track OSN organization, we further determined that inducing neural activity during the recovery period with intense odor conditioning did not enhance the recovery process. Together, these data establish the mouse olfactory system as a new model to study TBI, serving as a platform to understand neural disruption and the potential for circuit restoration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth Steuer
- 1 Developmental Neural Plasticity Section, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health , Bethesda, Maryland
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Shaw KE, Bondi CO, Light SH, Massimino LA, McAloon RL, Monaco CM, Kline AE. Donepezil is ineffective in promoting motor and cognitive benefits after controlled cortical impact injury in male rats. J Neurotrauma 2013; 30:557-64. [PMID: 23227953 DOI: 10.1089/neu.2012.2782] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
The acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitor donepezil is used as a therapy for Alzheimer's disease and has been recommended as a treatment for enhancing attention and memory after traumatic brain injury (TBI). Although select clinical case studies support the use of donepezil for enhancing cognition, there is a paucity of experimental TBI studies assessing the potential efficacy of this pharmacotherapy. Hence, the aim of this pre-clinical study was to evaluate several doses of donepezil to determine its effect on functional outcome after TBI. Ninety anesthetized adult male rats received a controlled cortical impact (CCI; 2.8 mm cortical depth at 4 m/sec) or sham injury, and then were randomly assigned to six TBI and six sham groups (donepezil 0.25, 0.5, 1.0, 2.0, or 3.0 mg/kg, and saline vehicle 1.0 mL/kg). Treatments began 24 h after surgery and were administered i.p. once daily for 19 days. Function was assessed by motor (beam balance/walk) and cognitive (Morris water maze) tests on days 1-5 and 14-19, respectively. No significant differences were observed among the sham control groups in any evaluation, regardless of dose, and therefore the data were pooled. Furthermore, no significant differences were revealed among the TBI groups in acute neurological assessments (e.g., righting reflex), suggesting that all groups received the same level of injury severity. None of the five doses of donepezil improved motor or cognitive function relative to vehicle-treated controls. Moreover, the two highest doses significantly impaired beam-balance (3.0 mg/kg), beam-walk (2.0 mg/kg and 3.0 mg/kg), and cognitive performance (3.0 mg/kg) versus vehicle. These data indicate that chronic administration of donepezil is not only ineffective in promoting functional improvement after moderate CCI injury, but depending on the dose is actually detrimental to the recovery process. Further work is necessary to determine if other AChE inhibitors exert similar effects after TBI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaitlyn E Shaw
- Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
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9
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Scremin OU, Norman KM, Roch M, Holschneider DP, Scremin AE. Acetylcholinesterase Inhibition Interacts with Training To Reverse Spatial Learning Deficits after Cortical Impact Injury. J Neurotrauma 2012; 29:2457-64. [DOI: 10.1089/neu.2012.2465] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Oscar U. Scremin
- Research, Veterans Affairs Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, Los Angeles, California
- Department of Physiology, David Geffen School of Medicine at University of California–Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California
| | - Keith M. Norman
- Research, Veterans Affairs Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, Los Angeles, California
| | - Margareth Roch
- Research, Veterans Affairs Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, Los Angeles, California
| | - Daniel P. Holschneider
- Department of Psychiatry and the Behavioral Sciences, University of Southern California Keck School of Medicine, Los Angeles, California
- Department of Neurology, University of Southern California Keck School of Medicine, Los Angeles, California
- Department of Cell and Neurobiology, University of Southern California Keck School of Medicine, Los Angeles, California
| | - A.M. Erika Scremin
- Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation Service, Veterans Affairs Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, Los Angeles, California
- Department of Medicine, David Geffen School of Medicine at University of California–Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California
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10
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Traumatic Brain Injury Elicits Similar Alterations in α7 Nicotinic Receptor Density in Two Different Experimental Models. Neuromolecular Med 2010; 13:44-53. [DOI: 10.1007/s12017-010-8136-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2010] [Accepted: 08/20/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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11
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Donat CK, Walter B, Deuther-Conrad W, Wenzel B, Nieber K, Bauer R, Brust P. Alterations of cholinergic receptors and the vesicular acetylcholine transporter after lateral fluid percussion injury in newborn piglets. Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol 2010; 36:225-36. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2990.2009.01050.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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12
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Effects of lateral fluid percussion injury on cholinergic markers in the newborn piglet brain. Int J Dev Neurosci 2009; 28:31-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijdevneu.2009.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2009] [Revised: 09/03/2009] [Accepted: 10/04/2009] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
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13
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Donat CK, Schuhmann MU, Voigt C, Nieber K, Deuther-Conrad W, Brust P. Time-dependent alterations of cholinergic markers after experimental traumatic brain injury. Brain Res 2008; 1246:167-77. [PMID: 18848922 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2008.09.059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2008] [Revised: 09/15/2008] [Accepted: 09/15/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is one of the leading causes of death and disability. Cognitive deficits are believed to be connected with impairments of the cholinergic system. The present study was conducted to evaluate the cholinergic system in a model of focal brain injury with special attention to the time course of posttraumatic events in critical brain regions. Three groups of male Sprague-Dawley rats (post-TBI survival time: 2 h, 24 h and 72 h) were subjected to sham-operation (control) or controlled cortical impact injury. Receptor densities were determined on frozen ipsilateral sagittal brain sections with [(3)H]epibatidine (nicotinic acetylcholine receptors) and [(3)H]QNB (muscarinic acetylcholine receptors). The density of the vesicular acetylcholine transporter (vAChT) was evaluated with (-)[(3)H]vesamicol. Compared to control, vAChT was lowered (up to 50%) at each time point after trauma, with reductions in olfactory tubercle, basal forebrain, motor cortex, putamen, thalamic and hypothalamic areas and the gigantocellular reticular nucleus. Time-dependent reductions of about 20% of nAChR-density in the thalamus, hypothalamus, olfactory tubercle, gigantocellular reticular nucleus and motor cortex were observed post-TBI at 24 and 72 h. The same brain regions showed reductions of mAChR at 24 and 72 h after trauma with additional decreases in the corpus callosum, basal forebrain and anterior olfactory nucleus. In conclusion, cholinergic markers showed significant time-dependent impairments after TBI. Considering the role of the cholinergic system for cognitive processes in the brain, it seems likely that these impairments contribute to clinically relevant cognitive deficits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cornelius K Donat
- Institute of Interdisciplinary Isotope Research, Permoserstrasse 15, 04318 Leipzig, Germany.
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14
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Scremin OU, Li MG, Roch M, Booth R, Jenden DJ. Acetylcholine and choline dynamics provide early and late markers of traumatic brain injury. Brain Res 2006; 1124:155-66. [PMID: 17084821 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2006.09.062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2006] [Revised: 09/17/2006] [Accepted: 09/19/2006] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
We assessed acetylcholine (ACh) and choline (Ch) dynamics 2.5 h, 1, 4 and 14 days after cerebral cortex impact injury or craniotomy only in adult male Sprague-Dawley rats. Cortical endogenous ACh (D0ACh), endogenous free Ch (D0Ch), deuterium-labeled Ch (D4Ch), and ACh synthesized from D4Ch (D4ACh) were measured by gas-chromatography mass-spectrometry after intravenous injection of D4Ch followed in 1 min by microwave fixation of the brain. D0Ch increased in and around the impact up to 700% of control within 1 day after trauma. Smaller D0Ch increases were found in the cortex contralateral to the impact and in both hemispheres after craniotomy only. D4Ch contents increased to 200% in the impact and surrounding regions 4-14 days post-trauma, with lower increases 2.5 h post-trauma. D0ACh decreased at all times post-trauma in the impact center, and initially in the periphery and adjacent regions with a recovery at 14 days. Similar D0ACh decreases, although of lesser extent and magnitude were present in the craniotomy only group. D4ACh showed a peak at one day post-trauma in all regions studied in the impact and craniotomy groups. In conclusion, D0Ch tissue level was an early marker of trauma, while 14 days after trauma Ch uptake from blood was enhanced in and around the traumatized cortex. Craniotomy by itself induced a generalized increase in ACh turnover 1 day after this minimal trauma. Choline acetyltransferase activity was reduced in the impact center region but not affected in the adjacent and contralateral regions or by craniotomy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oscar U Scremin
- Veterans Affairs Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, Research Service, Los Angeles, CA 90073, USA.
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15
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Giza CC, Prins ML. Is being plastic fantastic? Mechanisms of altered plasticity after developmental traumatic brain injury. Dev Neurosci 2006; 28:364-79. [PMID: 16943660 PMCID: PMC4297630 DOI: 10.1159/000094163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 135] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2005] [Accepted: 03/10/2006] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is predominantly a clinical problem of young persons, resulting in chronic cognitive and behavioral deficits. Specifically, the physiological response to a diffuse biomechanical injury in a maturing brain can clearly alter normal neuroplasticity. To properly evaluate and investigate developmental TBI requires an understanding of normal principles of cerebral maturation, as well as a consideration of experience-dependent changes. Changes in neuroplasticity may occur through many age-specific processes, and our understanding of these responses at a basic neuroscience level is only beginning. In this article, we will particularly discuss mechanisms of TBI-induced altered developmental plasticity such as altered neurotransmission, distinct molecular responses, cell death, perturbations in neuronal connectivity, experience-dependent 'good plasticity' enhancements and chronic 'bad plasticity' sequelae. From this summary, we can conclude that 'young is not always better' and that the developing brain manifests several crucial vulnerabilities to TBI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher C Giza
- Division of Pediatric Neurology, Department of Pediatrics, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA.
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Jorge RE, Starkstein SE. Pathophysiologic aspects of major depression following traumatic brain injury. J Head Trauma Rehabil 2006; 20:475-87. [PMID: 16304485 DOI: 10.1097/00001199-200511000-00001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Mood disorders, particularly major depression, are the most frequent complication of traumatic brain injury. Major depression is present in about 40% of patients hospitalization for a traumatic brain injury. Anxiety disorders, substance abuse, dysregulation of emotional expression, and aggressive outbursts are frequently associated with major depression, and their coexistence constitutes a marker of a more disabling clinical course. The complex interactions of genetic, developmental, and psychosocial factors determine patients' vulnerability to developing affective disturbances following a traumatic brain injury. Symptoms of depression cluster into the domains of low mood and distorted self-attitude, lack of motivation and anhedonia, subjective cognitive complaints, and hyperactive and disinhibited behavior. It is reasonable to assume that these symptomatic clusters have specific underlying mechanisms that need to be integrated in a comprehensive pathophysiologic model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ricardo E Jorge
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Iowa, Iowa City, USA.
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Longhi L, Watson DJ, Saatman KE, Thompson HJ, Zhang C, Fujimoto S, Royo N, Castelbuono D, Raghupathi R, Trojanowski JQ, Lee VMY, Wolfe JH, Stocchetti N, McIntosh TK. Ex VivoGene Therapy Using Targeted Engraftment of NGF-Expressing Human NT2N Neurons Attenuates Cognitive Deficits Following Traumatic Brain Injury in Mice. J Neurotrauma 2004; 21:1723-36. [PMID: 15684764 DOI: 10.1089/neu.2004.21.1723] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Infusion of nerve growth factor (NGF) has been shown to be neuroprotective following traumatic brain injury (TBI). In this study, we tested the hypothesis that NGF-expressing human NT2N neurons transplanted into the basal forebrain of brain-injured mice can attenuate long-term cognitive dysfunction associated with TBI. Undifferentiated NT2 cells were transduced in vitro with a lentiviral vector to release NGF, differentiated into NT2N neurons by exposure to retinoic acid and transplanted into the medial septum of mice 24 h following controlled cortical impact (CCI) brain injury or sham injury. Adult mice (n = 78) were randomly assigned to one of four groups: (1) sham-injured and vehicle (serum-free medium)-treated, (2) brain-injured and vehicle-treated, (3) brain-injured engrafted with untransduced NT2N neurons, and (4) brain-injured engrafted with transduced NGF-NT2N neurons. All groups were immunosuppressed daily with cyclosporin A (CsA) for 4 weeks. At 1 month post-transplantation, animals engrafted with NGF-expressing NT2N neurons showed significantly improved learning ability (evaluated with the Morris water maze) compared to brain-injured mice receiving either vehicle (p < 0.05) or untransduced NT2N neurons (p < 0.01). No effect of NGF-secreting NT2N cells on motor function deficits at 1-4 weeks post-transplantation was observed. These data suggest that NGF gene therapy using transduced NT2N neurons (as a source of delivery) may selectively improve cognitive function following TBI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luca Longhi
- Veterans Administration Medical Center, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
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18
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Douglas CL, Bowman GN, Baghdoyan HA, Lydic R. C57BL/6J and B6.V-LEPOB mice differ in the cholinergic modulation of sleep and breathing. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2004; 98:918-29. [PMID: 15475596 DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00900.2004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Respiratory and arousal state control are heritable traits in mice. B6.V-Lep(ob) (ob) mice are leptin deficient and differ from C57BL/6J (B6) mice by a variation in the gene coding for leptin. The ob mouse has morbid obesity and disordered breathing that is homologous to breathing of obese humans. This study tested the hypothesis that microinjecting neostigmine into the pontine reticular nucleus, oral part (PnO), of B6 and ob mice alters sleep and breathing. In B6 and ob mice, neostigmine caused a concentration-dependent increase (P < 0.0001) in percentage of time spent in a rapid eye movement (REM) sleeplike state (REM-Neo). Relative to saline (control), higher concentrations of neostigmine increased REM-Neo duration and the number of REM-Neo episodes in B6 and ob mice and decreased percent wake, percent non-REM, and latency to onset of REM-Neo (P < 0.001). In B6 and ob mice, REM sleep enhancement by neostigmine was blocked by atropine. Differences in control amounts of sleep and wakefulness between B6 and the congenic ob mice also were identified. After PnO injection of saline, ob mice spent significantly (P < 0.05) more time awake and less time in non-REM sleep. B6 mice displayed more (P < 0.01) baseline locomotor activity than ob mice, and PnO neostigmine decreased locomotion (P < 0.0001) in B6 and ob mice. Whole body plethysmography showed that PnO neostigmine depressed breathing (P < 0.001) in B6 and ob mice and caused greater respiratory depression in B6 than ob mice (P < 0.05). Western blot analysis identified greater (P < 0.05) expression of M2 muscarinic receptor protein in ob than B6 mice for cortex, midbrain, cerebellum, and pons, but not medulla. Considered together, these data provide the first evidence that pontine cholinergic control of sleep and breathing varies between mice known to differ by a spontaneous mutation in the gene coding for leptin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher L Douglas
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of Michigan, 1150 W. Medical Center Dr., Ann Arbor, MI 48109-0615, USA
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Kline AE, Massucci JL, Dixon CE, Zafonte RD, Bolinger BD. The therapeutic efficacy conferred by the 5-HT(1A) receptor agonist 8-Hydroxy-2-(di-n-propylamino)tetralin (8-OH-DPAT) after experimental traumatic brain injury is not mediated by concomitant hypothermia. J Neurotrauma 2004; 21:175-85. [PMID: 15000758 DOI: 10.1089/089771504322778631] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
We recently reported that the 5-HT1A receptor agonist 8-hydroxy-2-(di-n-propylamino)tetralin (8-OH-DPAT) attenuated traumatic brain injury (TBI)-induced cognitive deficits and histopathology. However, 8-OH-DPAT also produced mild hypothermia (Hypo), which may have contributed to the benefit. To clarify this issue, we conducted an experiment similar to the previous, but included an 8-OH-DPAT group that was maintained at 37 +/- 0.5 degrees C (normothermia; Normo). Isoflurane-anesthetized rats received either a cortical impact (2.7-mm deformation at 4 m/sec) or sham injury and then were randomly assigned to two saline (Sham/Vehicle, n = 5; Injury/Vehicle, n = 10) or three 8-OH-DPAT (Sham/DPAT, n = 5; Injury/DPAT + Normo, n = 10; Injury/DPAT + Hypo, n = 10) groups. 8-OH-DPAT (0.5 mg/kg) or a comparable volume of saline was administered intraperitoneally 15 min after cortical impact or sham injury. Core temperatures were taken prior to treatment and every 15 min thereafter for 2 h. Function was assessed by established motor and cognitive tasks on post-operative days 1-5 and 14-20, respectively. Hippocampal CA1/CA3 cell survival and cortical lesion volume were quantified at 4 weeks. Both the Injury/DPAT + Normo and Injury/DPAT + Hypo groups exhibited enhanced cognitive performance (spatial acquisition and retention) and reduced histopathology (CA3 cell loss and cortical lesion volume) versus the Injury/ Vehicle group (P < 0.05), but did not differ from one another despite a rapid (15 min), mild (34.4-34.9 degrees C), and transient (~1 h) hypothermic effect in the latter. These data confirm that a single systemic administration of 8-OH-DPAT confers neurological protection after TBI, and demonstrate that the beneficial effect is not mediated by concomitant hypothermia. The mechanisms for the protective effects of 8-OH-DPAT after TBI require further inquiry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony E Kline
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA.
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Lu D, Mahmood A, Chopp M. Biologic Transplantation and Neurotrophin-Induced Neuroplasticity After Traumatic Brain Injury. J Head Trauma Rehabil 2003; 18:357-76. [PMID: 16222130 DOI: 10.1097/00001199-200307000-00006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE In this review, we analyze progress in the treatment of traumatic brain injury with neurotrophins, growth factors and cell and tissue neurotransplantation. The primary objective of these therapies is to reduce neurologic deficits associated with the trauma by inducing neuroplasticity. These therapies are restorative and not necessarily neuroprotective. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES An extensive literature on administration of neurotrophics factors and cell and tissue cerebral transplantation is reviewed. The effects of these therapeutic approaches on brain biochemical, molecular, cellular, and tissue responses are summarized. CONCLUSION The cumulative data indicate that cell therapy shows substantial promise in the treatment of neural injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dunyue Lu
- Department of Neurosurgery, Henry Ford Health System, Henry Ford Hospital, 2799 West Grand Boulevard, Detroit, MI 48202, USA
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Raghavendra Rao VL, Dhodda VK, Song G, Bowen KK, Dempsey RJ. Traumatic brain injury-induced acute gene expression changes in rat cerebral cortex identified by GeneChip analysis. J Neurosci Res 2003; 71:208-19. [PMID: 12503083 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.10486] [Citation(s) in RCA: 115] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Proper CNS function depends on concerted expression of thousands of genes in a controlled and timely manner. Traumatic brain injury (TBI) in mammals results in neuronal death and neurological dysfunction, which might be mediated by altered expression of several genes. By employing a CNS-specific GeneChip and real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR), the present study analyzed the gene expression changes in adult rat cerebral cortex in the first 24 hr after a controlled cortical impact injury. Many functional families of genes not previously implicated in TBI-induced brain damage are altered in the injured cortex. These include up-regulated transcription factors (SOCS-3, JAK-2, STAT-3, CREM, IRF-1, SMN, silencer factor-B, ANIA-3, ANIA-4, and HES-1) and signal transduction pathways (cpg21, Narp, and CRBP) and down-regulated transmitter release mechanisms (CITRON, synaptojanin II, ras-related rab3, neurexin-1beta, and SNAP25A and -B), kinases (IP-3-kinase, Pak1, Ca(2+)/CaM-dependent protein kinases), and ion channels (K(+) channels TWIK, RK5, X62839, and Na(+) channel I). In addition, several genes previously shown to play a role in TBI pathophysiology, including proinflammatory genes, proapoptotic genes, heat shock proteins, immediate early genes, neuropeptides, and glutamate receptor subunits, were also observed to be altered in the injured cortex. Real-time PCR analysis confirmed the GeneChip data for many of these transcripts. The novel physiologically relevant gene expression changes observed here might explain some of the molecular mechanisms of TBI-induced neuronal damage.
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McGowan SE, Smith J, Holmes AJ, Smith LA, Businga TR, Madsen MT, Kopp UC, Kline JN. Vitamin A deficiency promotes bronchial hyperreactivity in rats by altering muscarinic M(2) receptor function. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 2002; 282:L1031-9. [PMID: 11943668 DOI: 10.1152/ajplung.00319.2001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Vitamin A deficiency (VAD) remains an important health problem among children in developing countries. Children living in these areas have a higher mortality from respiratory infections, which likely results in part from suboptimal nutrition, including VAD. Bronchial hyperreactivity can follow viral respiratory infections and may complicate the recovery. To investigate whether VAD promotes bronchial hyperreactivity, we have assessed methacholine-induced bronchoconstriction in VAD and vitamin A-sufficient rats. Bronchial constriction developed at lower concentrations of inhaled methacholine in VAD than in vitamin A-sufficient rats. This did not result from an increase in the bronchial wall thickness or the clearance of a small molecule (with a size similar to methacholine) from the air space. The function and abundance of the muscarinic M(2) receptors in bronchial tissue were reduced in VAD rats, suggesting that this receptor may contribute to these animals' diminished ability to limit cholinergic-mediated bronchoconstriction. A similar reduction in muscarinic M(2) receptor function has been observed in asthma. Vitamin A (retinol) and its congeners (retinoids) may be required to regulate bronchial responsiveness in addition to maintaining a normal bronchial epithelium.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen E McGowan
- Department of Veterans Affairs Research Service, University of Iowa College of Medicine, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, USA.
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Masanic CA, Bayley MT, VanReekum R, Simard M. Open-label study of donepezil in traumatic brain injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2001; 82:896-901. [PMID: 11441374 DOI: 10.1053/apmr.2001.23833] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To determine preliminarily whether donepezil will improve memory, behavior, and global function after chronic traumatic brain injury (TBI). DESIGN Sixteen-week open-label study. SETTING Outpatient TBI rehabilitation program. PATIENTS Four patients with chronic, severe TBI. INTERVENTIONS Donepezil 5mg daily for 8 weeks followed by 10mg daily for 4 weeks. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES Memory measures included the Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test (RAVLT), the Complex Figure Test (CFT), items from the Rivermead Behavioural Memory Test (RBMT), and a semantic fluency task. The Neuropsychiatric Inventory (NPI) evaluated behavior and affect. Function was assessed by using the FIM instrument and a clinical global impression of change. RESULTS On the RAVLT, the mean scores for learning and short- and long-term recall improved by 0.4, 1.04, and.83 standard deviations (SDs) above baseline, respectively. On the CFT, the mean scores for short-term recall and long-term recall improved by 1.56 and 1.38 SDs above baseline, respectively. A positive trend was observed on the RBMT and on the NPI subscales. CONCLUSIONS Donepezil may improve some aspects of memory and behavior in persons with chronic TBI. Randomized clinical trials are required to support these preliminary findings.
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Affiliation(s)
- C A Masanic
- Hamilton Health Sciences Corp, Division of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Department of Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ont, Canada
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Kline AE, Jenkins LW, Yan HQ, Dixon CE. Neurotransmitter and Growth Factor Alterations in Functional Deficits and Recovery Following Traumatic Brain Injury. Brain Inj 2001. [DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4615-1721-4_13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/24/2023]
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