Performance Declines Are Accelerated in the Oldest-Old Track and Field Athletes 80 to 94 Years of Age

Physical enhancement of older adults using hyperbaric oxygen: a randomized controlled trial

INTRODUCTION

Aging is associated with a progressive decline in the capacity for physical activity. The objective of the current study was to evaluate the effect of an intermittent hyperbaric oxygen therapy (HBOT) protocol on maximal physical performance and cardiac perfusion in sedentary older adults.

METHODS

A randomized controlled clinical trial randomized 63 adults (> 64yrs) either to HBOT (n = 30) or control arms (n = 33) for three months. Primary endpoint included the maximal oxygen consumption (VO2Max) and VO2Max/Kg, on an E100 cycle ergometer. Secondary endpoints included cardiac perfusion, evaluated by magnetic resonance imaging and pulmonary function. The HBOT protocol comprised of 60 sessions administered on a daily basis, for 12 consecutive weeks, breathing 100% oxygen at 2 absolute atmospheres (ATA) for 90 min with 5-minute air breaks every 20 min.

RESULTS

Following HBOT, improvements were observed in VO2Max/kg, with a significant increase of 1.91 ± 3.29 ml/kg/min indicated by a net effect size of 0.455 (p = 0.0034). Additionally, oxygen consumption measured at the first ventilatory threshold (VO2VT1) showed a significant increase by 160.03 ± 155.35 ml/min (p < 0.001) with a net effect size of 0.617. Furthermore, both cardiac blood flow (MBF) and cardiac blood volume (MBV) exhibited significant increases when compared to the control group. The net effect size for MBF was large at 0.797 (p = 0.008), while the net effect size for MBV was even larger at 0.896 (p = 0.009).

CONCLUSION

The findings of the study indicate that HBOT has the potential to improve physical performance in aging adults. The enhancements observed encompass improvements in key factors including VO2Max, and VO2VT1. An important mechanism contributing to these improvements is the heightened cardiac perfusion induced by HBOT.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier NCT02790541 (registration date 06/06/2016).

A simple framework to distinguish 'individualistic' from a 'uniform rate' of ageing within or between study populations

Ageing is accompanied by a progressive decline in physiological functions. It is often argued that the rate of ageing differs between people and is 'highly individualistic'. This view is not unequivocally shared, and others have argued that the rate of ageing is rather 'uniform'. Distinguishing conclusively between these views requires longitudinal data, but these are difficult to obtain as they require decades of data collection from individuals. Here, a simple framework is proposed to assess in cross-sectional data whether in a given population the rate is 'highly individualistic' or rather 'uniform'. It is illustrated that an age-related decrease in the standard deviation (SD) of a certain parameter combined with a non-changing coefficient of variation (COVAR) reflects a 'uniform' rate of ageing, whilst an increase or decrease in COVAR with or without a concomitant increase in SD reflects a 'highly individualistic' rate of ageing. This framework is applied to some published data, focussing on muscle strength, power and physical function for the sake of illustration, and it is suggested that most studies do in fact show a 'highly individualistic' rate of ageing, perhaps apart from a 'uniform' rate of ageing in master athletes.

Comparing the Performance Gap Between Males and Females in the Older Age Groups in IRONMAN® 70.3: An Internet-Based Cross-Sectional Study of More Than 800,000 Race Records

BACKGROUND

The sex difference in the three split disciplines (swimming, cycling, and running) and overall race times in triathlon races has mainly been investigated for the Olympic distance and IRONMAN® triathlon formats, but not for the half IRONMAN® distance, i.e., the IRONMAN® 70.3. The aim of the present study was to investigate the sex differences in IRONMAN® 70.3 by age group in 5-year intervals for the split disciplines of this race. Data from 823,459 records (625,393 males and 198,066 females) of all age group finishers (in 5-year intervals) competing in all official IRONMAN® 70.3 races held worldwide between 2004 and 2020 were analyzed, and sex differences by age group and split disciplines were evaluated.

RESULTS

Males were faster than females in all split disciplines and all age groups. The sex difference was lower in swimming than in cycling and running and less pronounced for triathletes between 20 and 50 years of age. After the age of 60 years, females were able to reduce the sex difference to males in swimming and cycling, but not in running, where the reduction in the sex difference started after the age of 70 years. The lowest sex difference was in the age group 75 + years for swimming and cycling and in the age group 30-34 years for running. Across age groups, the sex difference was U-shaped in swimming and running, with an increase after 18-24 years in swimming and after 40-44 years in running. In contrast, the sex difference decreased continuously with the increasing age for cycling.

CONCLUSIONS

In conclusion, the study found that the sex difference in performance decreases with age in the IRONMAN® 70.3 race distance. However, females did not outperform males at older ages. Notably, sex differences were observed across different disciplines, with swimming displaying lower differences compared to cycling and running. These findings underscore the complex interplay between age, sex, and performance in endurance sports, emphasizing the need for additional research to understand the factors influencing these differences.

Elderly female ultra-marathoners reduced the gap to male ultra-marathoners in Swiss running races

Recent studies showed that female runners reduced the performance gap to male runners in endurance running with increasing age and race distance. However, the investigated samples were generally small. To investigate this further, the present study examined sex differences by age across various race distances (5, 10 km, half-marathon, marathon, and ultra-marathon) using a large dataset of over 1,100,000 race records from Switzerland over two decades (1999-2019). The study explored performance and participation disparities between male and female runners by employing diverse methods, such as descriptive statistics, histograms, scatter and line plots, correlations, and a predictive machine learning model. The results showed that female runners were more prevalent in shorter races (5, 10 km, half-marathon) and outnumbered male runners in 5 km races. However, as the race distance increased, the male-to-female ratio declined. Notably, the performance gap between sexes reduced with age until 70 years, after which it varied depending on the race distance. Among participants over 75 years old, ultra-marathon running exhibited the smallest sex difference in performance. Elderly female ultra-marathoners (75 years and older) displayed a performance difference of less than 4% compared to male ultra-marathoners, which may be attributed to the presence of highly selected outstanding female performers.

IMPACTS OF AEROBIC EXERCISE ON THE PHYSICAL FITNESS OF SHOT PUT ATHLETES

ABSTRACT Introduction: Shot put is a competitive sport that combines speed, strength, and explosiveness. Training the skill with aerobic exercise has attracted the attention of many coaches and scholars on competitive sports training. Shot put is a fast-powered activity, and its shooting speed is the determining factor for sports performance. It is believed that aerobic exercise can improve the ability of its practitioners. Objective: To analyze the impacts of aerobic exercise on the physical fitness of shot put athletes. Methods: 18 shot put athletes were randomly selected as volunteers for research that consisted of a random division between experimental and control groups. The experimental group received a protocol involving aerobic training, while the control group received regular training before, during, and after the experiment. The maximal strength and explosive power of the two groups of athletes were tested before and after the intervention, and mathematical-statistical methods were used to process the collected data. Results: The maximum strength index of both groups was improved; however, the improvement in the experimental group was statistically relevant(P<0.05). The values of the pressure index, power, and balance of the athletes from the experimental group were statistically altered to those before the experiment (P<0.01). Conclusion: The implementation of aerobic exercise in the routine of shot put athletes can effectively improve the performance in the sport and the special abilities of its practitioners. The training method analyzed was also shown to improve specific performance in the shot put athletes. Level of evidence II; Therapeutic studies - investigation of treatment outcomes.

Effects of age, body height, body weight, body mass index and handgrip strength on the trajectory of the plantar pressure stance-phase curve of the gait cycle

The analysis of gait patterns and plantar pressure distributions via insoles is increasingly used to monitor patients and treatment progress, such as recovery after surgeries. Despite the popularity of pedography, also known as baropodography, characteristic effects of anthropometric and other individual parameters on the trajectory of the stance phase curve of the gait cycle have not been previously reported. We hypothesized characteristic changes of age, body height, body weight, body mass index and handgrip strength on the plantar pressure curve trajectory during gait in healthy participants. Thirty-seven healthy women and men with an average age of 43.65 ± 17.59 years were fitted with Moticon OpenGO insoles equipped with 16 pressure sensors each. Data were recorded at a frequency of 100 Hz during walking at 4 km/h on a level treadmill for 1 minute. Data were processed via a custom-made step detection algorithm. The loading and unloading slopes as well as force extrema-based parameters were computed and characteristic correlations with the targeted parameters were identified via multiple linear regression analysis. Age showed a negative correlation with the mean loading slope. Body height correlated with Fmean_load and the loading slope. Body weight and the body mass index correlated with all analyzed parameters, except the loading slope. In addition, handgrip strength correlated with changes in the second half of the stance phase and did not affect the first half, which is likely due to stronger kick-off. However, only up to 46% of the variability can be explained by age, body weight, height, body mass index and hand grip strength. Thus, further factors must affect the trajectory of the gait cycle curve that were not considered in the present analysis. In conclusion, all analyzed measures affect the trajectory of the stance phase curve. When analyzing insole data, it might be useful to correct for the factors that were identified by using the regression coefficients presented in this paper.

The Impact of Training on the Loss of Cardiorespiratory Fitness in Aging Masters Endurance Athletes

Elite masters endurance athletes are considered models of optimal healthy aging due to the maintenance of high cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) until old age. Whereas a drop in VO₂max in masters athletes has been broadly investigated, the modifying impact of training still remains a matter of debate. Longitudinal observations in masters endurance athletes demonstrated VO₂max declines between -5% and -46% per decade that were closely related to changes in training volume. Here, using regression analyses, we show that 54% and 39% of the variance in observed VO₂max decline in male and female athletes, respectively is explained by changes in training volume. An almost linear VO₂max decrease was observed in studies on young and older athletes, as well as non-athletes, starting a few days after training cessation, with a decline of as much as -20% after 12 weeks. Besides a decline in stroke volume and cardiac output, training cessation was accompanied by considerable reductions in citrate synthase and succinate dehydrogenase activity (reduction in mitochondrial content and oxidative capacity). This reduction could largely be rescued within similar time periods of training (re)uptake. It is evident that training reduction or cessation leads to a considerably accelerated VO₂max drop, as compared to the gradual aging-related VO₂max decline, which can rapidly nullify many of the benefits of preceding long-term training efforts.

Acceleration of Longitudinal Track and Field Performance Declines in Athletes Who Still Compete at the Age of 100 Years

While physical performance decline rates accelerate after around the age of 70 years, longitudinal athletic performance trends in athletes older than 95 years are unknown. We hypothesized a further accelerated decline in human performance in athletes who still perform at the age of 100 years. To investigate this, longitudinal data of all athletes with results at or over the age of 100 years were collected from the “World Master Rankings” data base spanning 2006–2019 (138 results from 42 athletes; 5 women, 37 men; maximum 105 years) and compared to previously published longitudinal data from 80- to 96-year-old athletes from Sweden (1,134 results from 374 athletes). Regression statistics were used to compare performance decline rates between disciplines and age groups. On average, the individual decline rate of the centenarian group was 2.53 times as steep (100 m: 8.22x; long jump: 0.82x; shot put: 1.61x; discus throw: 1.04x; javelin throw: 0.98x) as that seen in non-centenarians. The steepest increase in decline was found in the 100-m sprint (t-test: p < 0.05, no sign. difference in the other disciplines). The pooled regression statistics of the centenarians are: 100 m: R = 0.57, p = 0.004; long jump: R = 0.90, p < 0.001; shot put: R = 0.65, p < 0.001; discus throw: R = 0.73, p < 0.001; javelin throw: R = 0.68, p < 0.001. This first longitudinal dataset of performance decline rates of athletes who still compete at 100 years and older in five athletics disciplines shows that there is no performance plateau after the age of 90, but rather a further acceleration of the performance decline.

Learning from machine learning: prediction of age-related athletic performance decline trajectories

Factors that determine individual age-related decline rates in physical performance are poorly understood and prediction poses a challenge. Linear and quadratic regression models are usually applied, but often show high prediction errors for individual athletes. Machine learning approaches may deliver more accurate predictions and help to identify factors that determine performance decline rates. We hypothesized that it is possible to predict the performance development of a master athlete from a single measurement, that prediction by a machine learning approach is superior to prediction by the average decline curve or an individually shifted decline curve, and that athletes with a higher starting performance show a slower performance decline than those with a lower performance. The machine learning approach was implemented using a multilayer neuronal network. Results showed that performance prediction from a single measurement is possible and that the prediction by a machine learning approach was superior to the other models. The estimated performance decline rate was highest in athletes with a high starting performance and a low starting age, as well as in those with a low starting performance and high starting age, while the lowest decline rate was found for athletes with a high starting performance and a high starting age. Machine learning was superior and predicted trajectories with significantly lower prediction errors compared to conventional approaches. New insights into factors determining decline trajectories were identified by visualization of the model outputs. Machine learning models may be useful in revealing unknown factors that determine the age-related performance decline.

Current Insights in the Age-related Decline in Sports Performance of the Older Athlete

The higher performance level of master athletes compared to non-athletes is often associated with better health throughout life. However, even the physical performance of master athletes declines with age, and this decline accelerates from about the age of 70 years onwards. A progressive loss of muscle mass, declines in force- and power-generating capacity, decreased flexibility, and the concomitant decline in specific tension characterize the muscular changes underlying performance declines. In the cardiovascular system, declines in stroke volume and cardiac output, and cardiac and vascular stiffness contribute to decreasing performance. Recent studies have shown that long-term endurance exercise in master athletes does not only have positive effects, but is associated with an increased incidence of atrial fibrillation, atherosclerotic plaques, and aortic dilation, and even more so in men than in women. Recently, larger longitudinal datasets were analysed and showed that the age-related decline in performance was similar in longitudinal and cross-sectional data. In conclusion, regular physical activity enhances the exercise capacity, and hence quality of life in old age, but it is not without risks.

Nutrition for Older Athletes: Focus on Sex-Differences

Regular physical exercise and a healthy diet are major determinants of a healthy lifespan. Although aging is associated with declining endurance performance and muscle function, these components can favorably be modified by regular physical activity and especially by exercise training at all ages in both sexes. In addition, age-related changes in body composition and metabolism, which affect even highly trained masters athletes, can in part be compensated for by higher exercise metabolic efficiency in active individuals. Accordingly, masters athletes are often considered as a role model for healthy aging and their physical capacities are an impressive example of what is possible in aging individuals. In the present review, we first discuss physiological changes, performance and trainability of older athletes with a focus on sex differences. Second, we describe the most important hormonal alterations occurring during aging pertaining regulation of appetite, glucose homeostasis and energy expenditure and the modulatory role of exercise training. The third part highlights nutritional aspects that may support health and physical performance for older athletes. Key nutrition-related concerns include the need for adequate energy and protein intake for preventing low bone and muscle mass and a higher demand for specific nutrients (e.g., vitamin D and probiotics) that may reduce the infection burden in masters athletes. Fourth, we present important research findings on the association between exercise, nutrition and the microbiota, which represents a rapidly developing field in sports nutrition.

Longitudinal Master Track and Field Performance Decline Rates Are Lower and Performance Is Better Compared to Athletes Competing Only Once

In master athletics research, cross-sectional data are easier to obtain than longitudinal data. While cross-sectional data give the age-related performance decline for a population, longitudinal data show individual trajectories. It is not known whether athletes who repeatedly compete have (a) a better performance and (b) a slower age-related decline in performance than that obtained from cross-sectional data from athletes competing only once. To investigate this, we analyzed 33 254 results of 14 118 male athletes from 8 disciplines in the database of "Swedish Veteran Athletics." For each discipline and for the pooled data of all disciplines, quadratic models of the evolution of performance over time were analyzed by ANCOVA/ANOCOVA using MATLAB. The performance was higher in athletes with 2 or more data points compared to those with only n = 1 (p < .001), with further increases in performance with an increasing number of data points per athlete. The estimated performance decline was lower in people with 2 or more results (sprint, 10 km, jumps; p < .001). In conclusion, we showed that longitudinal data are associated with higher performance and lower performance decline rates.

Longitudinal trends in master track and field performance throughout the aging process: 83,209 results from Sweden in 16 athletics disciplines

In the research of age-related performance declines, the value of cross-sectional versus longitudinal data is an ongoing debate. This paper analyses the largest longitudinal master track and field data set ever published to compare the age-related decline in performance between 16 athletics disciplines in cross-sectional and longitudinal data. The data set contained 83,209 results (64,948 from men, 78.1%; 18,261 from women, 21.9%) from 34,132 athletes (26,186 men, 76.7%; 7946 women, 23.3%), aged 35-97 years. In 61 athletes, 20 or more, and in 312 athletes, 15 or more results were available. The data were analyzed by regression statistics/ANCOVA. Men had a higher performance than women, irrespective of discipline in both cross-sectional and longitudinal data (p < 0.001). The performance in cross-sectional data was lower compared with the longitudinal data in all events and at any age (p ≤ 0.007) except for 1000 m men. The average age was lower in the cross-sectional than the longitudinal data (p < 0.001); men 46 and 58 years, women 44 and 56 years, respectively. The annual percentage rate of decline did not differ significantly between cross-sectional and longitudinal data, or between sexes in most disciplines. Performance declines after age 70 were 1.7 times (men) and 1.4 times (women) as steep as before. In conclusion, although longitudinal master athletics data of athletes with 10 and more results has higher average performance and age compared with cross-sectional data, cross-sectional data give a good impression of the annual percentage decline in performance, which was similar in men and women.